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#ALIH [[Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika]]
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[[Image:Map-of-human-migrations.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Salah satu model migrasi manusia berdasarkan [[DNA]] mitokondria]]
'''Asal-usul terkini manusia modern dari Afrika''' adalah model yang kini paling diterima dalam [[paleoantropologi]] untuk menggambarkan asal-usul dan penyebaran dini [[manusia]] modern.<ref name="HavilandPrins2009">{{cite book|author1=William A. Haviland|author2=Harald E. L. Prins|author3=Dana Walrath|coauthors=Bunny McBride|title=The Essence of Anthropology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AmvJ1XtnIQoC&pg=PA90|accessdate=14 June 2011|date=24 February 2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=9780495599814|page=90}}</ref> The theory is called the ''(Recent) Out-of-Africa'' model in the popular press, and academically the ''recent single-origin hypothesis'' (''RSOH''), ''Replacement Hypothesis'', and ''Recent African Origin'' (''RAO'') model. The hypothesis that humans have a single origin (monogenesis) was published in [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[Descent of Man]]'' (1871).<ref name="Lafreniere2010"/> The concept was speculative until the 1980s, when it was corroborated by a study of present-day [[mitochondrial DNA]], combined with evidence based on [[physical anthropology]] of archaic [[specimens]].
Genetic and fossil evidence is interpreted to show that [[archaic Homo sapiens|archaic ''Homo sapiens'']] evolved to [[anatomically modern humans]] solely in [[Africa]], between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago,<ref name="HetheringtonReid2010">{{cite book|author1=Renée Hetherington|author2=Robert G. B. Reid|title=The Climate Connection: Climate Change and Modern Human Evolution|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AAja8FTPF6QC&pg=PA64|accessdate=14 June 2011|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521147231|page=64}}</ref> that members of one branch of ''Homo sapiens'' left Africa by between 125,000 and 60,000 years ago, and that over time these humans replaced earlier human populations such as [[Neanderthals]] and ''[[Homo erectus]]''.<ref name="Meredith2011">{{cite book|author=Martin Meredith|title=Born in Africa: The Quest for the Origins of Human Life|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WrR9OShae2wC&pg=PT148|accessdate=14 June 2011|date=10 May 2011|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=9781586486631|page=148}}</ref> The date of the earliest successful "out of Africa" migration (earliest migrants with living descendents) has generally been placed at 60,000 years ago as suggested by genetics, although attempts at migration out of the continent may have taken place as early as 125,000 years ago according to Arabian archaeology finds of tools in the region.<ref name="Armitage, S., Jasim, S., Marks, A., Parker, A., Usik, V., & Uerpmann, H. (2011). The Southern Route "Out of Africa": Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia ''Science''">, 331 (6016), 453-456 DOI: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1199113 10.1126/science.1199113]</ref>
The recent single origin of modern humans in [[East Africa]] is the predominant position held within the scientific community.<ref name="pmid16826514">{{cite journal | author = Liu H, Prugnolle F, Manica A, Balloux F | title = A geographically explicit genetic model of worldwide human-settlement history | journal = Am. J. Hum. Genet. | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 230–7 | year = 2006 | month = August | pmid = 16826514 | pmc = 1559480 | doi = 10.1086/505436 | quote = Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where '''the near consensus''' on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/sci;308/5724/921g | title = Out of Africa Revisited – 308 (5724): 921g – Science |doi=10.1126/science.308.5724.921g | publisher = Sciencemag.org |date=2005-05-13 |accessdate=2009-11-23}}</ref><ref name="pmid12802315">{{cite journal | author = Stringer C | title = Human evolution: Out of Ethiopia | journal = Nature | volume = 423 | issue = 6941 | pages = 692–3, 695 | year = 2003 | month = June | pmid = 12802315 | doi = 10.1038/423692a | url = }}</ref><ref name="Johanson">{{cite web | url = http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/johanson.html | title = Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa? | author = Johanson D | coauthors = | date = | work = ActionBioscience | publisher = American Institute of Biological Sciences | pages = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="urlModern Humans – Single Origin (Out of Africa) vs Multiregional">{{cite web | url = http://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/origins/migration.htm | title = Modern Humans – Single Origin (Out of Africa) vs Multiregional | author = | coauthors = | date = | work = | publisher = | pages = | accessdate = }}</ref> There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several. A multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory,<ref name="lahr">[http://www.human-evol.cam.ac.uk/Projects/sdispersal/sdispersal.htm Searching for traces of the Southern Dispersal], by Dr. Marta Mirazón Lahr, et al.</ref> which has gained support in recent years from genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence. A growing number of researchers also suspect that "long-neglected [[North Africa]]", was the original home of the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent.<ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6013/20.summary Was North Africa the Launch Pad for Modern Human Migrations?] Michael Balter, science 7 January 2011: 331 (6013), 20–23. [DOI:10.1126/science.331.6013.20]</ref><ref>[http://www.cell.com/AJHG/fulltext/S0002-9297%2811%2900164-9# A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa]. Fulvio Cruciani, Beniamino Trombetta, Andrea Massaia, Giovanni Destro-Bisol, Daniele Sellitto, Rosaria Scozzari, The American Journal of Human Genetics – 19 May 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/104/15/6128.full Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early Homo sapiens], Tanya M. Smith, Paul Tafforeau, Donald J. Reid, Rainer Grün, Stephen Eggins, Mohamed Boutakiout, Jean-Jacques Hublin, doi: 10.1073/pnas.0700747104 PNAS April 10, 2007 vol. 104 no. 15 6128–6133</ref>
The major competing hypothesis is the [[multiregional origin of modern humans]], which envisions a wave of ''Homo sapiens'' migrating from Africa and interbreeding with local ''[[Homo erectus]]'' populations in multiple regions of the globe. Most multiregionalists still view Africa as a major wellspring of human genetic diversity, but allow a much greater role for hybridization.<ref name="JurmainKilgore2008">{{cite book|author1=Robert Jurmain |author2=Lynn Kilgore |author3=Wenda Trevathan |title=Essentials of Physical Anthropology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TSaSPza9LMYC&pg=PA266 |accessdate=14 June 2011 |date=20 March 2008 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9780495509394 |pages=266–}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=10766948 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200005)112:1<129::AID-AJPA11>3.0.CO;2-K}}</ref>
==History of the theory==
{{See|Timeline of human evolution}}
[[Image:Age-of-Man-wiki.jpg|thumb|[[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]]'s Paleontological Tree of Vertebrates (c. 1879).</br>''The evolutionary history of [[species]] has been described as a "[[phylogenetic tree|tree]]", with many branches arising from a single trunk. While Haeckel's tree is somewhat outdated, it illustrates clearly the principles that more complex modern reconstructions can obscure.'']]
