Hukum Nürnberg: Perbedaan antara revisi

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{{for multi|pedoman dalam menentukan kejahatan perang|prinsip-prinsip Nürnberg|seperangkat kode etik eksperimen manusia|Kode Nürnberg}}
[[File:RGBL I 1935 S 1145.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Halaman depan [[surat kabar pemerintah|lembaran negara]] Jerman ''[[Reichsgesetzblatt]]'' yang mengumumkan Hukum Nürnberg, diterbitkan pada 16 September 1935 (RGBl. I No. 100)]]
{{Bilah sisi diskriminasi|state=collapsed}}
Baris 15 ⟶ 16:
==Jerman Nazi==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-14469, Berlin, Boykott-Posten vor jüdischem Warenhaus.jpg|thumb|left|Anggota [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] berjajar di depan toko milik Yahudi dengan membawa plakat bertuliskan "Jerman! Bela dirimu! Jangan membeli dari Yahudi!" semasa [[pemboikotan Nazi terhadap bisnis Yahudi]], 1 April 1933.]]
Diskriminasi terhadap Yahudi semakin gencar setelah Nazi berkuasa. Serangkaian penyerangan dilancarkan oleh anggota ''[[Sturmabteilung]]'' (SA; satuan paramiliter Partai Nazi) terhadap tempat usaha, [[sinagoge]], dan kantor hukum Yahudi.{{sfn|Shirer|1960|p=203}} Pada tanggal 21 Maret 1933, dalam acara pertemuan komite [[Veteran Perang Yahudi Amerika Serikat|Veteran Perang Yahudi]], mantan anggota kongres Amerika Serikat, [[William W. Cohen]], mendesak agar Amerika memboikot seluruh barang-barang buatan Jerman.{{sfn|''New York Times'', 21 MarchMaret 1933}} Pada akhir Maret, [[Boikot anti-Nazi 1933|pemboikotan global]] terhadap barang-barang Jerman diumumkan, yang didukung oleh sejumlah organisasi Yahudi terkemuka (meskipun tidak semuanya, misalnya [[Badan Deputi Yahudi Britania]]).{{sfn|Yahil|Friedman|1991|p=95}} Sebagai tanggapan, Hitler menitahkan [[Pemboikotan Nazi terhadap bisnis Yahudi|pemboikotan nasional usaha milik Yahudi]] pada tanggal 1 April 1933.{{sfn|Shirer|1960|p=203}} Pada masa itu, banyak pihak yang bukan anggota Partai Nazi turut mendukung pemisahan Yahudi dari masyarakat Jerman.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=539}} Pada tanggal 7 April 1933, [[Undang-Undang Pemulihan Kepegawaian Negeri Profesional]] disahkan. Undang-undang tersebut memaksa seluruh Yahudi yang bekerja di sektor hukum atau sebagai pegawai negeri untuk pensiun, juga melarang Yahudi mengajar di universitas.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=40}}{{sfn|Isaacson|2007|pp=407–410}} Kebijakan serupa juga mencabut hak orang Yahudi yang bekerja di sektor lainnya untuk membuka praktik.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=40}} Pada tahun 1934, Partai Nazi menerbitkan sebuah pamflet berjudul ''"Warum Arierparagraph?"'' ("Mengapa ada Hukum Arya?"), yang merangkum penjelasan kenapa undang-undang tersebut harus diberlakukan.{{sfn|Schulz|Frercks|1934}} Dalam rangka menghapuskan "pengaruh Yahudi" dari kehidupan budaya Jerman, [[Liga Mahasiswa Sosialis Nasional Jerman|Liga Mahasiswa Sosialis Nasional]] mengeluarkan buku-buku yang dianggap tidak mencerminkan Jerman dari perpustakaan, dan aksi [[Pembakaran buku Nazi|pembakaran buku]] nasional dilaksanakan pada tanggal 10 Mei 1933.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=39}} Kekerasan dan penindasan ekonomi dimanfaatkan oleh rezim Nazi untuk mendorong Yahudi agar pindah dari Jerman secara sukarela.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|pp=67–69}} Undang-undang yang disahkan pada bulan Juli 1933 mencabut hak kewarganegaraan Yahudi Jerman naturalisasi, yang dijadikan sebagai dalih pengusiran para imigran Yahudi dari Jerman (terutama Yahudi Eropa Timur).{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=40}} Banyak kota memasang tanda yang melarang masuknya Yahudi.{{sfn|Shirer|1960|p=233}} Sepanjang tahun 1933 dan 1934, usaha milik Yahudi tidak diperbolehkan memasuki pasar, dilarang beriklan di surat kabar, dan dibatalkan kontraknya oleh pemerintah. Warga Yahudi terus diusik dan dizalimi.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=41}}
 
