|
=Koin kuno di Indonesia=
=Gu=
[[File:MET 1998 544 238 1 18.jpeg|thumb|right|1 masa koin emas masing-masing 5 milimeter.]]
{{Other uses|Gu (disambiguation){{!}}GU}}{{Infobox Chinese
By the 10th-century, Java had the most complex economies in [[Southeast Asia]]. Despite the importance of rice farming which acts as a king of tax income for the Javanese courts, the influx of sea trade in Asia between the 10th and 13th centuries forced a more convenient currency to the Javanese economy. During the late 8th-century, a kind of ingots made of gold and silver were introduced. These are the '''Early Indonesian coins'''.{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=99}}
|c=觚
| p = gū
| w = ku<sup>1 </sup>
|oc-zz = <nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷaː
}}
A '''gu''' is type of ancient [[Chinese ritual bronze]] vessel from the [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] dynasties (i.e. 1600–256 BC). It was used to drink wine or to offer ritual [[libation]]s.
==Early development in Central Java==
A gu is tall and slender, with a slightly flared base that tapers to a slim center section before widening again into a trumpet-like mouth, wider than the base. Its surface is often decorated with '' [[taotie]] ''.
In Java, rice farming was still the main occupation of most households in the village. This continued to provide most of the tax income of the Javanese courts. Later in the period, the northern coasts of Java and Bali became the main center of an affluent export trade in local agricultural products and manufactures, as well as spices e.g. [[sandalwood]] from east of Indonesia. These trade brought shipping industry to distant markets e.g. China and India. The increasing intensity of trade called for a convenient currency in the Javanese society.{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=98}}
During the late 8th-century money took the form of ingots made of gold and silver. These are the earliest recorded coins in Indonesia. The currency in Indonesia is based on weight; the most common units were the ''[[catty|kati]]'' of {{convert|750|g|oz}}, ''[[tael|tahil]]'' of {{convert|38|g|oz}}, ''masa'' {{convert|2.4|g|oz}} and ''kupang'' {{convert|0.6|g|oz}}. These units were legal tender for tax payments. The ''kati'', ''tahil'', ''masa'' and ''kupang'' units remained in use up until the Dutch period. Several trade jargon were introduced in this period, e.g. the Javanese ''wli'', which became the modern Indonesian ''beli'' ("buy"), and the Sanskrit ''wyaya'', modern Indonesian term ''biaya'' ("expenses") appears in two inscriptions both dated 878 AD. The Javanese coins have no parallels with the style of Indian coins. Most of the Javanese coins were found within the Javanese [[Shailendra dynasty|kingdom of Shailendra]].{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=99}}
A gu from the Shang dynasty was among the 13 works of art stolen from the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]] on 18 March 1990, along with paintings by [[Rembrandt]] and [[Vermeer]].<ref>[http://www.gardnermuseum.org/FILE/1691.pdf "Fact Sheet: Stolen Artworks."] ''Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.'' Retrieved 21 February 2012.</ref>
===Gold coins===
[[File:Gu with animal mask.jpg|thumb|A gu from the middle Shang Dynasty, [[Shanghai Museum]], Shanghai, China]]
[[File:MET 1998 544 240.jpeg|thumb|right|A gold coin of probably the highest denomination of ''ka''.]]
Most gold coins of 9th and early 10th century Java are stamped with the character ''ta'' in [[Nāgarī script|nagari script]] on one side, an abbreviation of ''tahil''. The same character remain on coins until the [[Kediri Kingdom]] period in the 12th-century.{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=99}} Gold coins were usually made in the shape of cubes, carefully crafted and very uniform and size and gold content.
===Silver coins===
==The Beginning of the ''gu'' vessel==
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Prent voorstellende door Engelse particulieren voor Sumatra geslagen munten TMnr 93-4-9.jpg|thumb|left|Sandalwood decoration or quatrefoil appeared in the silver ingot on the picture below.]]
The gu vessel was known for its use as a wine drinking vessel. It is said to have developed from other elaborate cups that also had high stems and were found in [[Neolithic]] cultures.<ref>Rawson, J. and Bunker, E. ''Ancient Chinese and Ordos Bronzes'' 1990 pg. 80</ref> Inscriptions have been found on ancient vessels stating that it was common to drink wine in Chinese cultures. The creation of a vessel such as the ''gu'' makes sense in modern times because of its shape. The long stem made it easy to hold and sip from, while still allowing it to take on unique and elegant features.
Central Javanese silver coins have very different shape compared with the gold coins. Most silver coins are round and known as "sandalwood flower" coins referring to the four-petaled flower (quatrefoil) found on the reverse. The silver coins lasted from the early 9th until the 14th century. The same flower appears on one side of older silver ingots from central Java; the other side is stamped with a flowing vase design, which is never found on coins. The observe of the sandalwood flower coins are stamped with the nagiri character ''ma'' (abbreviation of ''masa'').{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=99}}
Unlike the gold coins, the silver coins changed rapidly. In only one century, the character ''ma'' degenerated very quickly, perhaps because it is different with the Javanese [[Kawi script|Kawi letter]] for ''ma''. The shape also changed; in the early 10th-century, the shape of one masa changed from a thick and flat coin, to a thin and cup-shaped coin. The silver coins were presumably served as small change. The silver coins were probably created by smiths in the market for use in market transactions.{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=99}}
==Early inspiration for the creation of the gu vessel==
Throughout the hundreds of Neolithic to early dynastic sites discovered in [[China]], ritual vessels ranging from clay to bronze are often found in the tombs of these sites. The form, shapes, and décor, provide hints to the every vessel’s function as well as the early beliefs that inspired them. Early Chinese religion has been difficult for scholars to understand due to a lack of extensive archaeological evidence on Neolithic religious philosophies and ritual practices.<ref name="Smith, Howard 1961">Smith, Howard. Chinese Religion in the Shang Dynasty. Numen. Vol. 8. Brill, 1961., 143</ref> The early Shang Dynasty, however, had a much more concrete religion in regards to beliefs and practices ranging from ancestor worship to funerary rituals, and a developed system to perform sacrifices.<ref name="Smith, Howard 1961"/> As these beliefs could have extended back into earlier periods in China, a common center of worship included such elements such as ancestors, fertility concerns as well as other spirits or gods of the natural elements.<ref name="Smith, Howard 1961"/>
[[File:Gu wine vessel from the Shang Dynasty (2nd version).jpg|thumb|upright|150 px|A gu from the Shang Dynasty, [[Arthur M. Sackler Gallery]], Washington, D.C.]]