With the [[History of anthropology|development of anthropology]] in the early 19th century, scholars disagreed vigorously about different theories of human development. Those such as [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] and [[James Cowles Pritchard]] held that since [[creation myth|the creation]], the various [[Race (classification of human beings)|human races]] had developed as different varieties sharing descent from one people ([[monogenesis|monogenism]]). Their opponents, such as [[Louis Agassiz]] and [[Josiah C. Nott]], argued for [[polygenism]], or the separate development of human races as separate species or had developed as separate species through [[transmutation of species]] from apes, with no common ancestor.
[[Charles Darwin]] was one of the first to propose [[common descent]] of living organisms, and among the first to suggest that all humans had in common ancestors who lived in Africa.<ref name="Lafreniere2010">{{cite book|author=Peter Lafreniere|title=Adaptive Origins: Evolution and Human Development|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3F-Ms0mWKVYC&pg=PA90|accessdate=14 June 2011|date=22 September 2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780805860122|page=90}}</ref> In the ''[[Descent of Man]]'', he speculated that humans had descended from apes which still had small brains but walked upright, freeing their hands for uses which favoured intelligence. Further, he thought such apes were African:<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=213}}</ref>
{{quote|In each great region of the world the living [[mammals]] are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the [[gorilla]] and [[chimpanzee]]; and as these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape nearly as large as a man, namely the [[Dryopithecus]] of Lartet, which was closely allied to the anthropomorphous [[Hylobates]], existed in Europe during the [[Upper Miocene]] period; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale.|Charles Darwin|Descent of Man<ref>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=212 |title=The descent of man Chapter 6 – On the Affinities and Genealogy of Man |publisher=Darwin-online.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2011-01-11}}</ref>}}
The prediction was insightful, because in 1871 there were hardly any human fossils of ancient hominids available. Almost fifty years later, Darwin's speculation was supported when anthropologists began finding numerous fossils of ancient small-brained hominids in several areas of Africa ([[list of hominina fossils]]).
The debate in anthropology had swung in favour of monogenism by the mid-20th century. Isolated proponents of polygenism held forth in the mid-20th century, such as [[Carleton S. Coon|Carleton Coon]], who hypothesized as late as 1962 that ''Homo sapiens'' arose five times from ''Homo erectus'' in five places.<ref>Jackson Jr., John P. (2001). ''[http://comm.colorado.edu/jjackson/research/coon.pdf "In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's ''The Origin of Races''], University of Colorado</ref> The "Recent African origin" of modern humans means "single origin" (monogenism) and has been used in various contexts as an antonym to polygenism. With the advent of [[archaeogenetics]] in the 1990s, scientists were able to date the "out of Africa" migration with some confidence.
In 2000, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence of "[[Mungo Man|Mungo Man 3]]" (LM3) of ancient Australia was published indicating that Mungo Man was an extinct subspecies that diverged before the most recent common ancestor of contemporary humans. The results, if correct, supports the [[multiregional origin of modern humans]] hypothesis.<ref name="pmid11209053">{{cite journal | author = Adcock GJ, Dennis ES, Easteal S, Huttley GA, Jermiin LS, Peacock WJ, Thorne A | title = Mitochondrial DNA sequences in ancient Australians: Implications for modern human origins | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 98 | issue = 2 | pages = 537–42 | year = 2001 | month = January | pmid = 11209053 | pmc = 14622 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.98.2.537 | url = |bibcode = 2001PNAS...98..537A }}</ref><ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=99257&page=1 Australia Challenges Out-of-Africa Theory] [[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] January 9, 2003</ref> This work was later questioned<ref name="pmid11388352">{{cite journal | author = Cooper A, Rambaut A, Macaulay V, Willerslev E, Hansen AJ, Stringer C | title = Human origins and ancient human DNA | journal = Science | volume = 292 | issue = 5522 | pages = 1655–6 | year = 2001 | month = June | pmid = 11388352 | doi = 10.1126/science.292.5522.1655 | url = }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The thermal history of human fossils and the likelihood of successful DNA amplification |doi=10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00106-4 |url=http://www.eva.mpg.de/evolution/staff/c_smithpdf/Smith_et_al_Therma_ageJHE03.pdf |format=PDF|year=2003|author=Chamberlain, C |journal = Journal of Human Evolution|volume=45|pages=203–17|pmid=14580590|last2=Chamberlain|first2=AT|last3=Riley|first3=MS|last4=Stringer|first4=C|last5=Collins|first5=MJ|issue=3}}</ref> and explained by W. James Peacock, leader of the team who sequenced Mungo man's [[aDNA|ancient mtdna]].<ref name="Schiller2010">{{cite book|author=Jon Schiller|title=Human Evolution: Neanderthals & Homosapiens|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3Huo_r-w2WcC&pg=PA66|accessdate=29 November 2011|date=1 April 2010|publisher=CreateSpace|isbn=978-1-4515-4608-8|page=66}}</ref>
The question of whether there was inheritance of other typological (not ''de facto'') ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' subspecies into the ''Homo sapiens'' genetic pool is debated.
==Early Homo sapiens==
{{Main|Anatomically modern humans|Archaic Homo sapiens}}
[[File:Sapiens neanderthal comparison.jpg|thumb|left|Anatomical comparison of the skulls of a modern human (left) and ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' (right).]]