Undang-undang lainnya yang disahkan pada masa itu adalah [[Undang-Undang Sterilisasi|Undang-Undang Pencegahan Penyakit Keturunan]] (disahkan 14 Juli 1933), yang mewajibkan [[sterilisasi paksa]] bagi orang-orang pengidap penyakit keturunan, fisik, dan mental.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=507}} Sesuai ketentuan Undang-Undang Pencegahan Pelaku Kriminal (disahkan 24 November 1933), para [[bramacorah]] dipaksa pula menjalani sterilisasi.{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=511}} Undang-undang tersebut juga dimanfaatkan untuk menjebloskan para pelaku "penyimpangan sosial" ke penjara atau [[kamp konsentrasi Nazi]], termasuk pengangguran akut, pelacur, pengemis, pecandu alkohol, gelandangan, orang kulit hitam, dan Romani (disebut "Gipsi").{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=49}}{{sfn|Morrison|2006|p=80}}
Baris 173 ⟶ 174:
Tujuan awal Nazi mengesahkan undang-undang adalah agar semua Yahudi meninggalkan Jerman, tetapi pindah ke negara lain juga sulit dilakukan. Yahudi diharuskan menyerahkan hingga 90 persen kekayaannya sebagai pajak jika hendak keluar dari Jerman.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|pp=64, 66}} Siapa pun yang ketahuan memindahkan dana ke luar negeri akan dijatuhi hukuman penjara atas tuduhan "penjegalan ekonomi."{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=66}} Pengecualian adalah dana yang boleh dikirim ke [[Palestina]] sesuai ketentuan [[Perjanjian Haavara]], yang memperbolehkan Yahudi untuk memindahkan sebagian aset mereka dan beremigrasi ke negara tersebut. Kurang lebih 52.000 Yahudi beremigrasi ke Palestina sesuai ketentuan perjanjian tersebut antara tahun 1933 dan 1939.{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=556–557}}
 
Pada awal [[Perang Dunia II]] tahun 1939, kurang lebih 250.000 dari 437.000 Yahudi Jerman telah beremigrasi ke Amerika Serikat, Palestina, Britania Raya, dan negara-negara lainnya.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=127}}{{sfn|Evans|2005|p=555}} Pada tahun 1938, hampir mustahil bagi calon emigran Yahudi untuk menemukan negara yang bersedia menerima mereka.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=67}} Seusai [[Pemberontakan Arab di Palestina 1936–1939|pemberontakan Arab 1936-1939]], Britania Raya menolak menerima lebih banyak Yahudi di Palestina karena khawatir akan semakin memperburuk gejolak di kawasan tersebut.{{sfn|Friedländer|2009|p=57}} Pihak-pihak nasionalis dan [[xenofobia]] di negara-negara lain mendesak pemerintahnya agar tidak menerima gelombang imigran Yahudi, terutama imigran miskin.{{sfn|Evans|2005|pp=560, 601}} [[Rencana Madagaskar]], sebuah usulan pemindahan massal Yahudi Eropa ke [[Madagaskar]], terbukti mustahil untuk dilaksanakan.{{sfn|Longerich|2010|pp=162–164}} Sejak pertengahan 1941, pemerintah Jerman mulaimemulai berencanarencana [[Solusi Akhir|memusnahkanpemusnahan Yahudi Eropa secara massal]].{{sfn|Rhodes|2003|pp=159–160}} Jumlah keseluruhan Yahudi yang dibunuh semasa [[Holokaus]] diperkirakan mencapai 5,5 hingga 6 juta orang.{{sfn|Evans|2008|p=318}} Perkiraan jumlah orang Romani yang tewas dalam [[Porajmos]] berkisar antara 150.000 hingga 1.500.000 orang.{{sfn|Hancock|2012|p=381}}
 
==Kebijakan Lihatdi juganegara lain==
[[File:The law for protection of the nation (Bulgaria).jpg|thumb|upright|Dekret Tsar [[Boris III dari Bulgaria]] yang menyetujui Undang-Undang Perlindungan Bangsa]]
* [[Hans Globke]]
Beberapa negara [[Blok Poros]] lainnya memberlakukan Hukum Nürnberg ciptaan mereka sendiri.
 
