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Baris 1: =Koin kuno di Indonesia= ~~=Seni lukis Nepal=~~ [[File:MET 1998 544 238 1 18.jpeg\|thumb\|right\|1 masa koin emas masing-masing 5 milimeter.]] ~~[[File:Mandala of Chandra, God of the Moon.jpg\|thumb\|Mandala of Chandra, God of the Moon, A late 14th–early 15th-century painting]]~~ By the 10th-century, Java had the most complex economies in [[Southeast Asia]]. Despite the importance of rice farming which acts as a king of tax income for the Javanese courts, the influx of sea trade in Asia between the 10th and 13th centuries forced a more convenient currency to the Javanese economy. During the late 8th-century, a kind of ingots made of gold and silver were introduced. These are the '''Early Indonesian coins'''.{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=99}} '''Nepalese Painting''' marks the beginning with the religious paintings of Hindu and Buddhist culture. Those traditional paintings can be found in the form of either wall paintings, cloth paintings or manuscripts. They used conservative technique, style, and iconography in their works for centuries.<ref name="Met">{{cite web\|last1=Brown\|first1=Kathryn Selig\|title=Nepalese Painting\|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nepp/hd_nepp.htm\|publisher=[[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]]\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Nepalese paintings believed to have embraced western influences after 1850 with a work of Bhajuman [Chitrakar], a traditional artist who became acquainted with western Realism after visiting Europe. Bhajuman, also known as Bhajumacha Chitrakar, was a court painter of [[Jung Bahadur Rana]], who visited Europe in 1850 after becoming Prime Minister of Nepal. As a member of the new Prime Minister's entourage, Bhajuman also visited Paris and London. Soon after the return, western Realism supposedly influenced Bhajuman's paintings, marking the start of modern trend. An unsigned painting - supposedly to have painted by Bhajuman - depicts a Thapa General in a full military regalia.<ref>Tej Bahadur Chitrakar icon of transition by Madan Chitrakar 2004</ref> This painting remained a pivotal example of considerable departure from an established traditional school of Nepali painting to western school of art practice. However, the recent discovery of the illustrations by [[Raj Man Singh Chitrakar]] (1797-1865) for his patron a British Resident [[Brian Houghton Hodgson]], sheds light on the western Realism entering Nepal way before the influences brought in by Bhajuman Chitrakar.<ref>http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/art-nature-imaging/collections/art-themes/india/more/owl_more_info.htm</ref> ==Early development in Central Java== ~~==7th to 19th century paintings of Nepal==~~ In Java, rice farming was still the main occupation of most households in the village. This continued to provide most of the tax income of the Javanese courts. Later in the period, the northern coasts of Java and Bali became the main center of an affluent export trade in local agricultural products and manufactures, as well as spices e.g. [[sandalwood]] from east of Indonesia. These trade brought shipping industry to distant markets e.g. China and India. The increasing intensity of trade called for a convenient currency in the Javanese society.{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=98}} ~~[[File:Kesh chandra and sister.jpg\|thumb\|Kesh Chandra (A mythical character in the folklore in Kathmandu) and his sister; A picture dated 1223 AD]]~~ [[Madhubani - Mithila Painting\|Mithila Painting]] is practiced in the [[Mithila (region)\|Mithila region]] of [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. This tradition dates back to the 7th century AD. Mithila painting is done with twigs, fingers, natural dyes and pigments. Artists make pictures of natural objects like sun, moon, and deities from mythological epics, royal courts, and weddings.<ref name="madhu">{{cite news\|last1=Mathew\|first1=Soumya\|title=Madhubani art: Why painting is integral to women’s existence\|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/madhubani-art-why-painting-is-integral-to-womens-existence-4707034/\|accessdate=19 November 2017\|publisher=Indianexpress.com}}</ref> Researchers have discovered much Buddhist art in caves of [[Mustang]] area which dates back to 12 century or earlier. <ref name="NG">{{cite news\|last1=Mehta\|first1=Aalok\|title=Photo in the News: "Stunning" Buddha Art Found in Nepal Cliff\|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070507-buddha-pictures.html\|accessdate=19 November 2017\|publisher=Nationalgeographic.com\|date=May 7, 2007}}</ref> Style, technique, materials and subject of painting differed with the ethnic origin of the artists. Artists from the Newar community made most of the paintings that illuminated Buddhist manuscripts and book covers as well as devotional paintings on cloth. Newari artists were renowned throughout Asia for the high quality of their workmanship.