''Anatomically modern humans'' originated in Africa about 250,000 years ago. The trend in [[Cranial capacity|cranial expansion]] and the [[acheulean]] elaboration of stone tool technologies which occurred between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle [[Pleistocene]] (around 250,000 years ago) provide evidence for a transition from ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'' to ''H. sapiens''.<ref name="DelsonTattersall2000">{{cite book|author1=Eric Delson|author2=Ian Tattersall|author3=John A. Van Couvering|title=Encyclopedia of human evolution and prehistory|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E8z9YZZiKHgC&pg=PA677|accessdate=14 June 2011|year=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780815316961|page=677–}}</ref> In the Recent African Origin (RAO) scenario, migration within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed ''H. erectus''.
''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'', found at site [[Middle Awash]] in Ethiopia, lived about 160,000 years ago.<ref name="pmid12802332">{{cite journal | author = White TD, Asfaw B, DeGusta D, Gilbert H, Richards GD, Suwa G, Howell FC | title = Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia | journal = Nature | volume = 423 | issue = 6941 | pages = 742–7 | year = 2003 | month = June | pmid = 12802332 | doi = 10.1038/nature01669 | url = }}</ref> It is the oldest known anatomically modern human and classified as an [[Extinction|extinct]] subspecies.<ref>{{cite web|title=160,000-year-old fossilized skulls uncovered in Ethiopia are oldest anatomically modern humans|url=http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml|publisher=University of California, Berkeley|year=2003}}</ref> Fossils of early ''Homo sapiens'' were found in [[Qafzeh]] cave in [[Israel]] and have been dated to 80,000 to 100,000 years ago. However these humans seem to have either become extinct or retreated back to Africa 70,000 to 80,000 years ago, possibly replaced by south bound Neanderthals escaping the colder regions of ice age Europe.<ref name="Finlayson2009">{{cite book|author=Clive Finlayson|title=The humans who went extinct: why Neanderthals died out and we survived|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EzBV3OPb5mAC&pg=PA68|accessdate=14 June 2011|date=11 October 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press US|isbn=9780199239184|page=68}}</ref> Hua Liu & al. analyzing autosomal microsatellite markers dates to c. 56,000±5,700 years ago [[mtDNA]] evidence. He interprets the [[paleontological]] fossil of early modern human from [[Jebel Qafzeh remains|Qafzeh cave]] as an isolated early offshoot that retracted back to Africa.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal | author = Liu H, Prugnolle F, Manica A, Balloux F | title = A geographically explicit genetic model of worldwide human-settlement history | journal = Am. J. Hum. Genet. | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 230–7 | year = 2006 | month = August | pmid = 16826514 | pmc = 1559480 | doi = 10.1086/505436 | ref = harv }}</ref>
All other fossils of fully modern humans outside Africa have been dated to more recent times. The oldest well dated fossils found outside Africa are from [[Mungo Lake remains|Lake Mungo, Australia]], and have been dated to about 42,000 years ago.<ref name = "pmid1259451">{{cite journal| author = Bowler JM, Johnston H, Olley JM, Prescott JR, Roberts RG, Shawcross W, Spooner NA. |title = New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia | journal = Nature |volume = 421 |issue = 6925 | year = 2003 | pages = 837–40 | pmid = 1259451 | doi = 10.1038/nature01383 | url=| ref = harv }}</ref><ref name = "doisj.quascirev.2005.07.022">{{cite journal| author = Olleya JM, Roberts RG, Yoshida H and Bowler JM |title =Single-grain optical dating of grave-infill associated with human burials at Lake Mungo, Australia | journal =Quaternary Science Reviews |volume = 25 |issue =19–20 | year = 2006 | pages = 2469–2474 | pmid = | doi = 10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.07.022 | url=| ref = harv |bibcode = 2006QSRv...25.2469O }}</ref> The [[Tianyuan man|Tianyuan cave]] remains in Liujiang region China have a probable date range between 38,000 and 42,000 years ago. They are most similar in morphology to [[Minatogawa Man]], modern humans dated between 17,000 and 19,000 years ago and found on [[Okinawa]] Island, Japan.<ref name="pmid19581579">{{cite journal | author = Hu Y, Shang H, Tong H, Nehlich O, Liu W, Zhao C, Yu J, Wang C, Trinkaus E, Richards MP | title = Stable isotope dietary analysis of the Tianyuan 1 early modern human | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 106 | issue = 27 | pages = 10971–4 | year = 2009 | month = July | pmid = 19581579 | pmc = 2706269 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0904826106 | ref = harv | bibcode=2009PNAS..10610971H}}</ref><ref name="pmid1357698">{{cite journal | author = Brown P | title = Recent human evolution in East Asia and Australasia | journal = Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. | volume = 337 | issue = 1280 | pages = 235–42 | year = 1992 | month = August | pmid = 1357698 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.1992.0101 | ref = harv }}</ref> However, others have dated Liujang Man to 111,000 to 139,000 years before the present.<ref name="pmid12473485">{{cite journal | author = Shen G, Wang W, Wang Q, Zhao J, Collerson K, Zhou C, Tobias PV | title = U-Series dating of Liujiang hominid site in Guangxi, Southern China | journal = J. Hum. Evol. | volume = 43 | issue = 6 | pages = 817–29 | year = 2002 | month = December | pmid = 12473485 | doi = | ref = harv }}</ref>