* Pada tahun 1938, [[Kerajaan Italia di bawah Fasisme (1922-1943)|Italia Fasis]] memberlakukan [[hukum rasial Italia]] dan [[Manifesto Ras]] yang mencabut kewarganegaraan Yahudi dan melarang hubungan seksual serta pernikahan antara orang Yahudi dengan non-Yahudi Italia.{{sfn|Rodogno|2006|p=65}}
* Hungaria mengesahkan sejumlah undang-undang pada tanggal 28 Mei 1938 dan 5 Mei 1939, yang melarang Yahudi bekerja di berbagai profesi. Undang-undang ketiga, yang disahkan pada bulan Agustus 1941, menggolongkan Yahudi sebagai orang-orang yang lahir dari dua generasi Yahudi, dan melarang hubungan seksual atau pernikahan antara Yahudi dengan non-Yahudi.{{sfn|Frojimovics|2012|pp=250–251}}
* Pada tahun 1940, [[Gerakan Legiuner|Garda Besi]] yang berkuasa di Rumania memberlakukan Undang-Undang Penentuan Status Hukum Yahudi Rumania.{{sfn|Fischer|2012|p=279}}
* Pada tahun 1941, [[Vojtech Tuka|Codex Judaicus]] diberlakukan di Slowakia.{{sfn|Matić|2002|p=174}}
* Pada tahun 1941, Bulgaria memberlakukan [[Undang-Undang Perlindungan Bangsa]].{{sfn|Dikovski|2000}}
* Pada tahun 1941, [[Ustaše]] di Kroasia memberlakukan undang-undang penggolongan Yahudi dan pembatasan interaksi dengan Yahudi.{{sfn|Gilbert|2002|p=78}}
* Meskipun [[Kekaisaran Jepang]] tidak merancang atau mengesahkan undang-undang apa pun, ia menerapkan kebijakan yang menyasar Yahudi di beberapa negara yang didudukinya, seperti [[Pendudukan Jepang di Hindia-Belanda|Indonesia]] dan [[Pendudukan Jepang di Singapura|Singapura]].{{sfn|Banka|2019}}{{sfn|Cheong Suk-Wai|2015}}
 
==Salinan==
Naskah asli undang-undang yang ditandatangani Hitler ditemukan oleh [[Korps Kontraintelijen]] [[Angkatan Darat Amerika Serikat]] pada tahun 1945. Naskah tersebut jatuh ke tangan Jenderal [[George S. Patton]], yang melanggar aturan dengan menyimpannya, sebab temuan semacam itu harus diserahkan kepada pemerintah. Dalam kunjungannya ke Los Angeles pada tahun 1945, ia menyerahkannya ke [[Perpustakaan Huntington]], tempat naskah tersebut disimpan di dalam brankas tahan bom. Perpustakaan Huntington baru mengungkapkan keberadaan dokumen tersebut pada tahun 1999, dan meminjamkannya secara permanen ke [[Pusat Kebudayaan Skirball]], yang kemudian dipamerkan kepada masyarakat umum. Dokumen tersebut lalu dipindahkan ke [[Arsip Nasional Amerika Serikat]] di Washington pada bulan Agustus 2010.{{sfn|Allen|2010}}{{sfn|Bradsher|2010}}
 
==Lihat juga==
* [[Apartheid|Apartheid di Afrika Selatan]]
* [[Hukum Jim Crow]]
* [[Nazisme dan ras]]
* [[ParagrafKonferensi AryaWannsee]]
* [[Manifesto Ras]] di Italia
* [[Undang-Undang Jim Crow]]
* [[Apartheid]]
* [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]
* [[Kode Visigotik]]
 