In Java, beginning at the end of the 10th-century and onwards, more and more Chinese copper coins were imported in greater quantities, as well as Chinese cash and local copies, known as ''pisis''. These coins began to displace the silver alloy coins as small denomination currency. By the mid-14th century, there were so many ''pisis'' in circulation, that the Javanese court recognized them as official currency for tax purposes.{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=99}}
The ritual vessels of early China are an extension of the spiritual or religious world, in which the powers that seemed to exist in nature may have carried a high influence in the inspiration of the vessels. The powers of nature included those that could have resided in animals, plants, water, sickness, death, and eventually the afterlife, all of which coexisted with people as having a high influence on one's life.<ref name="Smith, Howard 1961"/> In some cases, ritual vessels provided a way to maintain harmony between the spirit world and the earthly realm through vessels holding sacrifices, or vessels like the gu being drunk by humans in ritual ceremonies.
==Sumatran coins==
== Function and use==
In Sumatra, coins were first minted in the 11th-century. Similar sandalwood flower coins like those in Java were discovered in Sumatra, but more of these were made of gold, [[electrum]], and silver alloy. Several 11th-century sites in Sumatra including [[Barus]], [[Bengkulu]], and [[Muara Jambi]] were abundant of gold coins, while silver is rare. Similar coins were found also in [[South Thailand]]. The Sumatran silver alloy examples are very well made compared with the Javanese silver coins.
The ''gu'' was a common wine vessel to be found in high class areas. This wine vessel has been found in places such as meeting areas were high class Chinese members would gather for wine with one another.<ref>Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan 國立故宮博物院, Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of Shang and Chou Dynasty Bronze Wine Vessels 商周青銅酒器特展圖錄(Taibei: Zhonghua min guo Taibei Shi Shilin qu Weishuangxi & Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan, 1989), 124 & 125</ref> The ''gu'' vessel can be unique in a number of ways. The more elegant styled vessels with more relief and design would be found more commonly in the high class surroundings. The simpler, tall and narrow, ''gu'' vessels would be found throughout the family's households.
According to the Tsun family, the ''gu'' vessel was found to be listed under the "Wine Containers" list of artifacts that have been found in the Shang civilizations.<ref>New Haven and London Yale University Press ''Shang Civilization'' 1980 pg. 24</ref> This allows archaeologists to focus on locations of ''gu'' vessels to help indicate the class status of the site.
Curiously, no coins have been found at Palembang, said to be the center of the Sriwijayan economy. This suggests that coins may have had a limited role in the early Sriwijayan economy. International trade might have been conducted either through the mechanism known as [[tributary trade]] or in other form known as administered trade. In administered trade system, equivalencies were established between commodities through diplomatic negotiations rather than bargaining.{{sfn|Christie|1996|p=99}}
===Examples of function===
In Book 6, verse 25, of the Confucian Analects, a gu is referred to as a cup to be drunk from specifically in religious sites but first by the rulers of the Shang dynasty.<ref name="Alt, Wayne 2005">Alt, Wayne. Ritual and the Social Construction of Sacred Artifacts: An Analysis of “Analects” 6.25. Philosophy East and West, Vol. 55, No. 3. University of Hawaii Press, 2005., 461</ref> Its functional use for a human rather than a spirit is also noted based on the construction of the gu vessel for its design is logical in that it can hold liquid and can be easily held in one’s hand unlike other wine vessels.<ref name="Alt, Wayne 2005"/>
==Legacy==
The only evidence we have of ritual use of this vessel is its strong association with wine, spirits, and high class rulers. Later engraved vessels help support the significance of ritual wine drinking as part of ritual ceremony. The ''gu'' vessel appears in an engraving of a ritual scene found on a yi vessel discovered in a tomb in Shaanxi in which the ''gu'' being used in the engraving highly resembles the gu of the Shang.<ref>Fong, Mary H. The Origin of Chinese Representation of the Human Figure. Artibus Asiae. Vol. 49, No. ½ (1988-1989), 11</ref>
The gold [[piloncitos]] of the Philippines are a late offshoot of the Indonesian gold coinage, while the bean-like silver "namo" series, of the Malay isthmus was presumably an offshoot of the silver and may have evolved into the bullet (Pod-Duang) coinage of [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]] in [[Thailand]].<ref>http://coin.filipinonumismatist.com/2011/06/piloncitos-treasure-of-philippine.html</ref>
==TheSee namealso==
{{commonscat|Early Indonesian coins}}
The term gu had not been ever previously found inscribed on any other vessels and the first mention of this term was not until the 11th century found in early artist and antiquarian, Li Gonglin’s writings.<ref name="Harrist, Robert E 1995">Harrist, Robert E. The Artist as Antiquarian: Li Gonglin and His Study of Early Chinese Art. Artibus Asiae. Vol. 55, No. ¾ (1995), 261</ref> Li, a painter and avid collector of early bronzes, is credited for designating the name of the gu vessel based on an experiment on a gu vessel he owned. In his experiment, he measures that his gu vessel can hold exactly two pints or ''sheng'' of liquid which is equal to a ''gu'' while the designated character means “ridge” or "flange" based on those decorative elements found on his gu.<ref name="Harrist, Robert E 1995"/>
*[[Piloncito]]
==Reference==
==Historical developments and examples==
{{reflist|30em}}
Although ''gu'' is name of a bronze vessel form, similar vessels have been made of clay and wood long before the [[Bronze Age]].
