Pencarian akan Yesus historis: Perbedaan antara revisi
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:''Artikel ini mengenai sejarah penelitian [[Yesus]] secara akademik. Lihat [[Yesus sebagai tokoh dalam sejarah]] dan [[Historisitas Yesus]] untuk pembahasan mengenai bukti sejarah keberadaan Yesus, dan [[:en:Portraits of the historical Jesus|Potret Yesus historis]] untuk potret kehidupan Yesus.''
{{Yesus}}
'''Pencarian akan Yesus historis''' mengacu pada upaya-upaya akademis untuk memberikan suatu [[Yesus sebagai tokoh dalam sejarah|potret Yesus secara historis]].<ref name="AlanP13">{{en}} ''Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee'' by [[:en:Mark Allan Powell|Mark Allan Powell]] (1 Jan 1999) ISBN 0-664-25703-8 pages 13-15</ref> Sejak abad ke-18, tiga pencarian keilmuan terhadap Yesus historis telah berlangsung, masing-masing memiliki karakteristik yang khas dan berdasarkan kriteria penelitian berbeda, yang
Antusiasme yang diperlihatkan selama "pencarian pertama" berkurang setelah kritik dari [[Albert Schweitzer]] pada tahun 1906, yang menunjukkan berbagai kelemahan dalam pendekatan-pendekatan yang digunakan pada saat itu. "Pencarian kedua" dimulai pada tahun 1953 dan memperkenalkan sejumlah teknik baru, tetapi mengalami stagnasi pada tahun 1970-an.<ref name=voorst2/> Pada tahun 1980-an sejumlah akademisi secara bertahap mulai memperkenalkan ide-ide penelitian baru,<ref name=BenQ9/><ref name=Symbol41/> memprakarsai suatu "pencarian ketiga" yang ditandai dengan berbagai pendekatan penelitian terkini.<ref name="voorst2">{{en}} [[:en:Robert E. Van Voorst|Robert E. Van Voorst]] ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence'' Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 pages 2-6</ref><ref name="criteria28">{{en}} ''Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research'' by Stanley E. Porter 2004 ISBN 0-567-04360-6 pages 28-29</ref>
Meskipun terdapat kesepakatan keilmuan secara luas tentang keberadaan Yesus,<ref name=Ehrman285/><ref name="Grantmajority"/> serta suatu konsensus dasar tentang garis besar kehidupan Yesus secara umum,<ref name=AmyJill4 /> potret-potret Yesus yang dibangun dalam pencarian-pencarian ini
== Pencarian pertama ==
Ketika [[:en:Age of Enlightenment|Zaman Pencerahan]] berakhir, banyak sarjana di Eropa mulai berangkat melampaui [[:en:Biblical criticism|analisis tekstual]] dan pengembangan [[Harmoni Injil]] serta mengawali penyusunan biografi Yesus yang biasanya dirujuk sebagai ''Lives of Jesus'' ("Kehidupan Yesus").<ref name=AlanP13/><ref name=BenQ9/> Biografi-biografi ini berupaya untuk mengaplikasikan sejumlah teknik sejarah dalam pengharmonisan versi catatan-catatan Injil dan menghasilkan suatu tinjauan baru mengenai kehidupan Yesus.<ref name=AlanP13/><ref name=BenQ9/> Upaya-upaya konstruksi suatu biografi Yesus kemudian dikenal sebagai "pencarian Yesus historis" ("''quest for the historical Jesus''") yang pertama, suatu istilah yang secara efektif diciptakan oleh buku karya [[Albert Schweitzer]] yang aslinya berjudul ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of Its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede''.<ref name=BenQ9/><ref name=Casey3/>
Schweitzer kemudian menjadi yakin bahwa pencarian Yesus historis adalah sia-sia, maka ia meninggalkan kesarjanaan alkitabiah dan pergi ke Afrika untuk menjadi misionaris dokter di sana.<ref name=BenQ9/>
=== Penyangkalan pencarian pertama ===
Karya Schweitzer didahului oleh buku karya [[:en:Martin Kähler|Martin Kähler]] ''The So-Called Historical Jesus and the Historic Biblical Christ'' yang diterbitkan tahun 1896.<ref name=BenQ9/> Kähler berargumen bahwa tidak mungkin memisahkan Yesus dalam sejarah dengan Kristus yang diimani dan dalam segala hal, sasaran kunci analisis alkitabiah seharusnya untuk lebih mengerti Kristus yang diimani yang telah mempengaruhi sejarah.<ref name=BenQ9/> Karya Kähler menarik bagi baik kaum konservatif dan liberal, dan kombinasi dampaknya dengan buku Schweitzer secara efektif mengakhiri pencarian pertama.<ref name=BenQ9/>
== Periode tidak ada pencarian ==
Kritis terhadap buku Schweitzer tahun 1906 menenggelamkan upaya sebelumnya dalam riset Yesus historis, dan sering dipandang sebagai permulaan periode "tidak ada pencarian" ("''no quest''") yang berakhir sampai kuliah [[Ernst Käsemann]] pada tahun 1953 yang mengawali "pencarian kedua".<ref name= BenQ9/><ref name="Boyd 1995 37">{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=Gregory A. |title=Cynic Sage or Son of God: Recovering the Real Jesus in an Age of Revisionist Replies |url=https://archive.org/details/cynicsageorsonof0000boyd |year=1995 |publisher=Victor Books/SP Publications |location=Wheaton, IL |isbn=1-56476-448-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cynicsageorsonof0000boyd/page/37 37] |postscript=}}</ref> [[Ben Witherington]] menyatakan bahwa di akhir pencarian pertama, riset Yesus historis dianggap mati, meskipun ternyata tidak demikian halnya.<ref name= BenQ9/>