== Referensi ==
{{Reflist}}
 
==Daftar pustaka==
== Bacaan lebih lanjut ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Hancock |first=Ian | author-link = Ian Hancock | editor1-last = Friedman | editor1-first = Jonathan C. | editor1-link = Jonathan Friedman |title=The Routledge History of the Holocaust |chapter=The Neglected Memory of the Romanies |pages=375–384 |year=2012 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-52087-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Hilberg |first=Raul | author-link = Raul Hilberg |title=The Destruction of the European Jews |volume=III |year=2003 | orig-year = 1961 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven; London |isbn=978-0-300-09592-0 | title-link = The Destruction of the European Jews}}
* {{Cite book |last=Isaacson |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Isaacson |date=2007 |title=Einstein: His Life and Universe |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperbacks |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-6473-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinhislifeu0000isaa }}
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* {{cite book |last=Majer |first=Diemut |title="Non-Germans" under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945 |year=2003 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore; London |isbn=0-8018-6493-3}}
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* {{cite web |title=Reichsbürgergesetz und Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre ["Nürnberger Gesetze"] |language=de |url=http://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c=dokument_de&dokument=0007_nue&object=translation&st=&l=de |date=14 November 1935 |publisher=Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg |ref={{sfnRef|Nuremberg Laws|1935}} }}
*{{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Richard | author-link = Richard Rhodes |year=2003 |title=Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust |place=New York |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-375-70822-0}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Schulz |first1=Edgar Hans |last2=Frercks |first2=Rudolf |title=Warum Arierparagraph? Ein Beitrag zur Judenfrage |trans-title=Why the Aryan Law? A Contribution to the Jewish Question |publisher=NSDAP Office of Racial Policy |location=Berlin |language=de |year=1934 |url=http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/arier.htm |oclc=802537}}
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* {{cite news |author=Staff |title=Boycott Advocated to Curb Hitlerism; W.W. Cohen Says Any Jew Who Buys Goods Made in Germany Is a 'Traitor. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/03/21/archives/boycott-advocated-to-curb-hitlerism-ww-cohen-says-any-jew-who-buys.html |date=21 Maret 1933 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=22 Januari 2009 |ref={{sfnRef|''New York Times'', 21 Maret 1933}} }}
*{{cite book |last1=Yahil |first1=Leni |last2=Friedman |first2=Ina |title=The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry: 1932-1945 |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |isbn=9780195045239 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_aRvKpLUf0C&pg=PA95}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Nuremberg Race Laws |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nuremberg-laws#translation-4 | access-date = 4 Desember2023 |ref={{sfnRef|USHMM, "Nuremburg Race Laws"}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Wildt |first=Michael |title=Hitler's Volksgemeinschaftand the Dynamics of Racial Exclusion: Violence Against Jews in Provincial Germany, 1919–1939 |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-0857453228}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolfe |first=Stephanie |title=The Politics of Reparations and Apologies |year=2014 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4614-9184-2}}
{{refend}}
 