===BronzeCited ''gu''=works==
{{refbegin}}
Based on archaeological discoveries, ''gu'' is one of the most common bronze vessel forms in the [[Shang Dynasty]](around 16th century to 11th century B.C.).<ref>Jessica Rawson, ''Chinese Bronzes: Art and Rituals'' (London : British Museum Publications, 1987), 65 - 66.</ref> Xiaoneng Yang points out that ''gu'' became less popular in the [[Western Zhou|Western Zhou Dynasty]] (around 11th century to 8th century B. C.), but the style of the late Shang period, or rather the Anyang Style, survived and the style of the early Shang period also revived. Moreover, ''gu'' disappeared in the reign of [[King Mu of Zhou]] in the 10th century B.C.E.<ref name="Yang">Xiaoneng Yang, ed., ''The Golden Age of Chinese Archaeology: Celebrated Discoveries from the People's Republic of China'' (Washington, D. C.: National Gallery of Art, 1999), 238.</ref>
*{{cite book |last=Christie |first=Jan |date=1996 |title=Ancient History |chapter=The Early Indonesian Economy |editor-last=Miksic |editor-first=John |url= |location=Singapore |publisher=Didier Millet |isbn=9813018267 |author-link= |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
[[Category:Ancient currencies]]
====Zhengzhou phase (Erligang period) of the Shang Dynasty====
[[Category:Medieval currencies]]
One bronze ''gu'' has been discovered at the north corner of the upper level of the Tomb M2 in [[Erligang culture|Erligang, Zhengzhou]], an early Shang Dynasty site.<ref>Jessica Rawson, ''Western Zhou Ritual Bronzes from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections'' (Washington D.C.: Sackler Foundation/Cambridge: Sackler Museum, 1990), 14 - 15. Robert Bagley, "Shang Archaeology", in ''The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C.'', edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 169 - 170.[https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&pg=PA170&lpg=PA170&dq=gu+erligang&source=bl&ots=Y_Iuow4e3G&sig=LexW13OFMVwVdaHJC1aQe_T5g24&hl=en&sa=X&ei=sWi9UJODJYzg8AT01YHgCg&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=gu%20erligang&f=false]</ref> Decors on this vessel are concentrated on a band at the lower part of its body, which, according to [[Max Loehr]], is a characteristic of Early Shang bronze.<ref>Hung Wu, ''Monumentality in Early Chinese Art and Architecture'' (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 48.</ref>
[[Category:Modern obsolete currencies]]
The ''gu'' from Erligang has some cross-shape holes on its foot, which is a common feature among some Shang bronzes. For example, all the ''gu'' vessels and some other bronzes from [[Chenggu County|Chenggu, Shaanxi]] have this kind of cross-shape holes, though their diverse decors and shapes suggest they might have been made in different time periods in the Shang Dynasty.<ref>Wang Shouzhi 王壽芝, "Shanxi Chenggu Chutu de Shangdai Qingtong Qi 陝西城固出土的商代青銅器", ''Wenbo''文博 6 (1988), 3 - 9.</ref>
=Batu Goa=
====Anyang phase of the Shang Dynasty====
[[File:Goa Stone and Gold Case MET DP116021.jpg|thumb|[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/454738 Goa Stone and container], probably from Goa, India, late 17th–early 18th century.]]
Huge changes had taken place before the capital of Shang moved to [[Yinxu|Yin]], Shang's last capital.<ref>Bagley, "The Zhengzhou Phase (the Erligang Period", in ''The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People’s Republic of China'', edited by Wen Fong (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980), 98 - 99.</ref> ''Gu'' also changed in Anyang phase. First, ''gu'' at this time was usually higher than 20 centimeters with slim body and a wide mouth. [[Fu Hao|Fu Hao ''gu'']] from Anyang is 25.5-centimeter-high and its mouth is 14.2-centimeter-wide, which significantly surpasses its bottom.<ref>Zhongguo Qingtong Qi Quanji Bianji Weiyuanhui 中國青銅器全集編輯委員會, ed., ''Zhouguo Qingtong Qi Quanji'' 中國青銅器全集, Vol. 2 （Beijing : Wen wu chu ban she， 1997）， 51.</ref> Chü ''gu'', also found from a tomb at Anyang, is about 31-centimeter-high and its mouth is almost twice as wide as its bottom.<ref>Robert L. Thorp, ''Spirit and Ritual: The Morse Collection of Ancient Chinese Art'' (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982), 24.</ref> Second, from this time onward, the base of ''gu'' raised up slightly with a short round foot. The ''gu'' displayed in the [[Arthur M. Sackler Gallery| Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington D. C.]] and the [[Shanghai Museum|Shanghai Museum, Shanghai]], whose pictures are shown on this page, possess this feature. Third, some ''gu'' also have decors that extend from its waist to the rim of the mouth in three triangle registers.<ref>Rawson, ''Chinese Bronzes: Art and Rituals'', 65–66.</ref><ref>Beijing Tushuguan 北京圖書館, ed., ''Beijing Tushuguan Cang Qingtong Qi Quanxing Tapian Ji'' 北京圖書館藏青銅器全形拓片集, Vol. 3 (Beijing: Beijing Tushuguan Chubanshe, 1997), 74–108. {{ISBN|7501312850}}.</ref> In fact, bronze vessels made in Anyang phase are usually fully decorated with decors.<ref>Wu, ''Monumentality in Early Chinese Art and Architecture'', 52–53.</ref>
A '''Goa stone''' is a man-made [[Bezoar|bezoar]] that is considered to have medicinal and [[Talisman (disambiguation)|talismanic]] properties.<ref>{{cite web|title=Goa Stone with Gold Case|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/454738|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Goa stones were manufactured by [[Jesuits]] in the late [[Seventeenth century|seventeenth century]] in [[Goa]], [[India]], because naturally occurring bezoars were scarce.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bailly|first1=Muriel|title=Foolish Remedies: Goa Stone|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/articles/foolish-remedies-goa-stone|website=Wellcome Collection|publisher=Wellcome Collection|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Their inventor was the Florentine lay brother Gaspar Antonio, and a Jesuit monopoly was confirmed by the Portuguese on March 6, 1691.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aA5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA317|title=An Historical and Archæological Sketch of the City of Goa: Preceded by a Short Statistical Account of the Territory of Goa|last=Fonseca|first=José Nicolau da|date=1878|publisher=Thacker & Company, limited|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=317|language=en}}</ref> They were created by combining organic and inorganic materials including hair, shells, tusks, resin, and crushed gems, then shaping the materials into a ball and gilting it. Like [[bezoar]] stones, Goa stones were thought to prevent [[disease]] and cure [[poisoning]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Bezoar Stone with Case and Stand|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452963|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> They could be administered by shaving off small pieces into a drinkable beverage like [[water]], [[tea]], or [[wine]].