<ref name="Met">{{cite web\|last1=Brown\|first1=Kathryn Selig\|title=Nepalese Painting\|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nepp/hd_nepp.htm\|publisher=[[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]]\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Newari painting style 'Beri' was famous in Tibet. Beri was adopted as Tibet’s universal painting style in the 14th century.<ref name="RUBI">{{cite web\|last1=Jackson\|first1=David\|title=THE NEPALESE LEGACY IN TIBETAN PAINTING\|url=http://rubinmuseum.org/events/exhibitions/the-nepalese-legacy-in-tibetan-painting\|website=rubinmuseum.org\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> During the late 8th-century money took the form of ingots made of gold and silver. These are the earliest recorded coins in Indonesia. The currency in Indonesia is based on weight; the most common units were the ''[[catty\|kati]]'' of {{convert\|750\|g\|oz}}, ''[[tael\|tahil]]'' of {{convert\|38\|g\|oz}}, ''masa'' {{convert\|2.4\|g\|oz}} and ''kupang'' {{convert\|0.6\|g\|oz}}. These units were legal tender for tax payments. The ''kati'', ''tahil'', ''masa'' and ''kupang'' units remained in use up until the Dutch period. Several trade jargon were introduced in this period, e.g. the Javanese ''wli'', which became the modern Indonesian ''beli'' ("buy"), and the Sanskrit ''wyaya'', modern Indonesian term ''biaya'' ("expenses") appears in two inscriptions both dated 878 AD. The Javanese coins have no parallels with the style of Indian coins. Most of the Javanese coins were found within the Javanese [[Shailendra dynasty\|kingdom of Shailendra]].{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=99}} ~~==Nepalese Painting 1900-1950==~~ The remarkable entry of the western school of art practice is noticed in Nepali painting only after the return of two young artists [[Tej Bahadur Chitrakar]] 1898-1971 and Chandra Man Singh Maskey in late 1920s. They both joined Government School of Art in Calcutta to learn to paint by observing life and nature-concept of tonal effects, colors and the most important - the application and the use of modern paint mediums like oil, water, charcoal, pastel etc.<ref>Tej Bahadur Chitrakar icon of transition by Mkadan Chitrakar 2004</ref> Very few works of Chandra Man Singh Maskey are accessible to the public. However with the publication of the book Tej Bahadur Chitrakar - icon of transition written by his heir Madan Chitrakar in 2004 and a grand post-humous retrospective of Tej Bahadur Chitrakar "Images of a Lifetime--: A Historical Perspective" organised by Siddhartha Art Gallery in 2005<ref>Images of a Lifetime--: A Historical Perspective, 20th November-5th December 2005, Siddhartha Art Gallery, 2005</ref> have emphasised on his contribution for the development of Nepali painting. Tej Bahadur Chitrakar played an important role practising in both traditional Nepali art as well as western ways of painting. Simultaneously he is also fondly remembered as a dedicated teacher who shared his knowledge to many aspiring artists of his time. Under the tutelage of Tej Bahadur, Dil Bahadur Chitrakar versed himself in various paint mediums especially pastel techniques whilst Amar Chitrakar became an expert in water color and oil and became one of the beloved Nepali artists. ===Gold coins=== ~~==Nepalese Painting 1950-1990==~~ [[File:MET 1998 544 240.jpeg\|thumb\|right\|A gold coin of probably the highest denomination of ''ka''.]] The arrival of [[Lain Singh Bangdel]] (1919–2002) in 1961 marks as an introduction to Modern Art in Nepal. He brought with him, the exposure to Modern art movements from Paris to a country which was slowly opening to the world only after 1950s. With the patronage of King Mahendra, Lain Singh Bangdel introduced abstract art to the Nepali audience. In 1972 he was appointed as an academician of Royal Nepal Academy by King Birendra.<ref>[[Lain Singh Bangdel]]</ref> Most gold coins of 9th and early 10th century Java are stamped with the character ''ta'' in [[Nāgarī script\|nagari script]] on one side, an abbreviation of ''tahil''. The same character remain on coins until the [[Kediri Kingdom]] period in the 12th-century.