== Pencarian kedua ==
[[Berkas:Bautismo de Cristo por Navarrete el Mudo.jpg|jmpl|180px|[[:En:criterion of embarrassment|Kriteria pemaluan]] yang dikembangkan selama pencarian kedua diaplikasikan pada [[Baptisan Yesus]], digambarkan dalam lukisan ~ tahun 1567 ini yang dibuat oleh [[:en:Juan Fernández Navarrete|Juan Fernández Navarrete]].<ref name="Powell47" />]]
Sementara tanggal tepat dimulainya pencarian pertama atau ketiga dapat dipertanyakan, permulaan pencarian kedua dapat dipastikan tanggal dan tempatnhya, yaitu kuliah [[Ernst Käsemann]] pada tanggal 20 Oktober 1953 berjudul "The Problem of the Historical Jesus", yang disampaikan dalam pertemuan tahunan para alumnus [[Universitas Marburg]] yang seperti Käsemann telah belajar di bawah [[Rudolf Bultmann]].<ref name=AlanP19/><ref name=Zahl23>''The First Christian'' by Paul F. M. Zahl, Eerdmans 2003 {{ISBN|0802821103}} pp. 23–25</ref>
Kuliah Käsemann menandai keberangkatan dari pengajaran bekas profesornya Bultmann yang menekankan teologi dan pada tahun 1926 telah berargumen bahwa riset Yesus historis adalah sia-sia dan tidak perlu; meskipun Bultmann agak mengubah posisi itu dalam bukunya yang kemudian.<ref name=Zahl23/><ref name=Edwin1170/> Käsemann mengajukan posisi bahwa meskipun kitab-kitab Injil dapat ditafsirkan untuk tujuan teologi, mereka masih memuat kenangan historis yang dapat memberikan informasi mengenai Yesus.<ref name=BenQ9/><ref name=AlanP19/> Perspektif ini secara efektif memulai apa yang dikenal waktu itu sebagai "New Quest" ("Pencarian Baru") dan kemudian disebut "pencarian Yesus historis yang kedua".<ref name=BenQ9/> Kebanyakan sarjana yang telibat dalam pencarian kedua adalah orang Jerman atau mereka yang dilatih oleh orang Jerman.<ref name=Symbol41/>
== Pencarian ketiga ==
[[Berkas:Brooklyn Museum - Jesus Teaches the People by the Sea (Jésus enseigne le peuple près de la mer) - James Tissot - overall.jpg|jmpl|280px|"Jesus Teaches the People by the Sea" ("Yesus mengajar orang-orang di tepi danau"), lukisan karya [[James Tissot]], ~ 1890]]
Pencarian kedua mencapai garis datar pada tahun 1970-an dan menjelang tahun 1980-an suatu pencarian ketiga dimulai dan memperoleh pengikut resmi.<ref name="DThiessen6"/><ref name=criteria100 /><ref name=voorst2/> Tidak seperti pencarian kedua, pencarian ketiga tidak mempunyai awal yang pasti dan muncul ketika sejumlah sarjana mengajukan pendekatan-pendekatan baru dalam suatu waktu yang relatif singkat satu sama lain.<ref name=DThiessen6/> Pada tahun 1992 [[N. T. Wright]] menciptakan istilah "Pencarian Ketiga" ("third quest") untuk merujuk pada pendekatan-pendekatan baru ini.<ref name="criteria28"/><ref name=JJohn127>''John, Jesus, and History, Volume 1: Critical Appraisals of Critical Views'' by Paul N. Anderson, Felix Just and Tom Thatcher 2007 {{ISBN|1589832930}} page 127</ref>
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Beyond the previous criteria of [[criterion of multiple attestation|multiple attestation]], [[criterion of dissimilarity|dissimilarity]] (also called discontinuity) and [[criterion of embarrassment|embarrassment]], a number of other criteria have been developed through the third quest.<ref name=criteria100/><ref name=whois35 /> Primary among these are:<ref name=whois35 >''Who Is Jesus?'' by Thomas P. Rausch (Jul 1, 2003) {{ISBN|0814650783}} pages 35-40</ref><ref name=JPM126>[[John P. Meier]] "Criteria: How do we decide what comes from Jesus?" in ''The Historical Jesus in Recent Research'' by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight, Eisenbrauns 2006 {{ISBN|1575061007}} pages 126-142</ref>
:* The criterion of historical plausibility was introduced in 1997.<ref name=criteria100 /> This principle analyzes the plausibility of an event in terms of components such as contextual plausibility and consequential plausibility, i.e. the historical context needs to be suitable, as well as the consequences.<ref name=criteria100 /> In recent research, the criterion of plausibility has found favor among scholars over the [[criterion of dissimilarity]] and accounts that fit the historical context are viewed as more likely to be valid.<ref name=DThiessen6/><ref name="Theissen 1998. p. 11">Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). p. 11</ref>