Goa stones were kept in ornate, solid [[gold]] or gilded cases that were believed to enhance the medicinal properties of the stones.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grundhauser|first1=Eric|title=The Man-Made Gut Stones Once Used to Thwart Assassination Attempts|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-manmade-gut-stones-once-used-to-thwart-assassination-attempts|website=Atlas Obscura|publisher=Atlas Obscura|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> The cases usually featured a busy network of [[filagree]], occasionally adorned with ornaments of animals, including [[monkeys]], [[unicorns]], [[dogs]], and [[parrots]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ekhtiar|first1=Maryam|title=Paradox|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4I_5H5EetEE|website=YouTube|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref>
====Early Western Zhou Dynasty====
Imitations or revivals of former styles appear in the late Shang period and early Western Zhou period. [[Jessica Rawson]] has pointed out a ''gu'' that is 28.5-centimeter-high with a ''[[taotie]]'' motif on its waist celebrates the early Shang styles by locating its decors on one band.<ref>Rawson, ''Western Zhou Ritual Bronzes from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections'', 60.</ref> Another example is the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043126/http://www.cultural-china.com/chinaWH/html/en/1668bye2954.html Lü Fu Yi ''gu''] found in [[Shi Qiang pan|the Hoard of the Wei Family]]. This vessel is 25.2-centimeter-high and its mouth is about 13.2-centimeter-wide.<ref name="Yang"/> Its neck is long and slim without any decorations. Low ribbon-like relief appears at the lower section of the vessel and it does not have a foot.
====Middle Western Zhou Dynasty====
In the middle Western Zhou period, ''gu'' became short and squat, while gradually disappeared. Wan Qi ''gu'' can be dated back to the mid-Western Zhou Dynasty.<ref name="Guo Li">Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan 國立故宮博物院, Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of Shang and Chou Dynasty Bronze Wine Vessels 商周青銅酒器特展圖錄,125.</ref> This ''gu'' is about 14.5 centimeter high with a 14.7-centimeter-wide mouth and a 10.1 cm-wide-base. Meanwhile, this ''gu'''s waist is only slightly narrower than its month and base. Another ''gu'' discovered in a hoard in Zhangjiapo, [[Shaanxi]], is similar in shape, but a little bit smaller.<ref name="Guo Li"/>
===Ceramic ''gu''===
Modern Chinese archaeologists have identified numbers of neolithic pottery wine drinking vessels as ''gu'' or "''gu''-shape vessel". Besides, Ceramic ''gu'' continued to exist even after it transformed into a bronze vessel.
====The Neolithic Age====
Numbers of pottery vessels unearthed from [[List of Neolithic cultures of China|Neolithic]] sites are named as ''gu'' by archaeologists. Some of these pottery ''gu'' look very different from the form of bronze ''gu'', while some appear similar and might be the direct ancestors of bronze ''gu''.
[http://www.sdmuseum.com/english/Collections-Pottery-29.html A gray pottery beaker] discovered at a [[Dawenkou culture]] site in [[Tai'an]], [[Shandong]] is categorized as a "''gu''-shape vessel".<ref>"Gray Pottery Gu-beaker", Shandong Museum, accessed Nov. 6, 2012, http://www.sdmuseum.com/english/Collections-Pottery-29.html.</ref> It is 29.2-centimeter-high and can be roughly divided into 3 sections. The top section is a funnel shape container. Nonetheless, the other two sections distinguish this vessel form a bronze ''gu''. The middle section is a long stem, decorated with engraved grooves and a high rising band. The lower section is its stand with three square legs.