Beginning about 100,000 years ago evidence of more sophisticated technology and artwork begins to emerge and by 50,000 years ago fully [[Behavioral modernity|modern behaviour]] becomes more prominent. Stone tools show regular patterns that are reproduced or duplicated with more precision while tools made of bone and antler appear for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/stones.html |title=Ancestral tools |publisher=Handprint.com |date=1999-08-01 |accessdate=2011-01-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~rquinlan/mptoup.htm |title=Middle to upper paleolithic transition |publisher=Wsu.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-01-11}}</ref>
==Genetic reconstruction==
{{See|Most recent common ancestor|Archaeogenetics}}
Two pieces of the [[human genome]] are quite useful in deciphering human history: [[mitochondrial DNA]] and the [[Y chromosome]]. These are the only two parts of the genome that are not shuffled about by the evolutionary mechanisms that generate diversity with each generation: instead, these elements are passed down intact. According to the hypothesis, all people alive today have inherited the same Mitochondria<ref name="isbn1-56414-953-6">{{cite book | author = Jones, Marie; John Savino | editor = | others = | title = Supervolcano: The Catastrophic Event That Changed the Course of Human History (Could Yellowstone be Next?) | edition = | publisher = New Page Books | location = Franklin Lakes, NJ | year = 2007 | pages = | isbn = 1-56414-953-6 | doi = | url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=tSIa0VQn1NQC&lpg=PA138&dq=all%20%20people%20alive%20today%20have%20inherited%20the%20same%20Mitochondria&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=true | accessdate = }}</ref> from one woman who lived in Africa about 160,000 years ago<ref name="pmid3025745">{{cite journal | author = Cann RL, Stoneking M, Wilson AC | title = Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution | journal = Nature | volume = 325 | issue = 6099 | pages = 31–6 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3025745 | doi = 10.1038/325031a0 | ref=harv |bibcode = 1987Natur.325...31C }}</ref><ref name="pmid1840702">{{cite journal | author = Vigilant L, Stoneking M, Harpending H, Hawkes K, Wilson AC | title = African populations and the evolution of human mitochondrial DNA | journal = Science | volume = 253 | issue = 5027 | pages = 1503–7 | year = 1991 | month = September | pmid = 1840702 | doi = 10.1126/science.1840702 | ref=harv |bibcode = 1991Sci...253.1503V }}</ref> she has been named [[Mitochondrial Eve]]. All men today have inherited their Y chromosomes from a man who lived 140,000 years ago, probably in Africa. He has been named [[Y-chromosomal Adam]]. It is now believed that more men participated in the out of Africa exodus of early humans than women based on comparing non-sex-specific chromosomes with sex-specific ones.<ref name="pmid19098910">{{cite journal | author = Keinan A, Mullikin JC, Patterson N, Reich D | title = Accelerated genetic drift on chromosome X during the human dispersal out of Africa | journal = Nat. Genet. | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 66–70 | year = 2009 | month = January | pmid = 19098910 | pmc = 2612098 | doi = 10.1038/ng.303 | ref=harv }}</ref>
===Mitochondrial DNA===
{{See|Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup}}
[[Image:African Mitochondrial descent.PNG|thumb|250px|right|Map of early diversification of modern humans according to [[Mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] [[population genetics]] ''(see: [[Macro-haplogroup L (mtDNA)|Haplogroup L]])''.]]
The first lineage to branch off from [[Mitochondrial Eve]] is [[Haplogroup L0 (mtDNA)|L0]]. This haplogroup is found in high proportions among the [[san people|San]] of Southern Africa, the [[Sandawe people|Sandawe]] of East Africa. It is also found among the [[Mbuti]] people.<ref name="pmid17194802">{{cite journal | author = Gonder MK, Mortensen HM, Reed FA, de Sousa A, Tishkoff SA | title = Whole-mtDNA genome sequence analysis of ancient African lineages | journal = Mol. Biol. Evol. | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 757–68 | year = 2007 | month = March | pmid = 17194802 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msl209 | ref=harv }}</ref><ref name="pmid10739760">{{cite journal | author = Chen YS, Olckers A, Schurr TG, Kogelnik AM, Huoponen K, Wallace DC | title = mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe-and their genetic relationships to other African populations | journal = Am. J. Hum. Genet. | volume = 66 | issue = 4 | pages = 1362–83 | year = 2000 | month = April | pmid = 10739760 | pmc = 1288201 | doi = 10.1086/302848 | ref=harv}}</ref>
These groups branched off early in human history and have remained relatively genetically isolated since then. [[Haplogroup L1 (mtDNA)|Haplogroups L1]], [[Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)|L2]] and [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|L3]] are descendents of L1-6 and are largely confined to Africa. The macro haplogroups [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|M]] and [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|N]], which are the lineages of the rest of the world outside Africa, descend from L3.
===Y-chromosomal DNA===
{{Main|Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups|Y-chromosome haplogroups by populations}}
The mutations defining macro-haplogroup [[Haplogroup CT (Y-DNA)|CT]] (all Y haplogroups except [[Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)|A]] and [[Haplogroup B (Y-DNA)|B]]) predate the "Out of Africa" migration, its descendent macro-group [[Haplogroup DE (Y-DNA)|DE]] being confined to Africa. The mutations that distinguish Haplogroup [[Haplogroup C (Y-DNA)|C]] from all other descendants of CR have occurred some 60,000 years ago, shortly after the first Out of Africa migration.
[[Haplogroup F (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup F]] originated some 45,000 years ago, either in [[North Africa]] (in which case it would point to a second wave of out-of-Africa migration) or in [[South Asia]]. More than 90% of males not native to Africa are descended in direct male line from the first bearer of haplogroup F.