:* The criterion of rejection and execution was developed in 1985.<ref name=criteria100 /> It is quite different from other criteria and does not directly point to an individual saying or act of Jesus as authentic, but focuses attention on the fact that Jesus was rejected by the Jews and executed by the Romans and then asks what words and deeds would fit into this scenario.<ref name=whois35/><ref name=JPM126/> [[John P. Meier]] stated that this criterion draws attention that a Jesus who did not challenge the authorities of his time would have been unlikely to have been crucified, and thus helps evaluate the sayings of Jesus in that context.<ref name=JPM126/>
:* The criterion of congruence (also called cumulative circumstantial evidence) is a special case of the older criterion of coherence.<ref name=PetrP>Petr Pokorny "Jesus Research as Feedback" ''Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus'' by Tom Holmen and Stanley E. Porter, Brill 2010 {{ISBN|9004163727}} pp. 338–339</ref> The criterion of coherence, also called the criterion of consistency and conformity, looks back at what has already been established as historical, and tests if a new hypothesis is consistent and coherent with what is already known.<ref name=whois35/> Thus this criterion is not simply applied to ancient texts as a star but looks back at the results of modern analysis and considers its coherence and consistency.<ref name=JPM126/> The criterion of congruence lends support to a hypothesis if observations from other data suggest similar conclusions.<ref name=PetrP/>
A new characteristic of the modern aspects of the third quest has been the role of archeology and [[James Charlesworth]] states that few modern scholars now want to overlook the archaeological discoveries that clarify the nature of life in [[Galilee]] and [[Roman Judea|Judea]] during the time of Jesus.<ref name=Charlesworth11 >"Jesus Research and Archaeology: A New Perspective" by James H. Charlesworth in ''Jesus and archaeology'' edited by James H. Charlesworth 2006 {{ISBN|0-8028-4880-X}} pp. 11–15</ref> A further characteristic of the third quest has been its interdisciplinary and global nature of the scholarship.<ref name=ChiltonJacob>''Soundings in the Religion of Jesus: Perspectives and Methods in Jewish and Christian Scholarship'' by [[Bruce Chilton]] Anthony Le Donne and [[Jacob Neusner]] 2012 {{ISBN|0800698010}} page 132</ref> While the first two quests were mostly by European Protestant theologians, the third quest has seen an worldwide influx of scholars from multiple disciplines, e.g. Jewish scholars involved in historical Jesus research have contributed their detailed knowledge of [[Second Temple Judaism]] as the backdrop for the third quest.<ref name=ChiltonJacob/>
==Historical interpretations of Jesus==
{{Main article|Historical Jesus}}
While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus as a historical figure, the portraits of Jesus constructed during the three quests have often differed from each other and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.<ref name=Ehrman285>In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Bart Ehrman]] (who is a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, ''Forged: writing in the name of God'', Harper 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-06-207863-6}}. p. 285</ref><ref name="Grantmajority">[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]] (a [[classicist]]) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." in ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' by Michael Grant 2004 {{ISBN|1898799881}} page 200</ref><ref name=GerdD5>''The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria'' by Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter, Westminster John Knox Press 2002 {{ISBN|0664225373}} page 5</ref><ref>"Historical Jesus, Quest of the." ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. p. 775</ref> [[Amy-Jill Levine]] states that despite the differing portraits, there is a general scholarly consensus on the basic outline of Jesus' life in that most scholars agree that Jesus [[Baptism of Jesus|was baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]], debated Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught in parables, gathered followers and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|was crucified]] by Roman prefect [[Pontius Pilate]].<ref name=AmyJill4 >[[Amy-Jill Levine]] in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton University Press {{ISBN|978-0-691-00992-6}} p. 4: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate"</ref>