Some pottery drinking vessels excavated in the late [Dawenkou culture|Dawenkou sites] appear more similar to the bronze ''gu''.<ref name="Lv">Lv Qichang 呂琪昌, ''Qingtong Jue & Jia de Mimi'' 青銅爵、斝的秘密.</ref>{{rp|222–223}} A pottery ''gu'' that looks striking similar to bronze ''gu'' has been excavated at Shilipu (十里鋪), [[Henan]].<ref name="Lv"/>{{rp|214}} This ''gu'' is 13.6-centimeter-high with four rising bands as decorations. Its body looks almost like a column , but gets wider at the mouth. Similar pottery objects have been found in other areas as well and these objects are suggested to be the predecessors of bronze ''gu''.<ref name="Lv"/>{{rp|222–223}}
====The Bronze Age====
[[File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - pottery gu.jpg|thumb|upright|A pottery ''gu'' discovered in 1960 at the Erlitou sites]]
Pottery ''gu'' discovered from Erlitou and Erligang suggest they might have direct relation with the bronze ''gu''.<ref name="Lv"/>{{rp|208–209 & 215–216}} As mentioned above, pottery ''gu'' coexisted with bronze ''gu'' in the [[Bronze Age]], but their shapes are not entirely identical.
[[Erlitou culture]] has been considered as a part of the [[Bronze Age]], although scholars still have disputes in identifying it as the capital of the [[Xia Dynasty]], China's first dynasty recorded by historical texts, or an early [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] sites.<ref>Kuang-Chih Chang, "The Chinese Bronze Age: A Modern Synthesis", in ''The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People’s Republic of China'', ed. Wen Fong (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980), 35–38.</ref> A pottery ''gu'' discovered in [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] is a funnel-shape cup, which becomes narrow at the bottom.<ref>http://www.sach.gov.cn:8080/www.sach.gov.cn/tabid/318/InfoID/21682/Default.aspx</ref> Meanwhile, it has a raised-up foot that gets wider at the bottom, which make its outlook similar to bronze ''gu''.<ref>"Tao Gu 陶觚", ''Zaoqi Zhongguo: Zhonghua Wenming Qiyuan Zhan'' 早期中國：中華文明起源展, last modified Oct. 11, 2009, http://www.sach.gov.cn/tabid/1094/InfoID/21682/Default.aspx.</ref>
Pottery ''gu'' are found in [[Anyang]] and some other Shang sites in the heyday of the Bronze Age.<ref>Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan 國立故宮博物院, ''Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of Shang and Chou Dynasty Bronze Wine Vessels'' 商周青銅酒器特展圖錄, appendix.</ref> A pottery ''gu'' from a tomb that can be dated to the reign of [[King Zu Geng|Zugeng (祖庚)]] or [[Zu Jia|Zu Jia (祖甲)]] in Anyang. The shape of this ''gu'' is very similar to bronze ''gu'' at the same period, though its waist is thicker.<ref>Kwang-Chih Chang, ''Shang Civilization'' (New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 1980), 106–107.</ref> It have some long scratched slashes covered its surface as decor.
====Later time period====
''Gu'' continues to exist after the [[Bronze Age]], but it was used as vase instead of a wine drinking vessel. A ''gu'' with tubular handles, glazed in light greyish-blue in the [[National Palace Museum]], for example, imitates the shape of bronze ''gu'', but it functions as a vase.<ref>Guoli Gugong Bowuyuan, Guan Ware of the Southern Song Dynasty, Vol. 1 (Hong Kong: Cafa, 1962), 72–73.</ref>
===Lacquered ''gu''===
Bianjiashan （卞家山） in [[Zhejiang]] has yielded numbers of lacquered vessels and ''gu'' is a major vessel type.<ref name="Zhao">Zhao Ye 趙曄, "Tanmi Bianjiashan 探秘卞家山", ''Dongfang Bowu 東方博物'', 24 (2006).</ref>{{rp|43, 45}} These ''gu''<ref>http://www.kaogu.cn/cn/detail.asp?Productid=15264</ref> have slim waist and wide-opened mouth and they are coated with black and red lacquer with some rising bands as decorations.<ref name="Zhao"/> Archaeologists date Bianjiashan back to the [[Liangzhu culture|late Liangzhu Culture period]] and suggest these ''gu'' may have certain connections with bronze ''gu'' in the Shang Dynasty.<ref name="Zhao"/>{{rp|41 & 43}}
{{clear}}
== References ==
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{{reflist|32em}}
==Bibliography==
===Books===
* Beijing Tushuguan 北京圖書館, ed. ''Beijing Tushuguan Cang Qingtong Qi Quanxing Tapian Ji'' 北京圖書館藏青銅器全形拓片集. Beijing: Beijing Tushuguan Chubanshe, 1997. {{ISBN|7501312850}}
* Chang, Kwang-Chih. ''Shang Civilization''. New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 1980.
* Fong, Wen, ed. ''The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People’s Republic of China''. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980.
* Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan 國立故宮博物院. ''Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of Shang and Chou Dynasty Bronze Wine Vessels'' 商周青銅酒器特展圖錄. Taibei: Zhonghua min guo Taibei Shi Shilin qu Weishuangxi & Guo li gu gong bo wu yuan, 1989.
* Guoli Gugong Bowuyuan. ''Guan Ware of the Southern Song Dynasty''. Hong Kong: Cafa, 1962.
* Loewe, Michael and Edward L. Shaughnessy, eds. ''The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
* Lv呂, Qichang琪昌. ''Qingtong Jue & Jia de Mimi: Cong Shiqian Taigui dao Xiashang Wenhua Qiyuan bing Duandai Wenti Yanjiu'' 青銅爵、斝的秘密：從史前陶鬶到夏商文化起源並斷代問題研究. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|9787308056113}}
* Rawson, Jessica. ''Western Zhou Ritual Bronzes from the Arthur M. Sackler Collections''. Washington, D.C.: Sackler Foundation/Cambridge: Sackler Museum, 1990.
* Rawson, Jessica. ''Chinese Bronzes: Art and Rituals''. London : British Museum Publications, 1987.
* Thorp, Robert L. ''Spirit and Ritual: The Morse Collection of Ancient Chinese Art''. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982.