===Genomic analysis===
Although mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA are particularly useful in deciphering human history, data on the genomes of dozens of population groups have also been studied. In June 2009, an analysis of [[genome]]-wide [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]] data from the [[International HapMap Project]] (Phase II) and [[Center for the Study of Human Polymorphisms|CEPH]] Human Genome Diversity Panel samples was published.<ref name="coopg">{{cite journal | author = Coop G, Pickrell JK, Novembre J, Kudaravalli S, Li J, Absher D, Myers RM, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Feldman MW, [[Jonathan K. Pritchard|Pritchard JK]] | title = The role of geography in human adaptation | journal = PLoS Genet. | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = e1000500 | year = 2009 | month = June | pmid = 19503611 | pmc = 2685456 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000500 | ref = harv | editor1-last = Schierup | editor1-first = Mikkel H. }}</ref> Those samples were taken from 1138 unrelated individuals.<ref name="coopg"/> Before this analysis, [[population genetics|population geneticists]] expected to find dramatic differences among [[ethnic group]]s, with derived [[allele]]s shared among such groups but uncommon or nonexistent in other groups.<ref name="washpost09">{{cite news | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/21/AR2009062101726_pf.html | title = Among Many Peoples, Little Genomic Variety | publisher = The Washington Post | date = June 22, 2009 | accessdate = 2009-06-25 | first=David | last=Brown}}</ref> Instead the study of 53 populations taken from the HapMap and CEPH data revealed that the population groups studied fell into just three genetic groups: Africans, Eurasians (which includes natives of Europe and the Middle East, and Southwest Asians east to present-day Pakistan), and East Asians, which includes natives of Asia, Japan, Southeast Asia, the Americas, and Oceania.<ref name="washpost09"/> The study determined that most ethnic group differences can be attributed to [[genetic drift]], with modern African populations having greater genetic diversity than the other two genetic groups, and modern Eurasians somewhat more than modern East Asians.<ref name="washpost09"/> The study suggested that [[natural selection]] may shape the human genome much more slowly than previously thought, with factors such as migration within and among continents more heavily influencing the distribution of genetic variations.<ref>{{cite web| title= Geography And History Shape Genetic Differences In Humans | url= http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090605091157.htm | publisher=[[Science Daily]] | date= June 7, 2009 | accessdate = 2009-06-25}}</ref>
==Exodus from Africa==
[[Image:Red Sea2.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Red Sea]] crossing]]
By some 70 millennia ago, a part of the bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup
[[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|L3]] migrated from [[East Africa]] into the [[Near East]].
The date of this first wave of "out of Africa" migration has been called into question in 2011, based on the discovery of stone tools in the [[United Arab Emirates]], indicating the presence of modern humans between 100,000 and 125,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apnews.myway.com//article/20110127/D9L0V1284.html |title=Humans may have left Africa earlier than thought |publisher=Apnews.myway.com |date= |accessdate=2011-06-14}}</ref>
Some scientists believe that only a few people left Africa in a single migration that went on to populate the rest of the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.softpedia.com/news/Both-Aborigines-and-Europeans-Rooted-in-Africa-54225.shtml |title=Both Australian Aborigines and Europeans Rooted in Africa |publisher=News.softpedia.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-11}}</ref> based in the fact that only descents of [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|L3]] are found outside Africa. From that settlement, some others point to the possibility of several waves of expansion. For example, [[Spencer Wells|Wells]] says that the early travelers followed the southern coastline of Asia, crossed about 250 kilometers [155 miles] of sea, and colonized Australia by around 50,000 years ago. The [[Australian Aborigines|Aborigines of Australia]], Wells says, are the descendants of the first wave of migrations.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7358868.stm |title= Human line 'nearly split in two' |publisher= BBC News |date= April 24, 2008 | accessdate=2009-12-31 | first=Paul | last=Rincon}}</ref>
It has been estimated that from a population of 2,000 to 5,000 individuals in Africa,<ref>{{cite journal|year=2003|first=et al|last=Zhivotovsky|title=Features of Evolution and Expansion of Modern Humans, Inferred from Genomewide Microsatellite Markers |pmc=1180270|volume=72|issue=5|pmid=12690579|last2=Rosenberg|first2=NA|last3=Feldman|first3=MW|pages=1171–86|doi=10.1086/375120|journal=American journal of human genetics}}</ref> only a small group, possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people, crossed the Red Sea.<ref>{{cite web|year=2008|first=Gary|last=Stix|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-migration-history-of-humans|title=The Migration History of Humans: DNA Study Traces Human Origins Across the Continents|accessdate=2011-06-14}}</ref> Of all the lineages present in Africa only the female descendants of one lineage, [[haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|mtDNA haplogroup L3]], are found outside Africa. Had there been several migrations one would expect descendants of more than one lineage to be found outside Africa. L3's female descendants, the [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|M]] and [[Haplogroup N (mtDNA)|N]] haplogroup lineages, are found in very low frequencies in Africa (although [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)#Haplogroup M1|haplogroup M1]] is very ancient and diversified in [[North Africa|North]] and [[Horn of Africa|Northeast Africa]]) and appear to be recent arrivals. A possible explanation is that these mutations occurred in East Africa shortly before the exodus and by the [[founder effect]] became the dominant haplogroups after the exodus from Africa. Alternatively, the mutations may have arisen shortly after the exodus from Africa.
Other scientists have proposed a Multiple Dispersal Model, in which there were two migrations out of Africa, one across the Red Sea travelling along the coastal regions to [[South Asia|India]] (the Coastal Route), which would be represented by Haplogroup M. Another group of migrants with Haplogroup N followed the Nile from East Africa, heading northwards and crossing into [[Asia]] through the [[Sinai]]. This group then branched in several directions, some moving into Europe and others heading east into Asia. This hypothesis attempts to explain why Haplogroup N is predominant in Europe and why Haplogroup M is absent in Europe. Evidence of the coastal migration is hypothesized to have been destroyed by the rise in sea levels during the [[Holocene]] epoch.<ref name="lahr" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/2/13/comments/comments |title=A single origin, several dispersal hypothesis |publisher=Biomedcentral.com |date=2004-10-29 |accessdate=2011-01-11}}</ref> Alternatively, a small European founder population that initially expressed both Haplogroup M and N could have lost Haplogroup M through random genetic drift resulting from a [[Population bottleneck|bottleneck]] (i.e. a [[founder effect]]).
Today at the [[Bab-el-Mandeb straits]] the [[Red Sea]] is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago sea levels were 70 meters lower (owing to glaciation) and the water was much narrower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell [[middens]] 125,000 years old have been found in [[Eritrea]],<ref name="pmid10811218">{{cite journal | author = Walter RC, Buffler RT, Bruggemann JH, Guillaume MM, Berhe SM, Negassi B, Libsekal Y, Cheng H, Edwards RL, von Cosel R, Néraudeau D, Gagnon M | title = Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial | journal = Nature | volume = 405 | issue = 6782 | pages = 65–9 | year = 2000 | month = May | pmid = 10811218 | doi = 10.1038/35011048 | ref = harv }}</ref> indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by [[beachcombing]].