The many differences of emphasis among mainstream interpretations in the third quest may be grouped together based on a number of primary interpretations of Jesus as variously an apocalyptic prophet, charismatic healer, cynic philosopher, Jewish Messiah or prophet of social change.<ref name=Cradel124>''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} pp. 124–125</ref><ref name=CambHist23>''The Cambridge History of Christianity'', Volume 1 by Margaret M. Mitchell and Frances M. Young, Cambridge University Press 2006 {{ISBN|0521812399}} page 23</ref> However, there is little scholarly agreement on a single interpretation of his life, or the methods needed to construct it.<ref name=GerdD5/><ref name=Charlesworth2>''Jesus Research: An International Perspective'' (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus) by James H. Charlesworth and Petr Pokorny, Eerdmans 2009 {{ISBN|0802863531}} pages 1-2</ref><ref name=Porter74>''Images of Christ: Ancient and Modern'', by Stanley E. Porter, Michael A. Hayes and David Tombs, Sheffield Academic Press 1997 {{ISBN|0567044602}} page 74</ref> There are also overlapping attributes among the accounts and pairs of scholars which may differ on some attributes may agree on others.<ref name=Cradel124/><ref name=familiar20>''Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth'' by Michael James McClymond, Eerdmans 2004) {{ISBN|0802826806}} pp. 16–22</ref><ref name=CambHist23/> These groupings reflect the essential feature of each portrait and the accounts often include overlapping elements, for example there are a number of scholars, including [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan]] and [[N. T. Wright|Wright]], who are otherwise critical of each other, but whose interpretations agree that Jesus was not "primarily apocalyptic" and still believe that Jesus preached such a message, while others (e.g. [[Marcus Borg|Borg]] and [[Burton L. Mack|Mack]]) differ on that issue.<ref name=familiar20/> The third quest has thus witnessed a fragmentation of the scholarly interpretations in which no unified picture of Jesus can be attained at all.<ref name=GerdD5/><ref name=Charlesworth2/>
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== Lihat pula ==
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{{Reflist|2|refs=
<ref name=AmyJill4 >[[:en:Amy-Jill Levine|Amy-Jill Levine]] in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton University Press {{ISBN|978-0-691-00992-6}} p. 4: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate" ("Ada suatu jenis konsensus mengenai garis besar dasar kehidupan Yesus. Kebanyakan sarjana setuju bahwa Yesus dibaptiskan oleh Yohanes, berdebat dengan sesama orang Yahudi mengenai bagaimana hidup terbaik menurut kehendak Allah, terlibat dalam penyembuhan dan pengusiran roh jahat, mengajar dengan perumpamaan, mengumpulkan pengikut laki-laki dan perempuan di Galilea, pergi ke Yerusalem, dan disalibkan oleh orang Romawi selama pemerintahan gubernur Pontius Pilatus")</ref>
<ref name=Casey3>''Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching'' by Maurice Casey 2010 {{ISBN|0-567-64517-7}} pp. 3–5</ref>
<ref name=Charlesworth2>''Jesus Research: An International Perspective'' (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus) by James H. Charlesworth and Petr Pokorny, Eerdmans 2009 {{ISBN|0802863531}} pages 1-2</ref><ref name=Cradel124>''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} pp. 124–125</ref>
<ref name=Edwin1170>Edwin Broadhead "Implicit Christology and the Historical Jesus" in the ''Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus'' edited by Tom Holmen and Stanley E. Porter, Brill 2010 {{ISBN|9004163727}} pp. 1170–1172</ref>
<ref name=Ehrman285>In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Bart Ehrman]] (who is a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, ''Forged : writing in the name of God'', Harper 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-06-207863-6}}. p. 285</ref>
<ref name=familiar20>''Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth'' by Michael James McClymond, Eerdmans 2004) {{ISBN|0802826806}} pp. 16–22</ref>
<ref name=GerdD5>''The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria'' by Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter, Westminster John Knox Press 2002 {{ISBN|0664225373}} page 5</ref>
<ref name="Powell47">''Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell 1998 {{ISBN|0-664-25703-8}} p. 47</ref>
<ref name=Symbol41>''The Symbolic Jesus: Historical Scholarship, Judaism and the Construction of Contemporary Identity'' by William Arnal, Routledge 2005 {{ISBN|1845530071}} pp. 41–43</ref>
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