* Wu, Hung. ''Monumentality in Early Chinese Art and Architecture''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995.
* Yang, Xiaoneng, ed. ''The Golden Age of Chinese Archaeology: Celebrated Discoveries from the People's Republic of China''. Washington, D. C.: National Gallery of Art, 1999.
* Zhongguo Qingtong Qi Quanji Bianji Weiyuanhui 中國青銅器全集編輯委員會, ed. ''Zhouguo Qingtong Qi Quanji'' 中國青銅器全集, Vol. 2. Beijing : Wen wu chu ban she， 1997.
* Rawson, J. and Bunker, E. ''Ancient Chinese and Ordos Bronzes'' 1990
* New Haven and London Yale University Press ''Shang Civilization'' 1980
===Articles===
* Wang王, Shouzhi 壽芝. "Shanxi Chenggu Chutu de Shangdai Qingtong Qi 陝西城固出土的商代青銅器", ''Wenbo''文博 6 (1988): 3–9.
* Bagley, Robert. "Shang Archaeology." In ''The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C.'', edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy, 124–291. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
* Zhao趙, Ye 曄. "Tanmi Bianjiashan 探秘卞家山." ''Dongfang Bowu'' 東方博物, 24 (2006): 38–45.
* Smith, Howard. "Chinese Religion in the Shang Dynasty". ''Numen''. Vol. 8. Brill, 1961. 142–150.
* Alt, Wayne. "Ritual and the Social Construction of Sacred Artifacts: An Analysis of 'Analects' 6.25". ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 55, No. 3. University of Hawaii Press, 2005. 461–469.
* Fong, Mary H. The Origin of Chinese Representation of the Human Figure. ''Artibus Asiae''. Vol. 49, No. ½ (1988-1989), 5-38.
* Harrist, Robert E. The Artist as Antiquarian: Li Gonglin and His Study of Early Chinese Art. ''Artibus Asiae''. Vol. 55, No. ¾ (1995), 237–280.
==Further reading==
* Allan,Sarah. ''The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.
* Bagley, Rober W. “Meaning and Explanation.” ''Archives of Asian Art'' 46 (1993): 6–26.
* Loewe, Michael and Edward L. Shaughnessy, eds. ''The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
==External links==
{{Commons category|Gu}}
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/324057/gu Encyclopædia Britannica entry]
* [http://www.christies.com/LotFinder/lot_details.aspx?intObjectID=5417712 Exemplar] from [[Christie's]]
* [http://www.sdmuseum.com/english/Collections-Pottery-29.html Shandong Museum. "Gray Pottery Gu-beaker."]
* [http://www.sach.gov.cn/tabid/1094/InfoID/21682/Default.aspx State Administration of Cultural Heritage. "Tao Gu 陶觚"]
*[http://cdm16028.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/107906 The great bronze age of China: an exhibition from the People's Republic of China], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on gus
{{Chinese bronzeware}}
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=Ogata Kenzan=
{{nihongo|'''Ogata Kenzan'''|尾形 乾山|extra=1663–1743}}, originally {{nihongo|'''Ogata Shinsei'''|尾形 深省}}, and also known by the [[pseudonym]] Shisui, was a [[Japan]]ese [[pottery|potter]] and [[Painting|painter]].
== Biography ==
Ogata Kenzan was born in [[Kyoto]] into a rich merchant family. His older brother was the painter [[Ogata Kōrin]] (1658–1716). Kenzan studied with the potter Nonomura [[Ninsei]] and made his own kiln. In 1712 a nobleman began patronizing his kiln, he moved to the east area of Kyoto. He was one of the greatest [[ceramics (art)|ceramicists]] of the [[Edo period|Tokugawa]] era. In 1713, he moved to Edo where he also spent the rest of his life.
Ogata Kenzan produced a distinctive style of freely brushed grasses, blossoms, and birds as decorative motifs for pottery. His pieces were noted for their perfect relation between design and shape. He often collaborated on the decoration of pottery with his older brother, [[Ogata Kōrin]], after whom the style known as [[Rinpa school|Rinpa]] was named.
[[Bernard Leach]], the British studio potter, wrote a book about Ogata Kenzan in 1966 entitled ''Kenzan and his Tradition'', published by Faber & Faber in London.
==Gallery==
{{Gallery
|title=Selected works by Ogata Kenzan
|align=center
|File:KENZAN camellia bowls retouch.jpg|Five small glazed pottery bowls
|File:Ogata Kenzan - Evening Glories - Google Art Project.jpg|Hanging scroll; ink, color, and gold on paper painting of [[Ipomoea|evening glories]]
|File:Chrysanthemums by Shinsei-Ethno BHM 305-P6141091-gradient.jpg|Netsuke depicting chrysanthemums
}}
==External links==
{{commonscat-inline}}
*[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/153737 Bridge of dreams: the Mary Griggs Burke collection of Japanese art], a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Ogata Kenzan (see index)
*[http://www.miho.jp/booth/html/plaart0409/18_01e.htm Pottery works by Ogata Kenzan]
*[https://www.kimbellart.org/Collections/Collections-Detail.aspx?P=&TypeID=&Focus=&cid=8574&prov=true&cons=true#prov Bowl with bamboo leaf design at Kimball Art Museum]
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=Kamisaka Sekka=
[[File:Kamisaka Sekka, Аutumn Maple, late 19th.jpg|thumb]]
{{nihongo|'''Kamisaka Sekka'''|神坂 雪佳|extra=1866–1942}} was an important artistic figure in early twentieth-century [[Japan]]. Born in [[Kyoto]] to a [[Samurai]] family, his talents for art and design were recognized early. He eventually allied himself with the traditional [[Rinpa]] school of art. He is considered the last great proponent of this artistic tradition.<ref name="Source1">{{cite book|last1=Birmingham Museum of Art |title=Birmingham Museum of Art: Guide to the Collection |publisher=GILES |year=2010 |location=London, UK |pages=50 |url=http://www.birminghammuseumstore.org/gutoco.html |accessdate=2011-06-09 |isbn=978-1-904832-77-5 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910171202/http://www.birminghammuseumstore.org/gutoco.html |archivedate=2011-09-10 |df= }}</ref> Sekka also worked in lacquer and in a variety of other media.