==Subsequent expansion==
{{Main|Early human migrations}}
[[File:Spreading homo sapiens.svg|thumb|320px|Map of [[early human migrations]]<ref>Literature: Göran Burenhult: Die ersten Menschen, Weltbild Verlag, 2000. ISBN 3-8289-0741-5</ref><br />1. Homo sapiens<br />2. Neanderthals<br />3. Early Hominids]]
From the Near East, these populations spread east to [[Paleolithic South Asia|South Asia]] by 50,000 years ago, and on to [[Prehistoric Australia|Australia]] by 40,000 years ago, ''Homo sapiens'' for the first time colonizing territory never reached by ''Homo erectus''. [[Paleolithic Europe|Europe]] was reached by [[Cro-Magnon]] some 40,000 years ago. East Asia ([[Prehistoric Korea|Korea]], [[Japanese Paleolithic|Japan]]) was reached by 30,000 years ago. It is disputed whether subsequent [[Models of migration to the New World|migration to North America]] took place around 30,000 years ago, or only considerably later, around 14,000 years ago.
The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around the coast of [[Arabia]] and [[Persia]] until reaching India, which appears to be the first major settling point. M is found in high frequencies along the southern coastal regions of [[Pakistan]] and India and it has the greatest diversity in India, indicating that it is here where the mutation may have occurred.<ref name="pmid15339343">{{cite journal | author = Metspalu M, Kivisild T, Metspalu E, Parik J, Hudjashov G, Kaldma K, Serk P, Karmin M, Behar DM, Gilbert MT, Endicott P, Mastana S, Papiha SS, Skorecki K, Torroni A, Villems R | title = Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans | journal = BMC Genet. | volume = 5 | issue = | page = 26 | year = 2004 | month = August | pmid = 15339343 | pmc = 516768 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2156-5-26 | ref = harv }}</ref> Sixty percent of the Indian population belong to [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|Haplogroup M]]. The indigenous people of the [[Andaman Islands]] also belong to the M lineage. The Andamanese are thought to be offshoots of some of the earliest inhabitants in Asia because of their long isolation from mainland Asia. They are evidence of the coastal route of early settlers that extends from India along the coasts of [[Thailand]] and Indonesia all the way to [[Papua New Guinea]]. Since M is found in high frequencies in highlanders from New Guinea as well, and both the Andamanese and New Guineans have dark skin and [[natural hair|Afro-textured hair]], some scientists believe they are all part of the same wave of migrants who departed across the Red Sea ~60,000 years ago in the [[Great Coastal Migration]]. Notably, the findings of Harding et al. (2000, p. 1355) show that, at least with regard to dark [[skin color]], the [[haplotype]] background of Papua New Guineans at [[MC1R]] (one of a number of genes involved in melanin production) is identical to that of Africans (barring a single silent mutation). Thus, although these groups are distinct from Africans at other loci (due to drift, bottlenecks, etc.), it is evident that selection for the dark [[skin color]] trait likely continued (at least at MC1R) following the exodus. This would support the hypothesis that suggests that the original migrants from Africa resembled pre-exodus Africans (at least in skin color), and that the present day remnants of this ancient phenotype can be seen among contemporary Africans, Andamanese and New Guineans. Others suggest that their physical resemblance to Africans could be the result of [[convergent evolution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ehl.santafe.edu/ruhlen.htm |title=Evolution of Human Languages |publisher=Ehl.santafe.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-01-11}}</ref><ref name="pmid12478481">{{cite journal | author = Endicott P, Gilbert MT, Stringer C, Lalueza-Fox C, Willerslev E, Hansen AJ, Cooper A | title = The genetic origins of the Andaman Islanders | journal = Am. J. Hum. Genet. | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 178–84 | year = 2003 | month = January | pmid = 12478481 | pmc = 378623 | doi = 10.1086/345487 | url = }}</ref>
From [[Arabia]] to India the proportion of haplogroup M increases eastwards: in eastern India, M outnumbers N by a ratio of 3:1. However, crossing over into East Asia, Haplogroup N reappears as the dominant lineage. M is predominant in South East Asia but amongst [[Indigenous Australians]] N reemerges as the more common lineage. This discontinuous distribution of Haplogroup N from Europe to Australia can be explained by [[founder effect]]s and [[population bottleneck]]s.<ref name="pmid12840039">{{cite journal | author = Ingman M, Gyllensten U | title = Mitochondrial genome variation and evolutionary history of Australian and New Guinean aborigines | journal = Genome Res. | volume = 13 | issue = 7 | pages = 1600–6 | year = 2003 | month = July | pmid = 12840039 | pmc = 403733 | doi = 10.1101/gr.686603 | ref = harv }}</ref>
==Competing hypotheses==
{{Main|Multiregional origin of modern humans}}
The multiregional hypothesis, initially proposed by Milford Wolpoff, holds that the evolution of humans from ''H. erectus'' at the beginning of the [[Pleistocene]] 1.8 million years BP to the present day has been within a single, continuous worldwide population. Proponents of multiregional origin reject the assumption of an [[species barrier|infertility barrier]] between ancient Eurasian and African populations of ''Homo''. Multiregional proponents point to the fossil record and [[Multiregional origin of modern humans#Genetic evidence|genetic evidence]] in chromosomal DNA. One study suggested that at least 5% of the human modern gene pool can be attributed to ancient admixture, which in Europe would be from the [[Neanderthal]]s.<ref name="Plagnol">{{cite journal | author = Plagnol V, Wall JD | title = Possible ancestral structure in human populations | journal = PLoS Genet. | volume = 2 | issue = 7 | pages = e105 | year = 2006 | month = July | pmid = 16895447 | pmc = 1523253 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.0020105 | quote = ..strong evidence for ancient admixture in both a European and a West African population (p ≈ 10−7), with contributions to the modern gene pool of at least 5%. While Neanderthals form an obvious archaic source population candidate in Europe.. | ref = harv }}</ref> But the study also suggests that there may be other reasons why humans and Neanderthals share ancient genetic lineages.<ref name="pmid20448178">{{cite journal | author = Green RE, Krause J, Briggs AW, ''et al.'' | title = A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome | journal = Science | volume = 328 | issue = 5979 | pages = 710–22 | year = 2010 | month = May | pmid = 20448178 | doi = 10.1126/science.1188021 | laysummary = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8660940.stm | laysource = BBC News |bibcode = 2010Sci...328..710G }}</ref><ref name="pmid20930054">{{cite journal | author = Blum MG, Jakobsson M | title = Deep divergences of human gene trees and models of human origins | journal = Mol. Biol. Evol. | volume = 28| issue = 2| pages = 889–98| year = 2010 | month = October | pmid = 20930054 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msq265 }}</ref>