{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=99}} Gold coins were usually made in the shape of cubes, carefully crafted and very uniform and size and gold content. ===Silver coins=== Juddha Kala Pathshala was the only institute<ref>http://artnepal.net/lalitkala</ref> where art was taught formally during those days. Many of the young enthusiasts opted India to study art under various scholarship programs. After the return of young artists such as Uttam Nepali, Manuj Babu Mishra, Shashi Bikram Shah, Batsa Gopal Baidhya, Krishna Manandhar, Rama Nanda Joshi, [[Thakur Prasad Mainali]], Deepak Shimkhada, [[Sushma Shimkhada]], Pramila Giri, Indra Pradhan, Karna Narsingh Rana, Shashi Kala Tiwari, Nepali art flourished into a collective modern phase. Artists like Kiran Manandhar, Karna Maskey, Ragini Upadhyay, Uma Shankar Shah, Pramesh Adhikari, Yuwak Tuladhar, K.K. Karmacharya, Birendra Pratap Singh, Surendra Bhattarai, Sharad Ranjit succeeded as a young and vibrant generation during 1980s. K.K.Karmacharya had more worked to stretch out as new technique, collage and assemblage cf popular in Europe, in Nepal. Durga Baral practising in isolation in his home town Pokhara<ref>http://nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=1891</ref> came as a surprise with his first solo exhibition in 1983 "Chowk ra Tamsuk". Though a self practised artist, his mastery in skill and execution surpassed many of his contemporaries. Karna Maskey passed away on September 14, 2016 [[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Prent voorstellende door Engelse particulieren voor Sumatra geslagen munten TMnr 93-4-9.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Sandalwood decoration or quatrefoil appeared in the silver ingot on the picture below.]] Central Javanese silver coins have very different shape compared with the gold coins. Most silver coins are round and known as "sandalwood flower" coins referring to the four-petaled flower (quatrefoil) found on the reverse. The silver coins lasted from the early 9th until the 14th century. The same flower appears on one side of older silver ingots from central Java; the other side is stamped with a flowing vase design, which is never found on coins. The observe of the sandalwood flower coins are stamped with the nagiri character ''ma'' (abbreviation of ''masa'').{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=99}} Unlike the gold coins, the silver coins changed rapidly. In only one century, the character ''ma'' degenerated very quickly, perhaps because it is different with the Javanese [[Kawi script\|Kawi letter]] for ''ma''. The shape also changed; in the early 10th-century, the shape of one masa changed from a thick and flat coin, to a thin and cup-shaped coin. The silver coins were presumably served as small change. The silver coins were probably created by smiths in the market for use in market transactions.{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=99}} ==References==▼ In Java, beginning at the end of the 10th-century and onwards, more and more Chinese copper coins were imported in greater quantities, as well as Chinese cash and local copies, known as ''pisis''. These coins began to displace the silver alloy coins as small denomination currency. By the mid-14th century, there were so many ''pisis'' in circulation, that the Javanese court recognized them as official currency for tax purposes.{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=99}} ==Sumatran coins== In Sumatra, coins were first minted in the 11th-century. Similar sandalwood flower coins like those in Java were discovered in Sumatra, but more of these were made of gold, [[electrum]], and silver alloy. Several 11th-century sites in Sumatra including [[Barus]], [[Bengkulu]], and [[Muara Jambi]] were abundant of gold coins, while silver is rare. Similar coins were found also in [[South Thailand]]. The Sumatran silver alloy examples are very well made compared with the Javanese silver coins. Curiously, no coins have been found at Palembang, said to be the center of the Sriwijayan economy. This suggests that coins may have had a limited role in the early Sriwijayan economy. International trade might have been conducted either through the mechanism known as [[tributary trade]] or in other form known as administered trade. In administered trade system, equivalencies were established between commodities through diplomatic negotiations rather than bargaining.