[[Image:Sekka1.jpg|thumb|From the series ''A World of Things'', 1909–1910]]
As traditional Japanese styles became unfashionable (such as Rimpa style), Japan implemented policies to promote the country's unique artistic style by upgrading the status of traditional artists who infused their craft with a dose of modernism. In 1901, Sekka was sent by the Japanese government to Glasgow where he was heavily influenced by [[Art Nouveau]].<ref name="Source2">{{cite web | url = http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/exhibition/Sekka | title = A World of Things by Kamisaka Sekka | accessdate = 2011-06-09 | date = April 14 – July 1, 2007 | publisher = The Art Institute of Chicago}}</ref> He sought to learn more about the Western attraction to [[Japonism]], and which elements or facets of Japanese art would be more attractive to the West. Returning to Japan, he taught at the newly opened Kyoto Municipal School of Arts and Crafts, experimented with Western tastes, styles, and methods, and incorporated them into his otherwise traditional Japanese-style works.<ref name="Source2"/> While he sticks to traditional Japanese subject matter, and some elements of Rimpa painting, the overall effect is very Western and modern. He uses bright colors in large swaths, his images seeming on the verge of being patterns rather than proper pictures of a subject; the colors and patterns seem almost to "pop", giving the paintings an almost three-dimensional quality.
==''Momoyagusa''==
[[Image:Momoyagusa1-Kamisaka Sekka-BMA.jpg|thumb|left|A woodblock print from Kamisaka Sekka's series ''Momoyagusa'']]
''Momoyagusa (A World of Things)'' is considered Sekka's woodblock-print masterpiece. The three-volume set was commissioned between 1909 and 1910 by the publishing firm Unsōdō of Kyoto.<ref name="Source1"/> The Japanese name of the series can first be found in the eighth-century poetic text ''Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves'' (''[[Man'yōshū]]''), which refers to a multi-leaved autumnal herb (''momoyogusa''), possibly a chrysanthemum or wormwood.<ref name="Source2"/> The sixty image work displays a variety of landscapes, figures, classical themes, and innovative subjects, captured in a small space. They show Sekka's complete mastery of traditional Rimpa style, as well as combining his own approach and understanding of the innovations influencing Japan at the time.<ref name="Source1"/>
==See also==
[http://www.emuseum.or.jp/press/img/rimpa_10_press.pdf The pamphlet of the exhibition of Kamisaka(2007.9.22)](pdf)
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{commonscat | Kamisaka Sekka}}
*[http://www.artsbma.org/collectionitemdetails?searchlayout=grid&showform=0&ordering=popular&searchphrase=exact&areas%5B0%5D=portfolio&searchcollection=Japanese%20Art&areas%5B%5D=portfolio&searchlayout=details&limit=1&start=0/ Sekka's ''Harunotamo (Fields in Spring)'' at the Birmingham Museum of Art]
*[http://www.artsbma.org/collectionitemdetails?searchlayout=grid&showform=0&ordering=popular&searchphrase=exact&areas%5b0%5d=portfolio&searchcollection=Japanese%20Art&areas%5b%5d=portfolio&searchlayout=details&limit=1&start=1/ Sekka's ''Hotei (One of the Seven Gods of Good Fortune) at the Birmingham Museum of Art]
*'Birds, flowers and figures on scattered fans' [http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/work/219.2011.a-b/] Collection of the Art Gallery of New South Wales.
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=Seni lukis Nepal=
[[File:Mandala of Chandra, God of the Moon.jpg|thumb|Mandala of Chandra, God of the Moon, A late 14th–early 15th-century painting]]
'''Nepalese Painting''' marks the beginning with the religious paintings of Hindu and Buddhist culture. Those traditional paintings can be found in the form of either wall paintings, cloth paintings or manuscripts. They used conservative technique, style, and iconography in their works for centuries.<ref name="Met">{{cite web|last1=Brown|first1=Kathryn Selig|title=Nepalese Painting|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nepp/hd_nepp.htm|publisher=[[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]]|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref>
Nepalese paintings believed to have embraced western influences after 1850 with a work of Bhajuman [Chitrakar], a traditional artist who became acquainted with western Realism after visiting Europe. Bhajuman, also known as Bhajumacha Chitrakar, was a court painter of [[Jung Bahadur Rana]], who visited Europe in 1850 after becoming Prime Minister of Nepal. As a member of the new Prime Minister's entourage, Bhajuman also visited Paris and London. Soon after the return, western Realism supposedly influenced Bhajuman's paintings, marking the start of modern trend. An unsigned painting - supposedly to have painted by Bhajuman - depicts a Thapa General in a full military regalia.<ref>Tej Bahadur Chitrakar icon of transition by Madan Chitrakar 2004</ref> This painting remained a pivotal example of considerable departure from an established traditional school of Nepali painting to western school of art practice. However, the recent discovery of the illustrations by [[Raj Man Singh Chitrakar]] (1797-1865) for his patron a British Resident [[Brian Houghton Hodgson]], sheds light on the western Realism entering Nepal way before the influences brought in by Bhajuman Chitrakar.<ref>http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/art-nature-imaging/collections/art-themes/india/more/owl_more_info.htm</ref>
==7th to 19th century paintings of Nepal==
[[File:Kesh chandra and sister.jpg|thumb|Kesh Chandra (A mythical character in the folklore in Kathmandu) and his sister; A picture dated 1223 AD]]