The strong form of the theory has been further challenged by recent genetic discoveries regarding the non-''Homo sapiens'' [[Denisova hominin]], known from only one sample in Siberia. The sample was found to share 4–6% genetic affinities with modern [[Melanesians]], but not with other extant groups, making hybridisation in Africa very unlikely in this case.<ref>Reich, David; Green, Richard E.; Kircher, Martin; Krause, Johannes; Patterson, Nick; Durand, Eric Y.; Viola, Bence; Briggs, Adrian W. et al. (2010), "Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia", Nature 468 (7327): 1053–1060, doi:10.1038/nature09710</ref>
Other hypothesis see the emergence of Homo erectus outside Africa (in Eurasia)<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/270386/Homo-erectus "Homo erectus"]. Encyclopaedia Britannica.</ref> and then returning to colonize that continent from which his ancestors originated.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980307-7,00.html "How Man Began"]. Time.</ref><ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=planet-of-the-apes "Planet of the Apes"]. Scientific American.</ref><ref>[http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/Faculty/Begun/DSA10%20Begun.pdf "Dispersal patterns of Eurasian hominoids: implications from Turkey"]. David R. Begun, Erksin Güleç & Denis Geraads.</ref>
==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
*[[Hofmeyr Skull]]
*[[Identical ancestors point]]
*[[Sahara pump theory]]
*[[Toba catastrophe theory]]
*[[Behavioral modernity]]
*[[Archaeogenetics of the Near East]]
* [[Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia]]
{{Col-3}}
* [[Genetic history of Europe]]
* [[Genetic history of Italy]]
*[[Genetic history of North Africa]]
*[[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
*[[Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula]]
*[[Genetic history of the British Isles]]
{{Col-3}}
{{Portal box|Molecular Anthropology|Evolutionary biology}}
{{Col-end}}
==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book | author = Bowler, Peter J. | editor = | others = | title = Evolution: The History of an Idea | edition = 3rd | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2003 | pages = | isbn = 0-520-23693-9 | ref = harv | doi = | url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=e2b5B0po8fwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Evolution%3A%20The%20History%20of%20an%20Idea&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true | accessdate = }}
*{{Cite document
| last = Darwin
| first = Charles
| year = 1871
| title =[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]
| edition =1st
| publication-place = London
| publisher =John Murray
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html
| accessdate =2009-09-05
| ref = harv
| postscript = <!--None-->
}}
* {{cite journal | author = Gibbons A | title = Human anthropology. Modern men trace ancestry to African migrants | journal = Science | volume = 292 | issue = 5519 | pages = 1051–2 | year = 2001 | month = May | pmid = 11352048 | doi = 10.1126/science.292.5519.1051b | ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal | author = Underhill PA, Passarino G, Lin AA, Shen P, Mirazón Lahr M, Foley RA, Oefner PJ, Cavalli-Sforza LL | title = The phylogeography of Y chromosome binary haplotypes and the origins of modern human populations | journal = Ann. Hum. Genet. | volume = 65 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 43–62 | year = 2001 | month = January | pmid = 11415522 | doi = 10.1046/j.1469-1809.2001.6510043.x| url = http://www.human-evol.cam.ac.uk/Members/Lahr/pubs/AHG-65-01.pdf }}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/323657.stm Neanderthals 'mated with modern humans'], ''[[BBC News]]'', 21 April 1999
* [http://news-info.wustl.edu/tips/page/normal/6349.html New analysis shows three human migrations out of Africa – Replacement theory 'demolished'], ''[[Washington University in St. Louis]]'', 2 February 2006
*{{anchor|Harding}}{{cite journal | author = Harding RM, Healy E, Ray AJ, Ellis NS, Flanagan N, Todd C, Dixon C, Sajantila A, Jackson IJ, Birch-Machin MA, Rees JL | title = Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R | journal = Am. J. Hum. Genet. | volume = 66 | issue = 4 | pages = 1351–61 | year = 2000 | month = April | pmid = 10733465 | pmc = 1288200 | doi = 10.1086/302863 | ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal | author = Long JC, Kittles RA | title = Human genetic diversity and the nonexistence of biological races | journal = Hum. Biol. | volume = 75 | issue = 4 | pages = 449–71 | year = 2003 | month = August | pmid = 14655871 | doi = 10.1353/hub.2003.0058| url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/human_biology/v075/75.4long.pdf | ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal | author = Risch, N., Burchard, E., Ziv, E. and Tang, H. | year = 2002 | month = | title = Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | pages = comment2007.2001 – comment2007.2012 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007 | ref = harv | pmc = 139378 | pmid=12184798}}
* {{cite journal | author = Tishkoff SA, Kidd KK | title = Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine | journal = Nat. Genet. | volume = 36 | issue = 11 Suppl | pages = S21–7 | year = 2004 | month = November | pmid = 15507999 | doi = 10.1038/ng1438 | ref = harv }}