{{sfn\|Christie\|1996\|p=99}} ==Legacy== The gold [[piloncitos]] of the Philippines are a late offshoot of the Indonesian gold coinage, while the bean-like silver "namo" series, of the Malay isthmus was presumably an offshoot of the silver and may have evolved into the bullet (Pod-Duang) coinage of [[Sukhothai Kingdom\|Sukhothai]] in [[Thailand]].<ref>http://coin.filipinonumismatist.com/2011/06/piloncitos-treasure-of-philippine.html</ref> ==See also== {{commonscat\|Early Indonesian coins}} [[Piloncito]] ==Reference== {{reflist\|30em}} ==Cited works== {{refbegin}} {{cite book \|last=Christie \|first=Jan \|date=1996 \|title=Ancient History \|chapter=The Early Indonesian Economy \|editor-last=Miksic \|editor-first=John \|url= \|location=Singapore \|publisher=Didier Millet \|isbn=9813018267 \|author-link= \|ref=harv}} {{refend}} [[Category:Ancient currencies]] [[Category:Medieval currencies]] [[Category:Modern obsolete currencies]] =Batu Goa= [[File:Goa Stone and Gold Case MET DP116021.jpg\|thumb\|[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/454738 Goa Stone and container], probably from Goa, India, late 17th–early 18th century.]] A '''Goa stone''' is a man-made [[Bezoar\|bezoar]] that is considered to have medicinal and [[Talisman (disambiguation)\|talismanic]] properties.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Goa Stone with Gold Case\|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/454738\|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art\|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Goa stones were manufactured by [[Jesuits]] in the late [[Seventeenth century\|seventeenth century]] in [[Goa]], [[India]], because naturally occurring bezoars were scarce.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Bailly\|first1=Muriel\|title=Foolish Remedies: Goa Stone\|url=https://wellcomecollection.org/articles/foolish-remedies-goa-stone\|website=Wellcome Collection\|publisher=Wellcome Collection\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Their inventor was the Florentine lay brother Gaspar Antonio, and a Jesuit monopoly was confirmed by the Portuguese on March 6, 1691.<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aA5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA317\|title=An Historical and Archæological Sketch of the City of Goa: Preceded by a Short Statistical Account of the Territory of Goa\|last=Fonseca\|first=José Nicolau da\|date=1878\|publisher=Thacker & Company, limited\|year=\|isbn=\|location=\|pages=317\|language=en}}</ref> They were created by combining organic and inorganic materials including hair, shells, tusks, resin, and crushed gems, then shaping the materials into a ball and gilting it. Like [[bezoar]] stones, Goa stones were thought to prevent [[disease]] and cure [[poisoning]].<ref>{{cite web\|title=Bezoar Stone with Case and Stand\|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452963\|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art\|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> They could be administered by shaving off small pieces into a drinkable beverage like [[water]], [[tea]], or [[wine]]. Goa stones were kept in ornate, solid [[gold]] or gilded cases that were believed to enhance the medicinal properties of the stones.<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Grundhauser\|first1=Eric\|title=The Man-Made Gut Stones Once Used to Thwart Assassination Attempts\|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-manmade-gut-stones-once-used-to-thwart-assassination-attempts\|website=Atlas Obscura\|publisher=Atlas Obscura\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> The cases usually featured a busy network of [[filagree]], occasionally adorned with ornaments of animals, including [[monkeys]], [[unicorns]], [[dogs]], and [[parrots]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Ekhtiar\|first1=Maryam\|title=Paradox\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4I_5H5EetEE\|website=YouTube\|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art\|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> ▲== References == <!-- Inline citations added to your article will automatically display here. See https://en.wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/WP:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --> {{reflist}} [[Category:History of medicine in India]] ~~[[Kategori:Nepal]]~~ [[Category:Colonial Goa]] [[Category:Jesuit Asia missions]] [[Category:Containers]]