[[Madhubani - Mithila Painting|Mithila Painting]] is practiced in the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]] of [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. This tradition dates back to the 7th century AD. Mithila painting is done with twigs, fingers, natural dyes and pigments. Artists make pictures of natural objects like sun, moon, and deities from mythological epics, royal courts, and weddings.<ref name="madhu">{{cite news|last1=Mathew|first1=Soumya|title=Madhubani art: Why painting is integral to women’s existence|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/madhubani-art-why-painting-is-integral-to-womens-existence-4707034/|accessdate=19 November 2017|publisher=Indianexpress.com}}</ref> Researchers have discovered much Buddhist art in caves of [[Mustang]] area which dates back to 12 century or earlier. <ref name="NG">{{cite news|last1=Mehta|first1=Aalok|title=Photo in the News: "Stunning" Buddha Art Found in Nepal Cliff|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070507-buddha-pictures.html|accessdate=19 November 2017|publisher=Nationalgeographic.com|date=May 7, 2007}}</ref> Style, technique, materials and subject of painting differed with the ethnic origin of the artists. Artists from the Newar community made most of the paintings that illuminated Buddhist manuscripts and book covers as well as devotional paintings on cloth. Newari artists were renowned throughout Asia for the high quality of their workmanship.<ref name="Met">{{cite web|last1=Brown|first1=Kathryn Selig|title=Nepalese Painting|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nepp/hd_nepp.htm|publisher=[[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]]|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Newari painting style 'Beri' was famous in Tibet. Beri was adopted as Tibet’s universal painting style in the 14th century.<ref name="RUBI">{{cite web|last1=Jackson|first1=David|title=THE NEPALESE LEGACY IN TIBETAN PAINTING|url=http://rubinmuseum.org/events/exhibitions/the-nepalese-legacy-in-tibetan-painting|website=rubinmuseum.org|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref>
==Nepalese Painting 1900-1950==
The remarkable entry of the western school of art practice is noticed in Nepali painting only after the return of two young artists [[Tej Bahadur Chitrakar]] 1898-1971 and Chandra Man Singh Maskey in late 1920s. They both joined Government School of Art in Calcutta to learn to paint by observing life and nature-concept of tonal effects, colors and the most important - the application and the use of modern paint mediums like oil, water, charcoal, pastel etc.<ref>Tej Bahadur Chitrakar icon of transition by Mkadan Chitrakar 2004</ref> Very few works of Chandra Man Singh Maskey are accessible to the public. However with the publication of the book Tej Bahadur Chitrakar - icon of transition written by his heir Madan Chitrakar in 2004 and a grand post-humous retrospective of Tej Bahadur Chitrakar "Images of a Lifetime--: A Historical Perspective" organised by Siddhartha Art Gallery in 2005<ref>Images of a Lifetime--: A Historical Perspective, 20th November-5th December 2005, Siddhartha Art Gallery, 2005</ref> have emphasised on his contribution for the development of Nepali painting. Tej Bahadur Chitrakar played an important role practising in both traditional Nepali art as well as western ways of painting. Simultaneously he is also fondly remembered as a dedicated teacher who shared his knowledge to many aspiring artists of his time. Under the tutelage of Tej Bahadur, Dil Bahadur Chitrakar versed himself in various paint mediums especially pastel techniques whilst Amar Chitrakar became an expert in water color and oil and became one of the beloved Nepali artists.
==Nepalese Painting 1950-1990==
The arrival of [[Lain Singh Bangdel]] (1919–2002) in 1961 marks as an introduction to Modern Art in Nepal. He brought with him, the exposure to Modern art movements from Paris to a country which was slowly opening to the world only after 1950s. With the patronage of King Mahendra, Lain Singh Bangdel introduced abstract art to the Nepali audience. In 1972 he was appointed as an academician of Royal Nepal Academy by King Birendra.<ref>[[Lain Singh Bangdel]]</ref>
Juddha Kala Pathshala was the only institute<ref>http://artnepal.net/lalitkala</ref> where art was taught formally during those days. Many of the young enthusiasts opted India to study art under various scholarship programs. After the return of young artists such as Uttam Nepali, Manuj Babu Mishra, Shashi Bikram Shah, Batsa Gopal Baidhya, Krishna Manandhar, Rama Nanda Joshi, [[Thakur Prasad Mainali]], Deepak Shimkhada, [[Sushma Shimkhada]], Pramila Giri, Indra Pradhan, Karna Narsingh Rana, Shashi Kala Tiwari, Nepali art flourished into a collective modern phase. Artists like Kiran Manandhar, Karna Maskey, Ragini Upadhyay, Uma Shankar Shah, Pramesh Adhikari, Yuwak Tuladhar, K.K. Karmacharya, Birendra Pratap Singh, Surendra Bhattarai, Sharad Ranjit succeeded as a young and vibrant generation during 1980s. K.K.Karmacharya had more worked to stretch out as new technique, collage and assemblage cf popular in Europe, in Nepal. Durga Baral practising in isolation in his home town Pokhara<ref>http://nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=1891</ref> came as a surprise with his first solo exhibition in 1983 "Chowk ra Tamsuk". Though a self practised artist, his mastery in skill and execution surpassed many of his contemporaries. Karna Maskey passed away on September 14, 2016
==References==
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[[Category:History of medicine in India]]
[[Kategori:Nepal]]
[[Category:Colonial Goa]]
[[Category:Jesuit Asia missions]]
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