* {{cite book | author = Cavalli-Sforza F, [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza|Cavalli-Sforza LL]] | editor = | others = | title = The great human diasporas: the history of diversity and evolution | edition = | publisher = Addison-Wesley | location = Boston | year = 1995 | pages = | isbn = 0-201-44231-0 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = | editor = Crow TJ | others = | title = The Speciation of Modern Homo sapiens (Proceedings of the British Academy) | edition = | publisher = British Academy | location = London | year = 2004 | pages = | isbn = 0-19-726311-9 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = Foley R | editor = | others = | title = Humans before humanity: an evolutionary perspective | edition = | publisher = Blackwell | location = Oxford | year = 1995 | pages = | isbn = 0-631-20528-4 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = Olson S | editor = | others = | title = Mapping human history: genes, race, and our common origins | edition = | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | year = 2003 | pages = | isbn = 0-618-35210-4 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = Oppenheimer, Stephen | editor = | others = | title = The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa | edition = | publisher = Carroll & Graf | location = New York, NY | year = 2003 | pages = | isbn = 0-7867-1192-2 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = McKie R, Stringer C | editor = | others = | title = African exodus: the origins of modern humanity | edition = | publisher = Pimlico | location = London | year = 1997 | pages = | isbn = 0-7126-7307-5 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = Sykes, Bryan | editor = | others = | title = [[The Seven Daughters of Eve]]: The Science That Reveals Our Genetic Ancestry | edition = | publisher = Corgi Adult | year = 2004 | pages = | isbn = 0-552-15218-8 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = Wade N | editor = | others = | title = Before the Dawn : Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors | edition = | publisher = Penguin Press HC, The | year = 2006 | pages = | isbn = 1-59420-079-3 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
*{{cite book | author = [[Spencer Wells|Wells S]] | editor = | others = | title = Journey of Man: Genetic Odyssey | edition = | publisher = Random House | year = 2004 | pages = | isbn = 0-8129-7146-9 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite book | author = Wells, Spencer | editor = | others = | title = Deep ancestry: inside the Genographic Project | edition = | publisher = National Geographic | location = Washington, D.C | year = 2006 | pages = | isbn = 0-7922-6215-8 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite journal | author = Manica A, Amos W, Balloux F, Hanihara T | title = The effect of ancient population bottlenecks on human phenotypic variation | journal = Nature | volume = 448 | issue = 7151 | pages = 346–8 | year = 2007 | month = July | pmid = 17637668 | pmc = 1978547 | doi = 10.1038/nature05951 | laysummary = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070718140829.htm | laysource = Science Daily |bibcode = 2007Natur.448..346M }}
* {{cite journal | author = Scholz CA, Johnson TC, Cohen AS, King JW, Peck JA, Overpeck JT, Talbot MR, Brown ET, Kalindekafe L, Amoako PY, Lyons RP, Shanahan TM, Castañeda IS, Heil CW, Forman SL, McHargue LR, Beuning KR, Gomez J, Pierson J | title = East African megadroughts between 135 and 75 thousand years ago and bearing on early-modern human origins | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 104 | issue = 42 | pages = 16416–21 | year = 2007 | month = October | pmid = 17785420 | pmc = 1964544 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0703874104 | laysummary = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071008171121.htm | laysource = Science Daily |bibcode = 2007PNAS..10416416S }}
* {{cite journal | author = Cohen AS, Stone JR, Beuning KR, Park LE, Reinthal PN, Dettman D, Scholz CA, Johnson TC, King JW, Talbot MR, Brown ET, Ivory SJ | title = Ecological consequences of early Late Pleistocene megadroughts in tropical Africa | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 104 | issue = 42 | pages = 16422–7 | year = 2007 | month = October | pmid = 17925446 | pmc = 2034256 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0703873104 | laysummary = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071008171121.htm | laysource = Science Daily |bibcode = 2007PNAS..10416422C }}
* {{cite news | url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article2617296.ece | title = Climate change led mankind out of Africa | author = Smith L | coauthors = | date = 2007-10-09 | work = | publisher = Times Online | pages = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/02/22/MN5RV6L1C.DTL | title = DNA studies trace human migration from Africa | author = Russell S | coauthors = | date = 2008-02-22 | work = | publisher = San Francisco Chronicle | pages = | accessdate = }}
* {{cite journal | author = Serre D, Langaney A, Chech M, Teschler-Nicola M, Paunovic M, Mennecier P, Hofreiter M, Possnert G, Pääbo S | title = No evidence of Neandertal mtDNA contribution to early modern humans | journal = PLoS Biol. | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = E57 | year = 2004 | month = March | pmid = 15024415 | pmc = 368159 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020057 | url = }}
* {{cite book | author = Stringer, Chris | editor = | others = | title = The Origin of Our Species | edition = | publisher = Allen Lane | location = London | year = 2011 | pages = | isbn = 978-1-846-14140-9 | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
*[http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/human-family-tree The Human Family Tree] – by Spencer Wells – National Geographic
*[http://cambridgedna.com/genealogy-dna-ancient-migrations-slideshow.php An mtDNA view of the peopling of the world by Homo sapiens]
* [https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html National Geographic: Atlas of the Human Journey]
* [http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/ Bradshaw Foundation: The Journey of Mankind]
*''Human Evolution''. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/275670/human-evolution
;Documentaries
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_nNNoT4Kbg&playnext=1&list=PLA55314D7BEFFDD62&index=16 DNA Mysteries – The Search for Adam] – by Spencer Wells – [[National Geographic]], 2008
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9wS1za00mMM&feature=&p=A0D41D79D1CE0DBB&index=0&playnext=1 The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa] – by [[Stephen Oppenheimer]] – [[Discovery Channel]], 2002
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OV6A8oGtPc4&feature=PlayList&p=26D4689DBF14F73D&index=0 Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (movie)] by Spencer Wells – [[PBS]] and [[National Geographic Channel]], 2003
{{Human Evolution}}
{{Human genetics}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Recent African Origin Of Modern Humans}}
[[Category:Recent single origin hypothesis|*]]
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