==Bacaan lanjutan==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Bankier |first=David | editor1-last = Gutman | editor1-first = Israel | editor1-link = Israel Gutman |title=Encyclopedia of the Holocaust |volume=3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofho0000unse_l4l4/page/1076 1076–1077] |year=1990 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=0-02-864527-8 | title-link = Encyclopedia of the Holocaust |ref=none}}
* Banker, David "The 'Jewish Question' as a Focus of Conflict Between Trends of Institutionalization and Radicalization in the Third Reich, 1934–1935" pages 357–371 from ''In Nation and History: Studies in the History of the Jewish People; Based on the Papers Delivered at the Eight World Congress of Jewish Studies'', Volume 2 edited by Samuel Ettinger, Jerusalem, 1984.
* {{cite journal |last=Gruchmann |first=Lothar |title='Blutschutzgestz' und Justiz: Zur Entstehung und Auswirkung des Nürnberger Gesetzes von 15 September 1935 |journal=Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte |language=de |date=Juli 1983 |volume=31 |pages=418–442 |publisher=Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag GmbH |location=München |jstor=30196462 |ref=none}}{{subscription required}}
* Bankier, David "Nuremberg Laws" pages 1076–1077 from the ''[[Encyclopedia of the Holocaust]]'' Volume 3 edited by [[Israel Gutman]], New York: Macmillan, 1990, ISBN 0-02-864527-8.
* {{cite journal |last=Longerich |first=Peter |title=The Wannsee Conference in the Development of the 'Final Solution' |year=2000 |journal=Holocaust Educational Trust Research Papers |volume=1 |issue=2 |publisher=The Holocaust Educational Trust |location=London |url=http://www.ghwk.de/ghwk/engl/texts/wannsee-conference.pdf | access-date = 11 Maret 2015 |isbn=0-9516166-5-X | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115820/http://www.ghwk.de/ghwk/engl/texts/wannsee-conference.pdf | archive-date = 2 April 2015 |ref=none}}
* Ehrenreich, Eric. ''The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution''. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-253-34945-3
* {{cite journal |last=Margaliot |first=Abraham|authorlink=Abraham Margaliot
* {{cite book|last = Fest|first = Joachim C.|title = Hitler|author-link=Joachim C. Fest|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year = 2002|isbn = 0-15-602754-2}}
|title=The Reaction of the Jewish Public in Germany to the Nuremberg Laws |journal=Yad Vashem Studies |year=1977 |volume=12 |pages=193–229 |publisher=[[Yad Vashem]] |location=Jerusalem |ref=none}}
* {{cite book|last = Fischer|first = Conan|title = The Rise of the Nazis|url = https://archive.org/details/riseofnazis0000fisc|publisher=Manchester University Press|year = 2002|author-link=|isbn = 0-7190-6067-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Schleunes |first=Karl | author-link = Karl Schleunes |title=The Twisted Road to Auschwitz: Nazi Policy towards German Jews, 1933–1939 |year=1970 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Urbana |isbn=978-0-252-00092-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/twistedroadtoaus00schl |ref=none}}
* Gruchmann, L. "'Blutschutzgestz' und Justiz: Zur Entstehung und Auswirkung des Nürnberger Gesetzes von 15 September 1935" pages 418–442 from ''Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte'', Volume 31, 1983.
* {{cite book |last=KershawWhitman |first=Ian|isbnJames =Q. 0-393-04671-0|author-link=IanJames Whitman Kershaw|title= Hitler's American 1889–1936Model: HubrisThe United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law |urlyear=https://archive.org/details/hitlerhubris00kers|location=New2017 York|publisher=W.[[Princeton W.University NortonPress]] &|isbn=978-0691172422 Company|yearurl=1999http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10925.html |ref=none}}
* Kulka, Otto Dov "Die Nürnberger Rassengesetze und die deutsche Bevölkerugn um Lichte geheimer NS-Lage und Stimmungsberichte" pages 582–624 from ''Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte'', Volume 32, 1984.
* Margaliot, A. "The Reaction of the Jewish Public in Germany to the Nuremberg Laws" pages 193–229 from ''Vad Yashem Studies'', Volume 12, 1977.
* Mommsen, Hans "The Realization of the Unthinkable: The "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" in the Third Reich" pages 217–264 from ''The Nazi Holocaust Part 3 The "Final Solution": The Implementation of Mass Murder'' Volume 1 edited by [[Michael Marrus]], Westpoint: Meckler, 1989, ISBN 0-88736-266-4.
* Schleunes, Karl ''The Twisted Road to Auschwitz: Nazi Policy towards German Jews, 1933–1939'', Urbana, Ill, 1970.
* {{cite book|last = Shirer|first = William L.|title = The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich|url = https://archive.org/details/risefallofthirdr1959unse|author-link = William L. Shirer|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location = New York|year = 1960 }}
* {{cite book|last = Toland|first = John|title = Adolf Hitler|url = https://archive.org/details/adolfhitler02tola|author-link=John Toland (author)|publisher=Doubleday & Company|year = 1976|location = Garden City, New York|isbn = 0-385-03724-4 }}
{{Refend}}
 
== Pranala luar ==
{{Commons category|Nuremberg Laws}}
* [http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/about/01/persecution.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Rise of the Nazis and Beginning of Persecution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305134910/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/about/01/persecution.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki |date=2016-03-05 }} on the [[Yad Vashem]] website
{{wikisourcelang|de|Nürnberger Gesetze|Nuremberg Laws}}
* [http://www.mtsu.edu/~baustin/nurmlaw2.html The Citizenship Law, together with Supplementary Decree of 14 November 1935] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302123520/http://www.mtsu.edu/~baustin/nurmlaw2.html |date=2007-03-02 }}
* [https://www.yadvashem.org/holocaust/about/nazi-germany-1933-39/beginning-of-persecution.html Rise of the Nazis and Beginning of Persecution] di situs web [[Yad Vashem]]
* [http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/documents/citizen.htm The Citizenship Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080321001525/http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/documents/citizen.htm |date=2008-03-21 }}, English translation at the University of the West of England
* [http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/documents/gerblood.htm The Blood Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319040258/http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/documents/gerblood.htm |date=2008-03-19 }}, English translation at the University of the West of England
* [http://www.shoaheducation.com/pNEW.html#race Race Laws]{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (Nazi and other)
* [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007459 Info from Holocaust Museum]
* [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007459 Nazi Race Laws to 1939]
* [http://www.passportland.com/images/lewin-simon/lewin-simon.html Images of a 1938 German "J" Jewish passport] from www.passportland.com
 
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{{Segregasi menurut jenis|state=collapsed}}
{{Diskriminasi}}
 
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