Bahasa Meroi: Perbedaan antara revisi

Periode Meroitik dimulai sekitar tahun 300 SM hingga 350 M. Sebagian besar bukti tertulis bahasa Meroitik, melalui prasasti asli, berasal dari periode tersebut, meskipun beberapa bukti tertulis sebelum dan sesudah periode tersebut juga ditemukan, tetapi hanya berupa kata dan tulisan pendek. Wilayah Kushite membentang dari daerah [[Riam Sungai Nil]] sampai daerah Khartoum di Sudan.<ref>Egyptian rulers recognized the 1st Cataract of the Nile as the natural southern border of ancient Egypt. — Bianchi, Robert Steven. ''Daily Life of the Nubians''. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2004. p.6.</ref> Dapat diasumsikan bahwa penutur bahasa Meroi mencakup sebagian besar wilayah itu berdasarkan [[kontak bahasa]] yang dibuktikan dalam teks-teks Mesir. Pengesahan Meroi dalam Hieroglif Mesir, terbentang di seluruh periode [[Kerajaan Pertengahan Mesir|Kerajaan Pertengahan]], [[Kerajaan Baru Mesir|Kerajaan Baru]], dan [[Periode Menengah Ketiga Mesir|Mengengah Ketiga]], [[Periode Akhir Mesir Kuno|Akhir]], [[Kerajaan Ptolemaik|Ptolemaik]], dan [[Aegyptus (provinsi Romawi)|Romawi]] – masing-masing sesuai dengan [[Kerajaan Kerma|Kerma]] (k. 2600&ndash;1500 SM),<ref>Louis Chaix (2017). Chapter 26: Cattle, A Major Component of the Kerma Culture (Sudan). In: Umberto Albarella with Mauro Rizzetto, Hannah Russ, Kim Vickers, and Sarah Viner-Daniels, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of Zooarchaeology'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017, xxii and 839 pp., 126 figs, 40 tables, online supplementary material, {{ISBN|978-0-19-968647-6}}). p. 414.</ref> [[Napata]] (k. 900/750&ndash;300 SM), dan Meroitik.<ref>"Meroitic was the main language spoken in northern Sudan not only during the time of the Kingdom of Meroe (c. 300 BCE–350 CE), after which it is named, but probably from as early as the time of the Kingdom of Kerma (2500–1500 BCE), as is suggested by a list of personal names transcribed in Egyptian on Papyrus Golenischeff (Rilly 2007b). Similar transcriptions of early Meroitic names are known from some Egyptian texts of the New Kingdom, but such names occur with particular frequency with the rise of the Kushite 25th Dynasty and its Napatan successor state (664–ca. 300 BCE), since the birth names of rulers and other members of the royal family were necessarily written in Egyptian documents. These Napatan transcriptions in Egyptian paved the way for the emergence of a local writing around the second half of the third century BCE." - Claude Rilly (2016). "Meroitic" in ''UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology''. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3128r3sw. p. 1</ref> [[Toponimi]] dan [[antroponimi]] {{angbr|qes}}, {{angbr|qos}}, telah dibuktikan sejak [[Dinasti kedua belas Mesir|Dinasti ke-12]] (k. 2000 SM) di [[Naskah Eksekrasi]] tentang [[Kerma]].<ref>Claude Rilly (2011). Recent Research on Meroitic, the Ancient Language of Sudan. http://www.ityopis.org/Issues-1_files/ITYOPIS-I-Rilly.pdf. Under the sub-heading - The original cradle of Proto-NES: chronological and palaeoclimatic issues. p. 18</ref><ref>Claude Rilly (2007). La langue du royaume de Méroé, Un panorama de la plus ancienne culture écrite d'Afrique subsaharienne, Paris: Champion (Bibliothèque de l'École pratique des hautes études, Sciences historiques et philologiques, t. 344)</ref><ref>Claude Rilly (2004). THE LINGUISTIC POSITION OF MEROITIC. http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213222/http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/projets/clhass/PageWeb/ressources/Isolats/Meroitic%20Rilly%202004.pdf |date=2015-09-23 }}. p. 1</ref><ref>Ahmed Abuelgasim Elhassan. ''Religious Motifs in Meroitic Painted and Stamped Pottery''. Oxford, England: John and Erica Hedges Ltd., 2004. xii, 176 p. BAR international series. p.1.</ref> Nama dan frasa bahasa Meroi muncul di ''[[Kitab Kematian]]'' (Kitab Kemunculan demi Hari) di bab atau mantra "Nubia" (162 – 165).<ref>Leonard Lesko (2003). "Nubian Influence on the Later Versions of the Books of the Dead", in: Zahi Hawass (ed.), ''Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Proceedings of the Eight International Congress of Egyptologists''. Cairo 2003. vol. 1,314-318. https://www.academia.edu/36035303/Nubian_Influence_on_the_Later_Versions_of_the_Book_of_the_Dead</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.jebelbarkal.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75&Itemid=68 | title=III. G. Jebel Barkal in the Book of the Dead | access-date=2022-09-06 | archive-date=2018-06-23 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141303/http://www.jebelbarkal.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75&Itemid=68 | dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>Leonard Lesko (1999). "Some Further Thoughts on Chapter 162 of the Book of the Dead", in: Emily Teeter and John A. Larson (eds.), ''Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente''. SAOC 58. Chicago 158 1999, 255-59.</ref><ref>Leonard Lesko (2006). "On Some Aspects of the Books of the Dead from the Ptolemaic Period". ''Aegyptus et Pannonia'' 3 2006. pp. 151 -159. https://www.academia.edu/36035302/ON_SOME_ASPECTS_OF_THE_BOOKS_OF_THE_DEAD_FROM_THE_PTOLEMAIC_PERIOD</ref> Nama dan leksikon Meroi, dalam naskah Mesir Kuno, paling banyak dibuktikan selama kendali [[Napata]] dari beberapa atau semua bagian Mesir<ref>Peust, Carsten (1999). "Das Napatanische: Ein ägyptischer Dialekt aus dem Nubien des späten ersten vorchristlichen Jahrtausends". ''Monographien zur Ägyptischen Sprache'' 3. Göttingen: Peust & Gutschmidt Verlag. http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/peust1999a</ref> di akhir Periode Menengah Ketiga dan Akhir (k. 750–656 SM).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buzon |first1=Michele R. |last2=Smith |first2=Stuart Tyson |last3=Simonetti |first3=Antonio |title=Entanglement and the Formation of the Ancient Nubian Napatan State |journal=American Anthropologist |date=June 2016 |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=284–300 |doi=10.1111/aman.12524 |s2cid=46989272 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buzon |first1=Michele R. |title=Tombos during the Napatan period (∼750–660 BC): Exploring the consequences of sociopolitical transitions in ancient Nubia |journal=International Journal of Paleopathology |date=December 2014 |volume=7 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2014.05.002 |pmid=29539485 }}</ref> Baik Periode Meroitik dan Kerajaan Kush sendiri berakhir dengan jatuhnya Meroë (k. 350 M), tetapi penggunaan bahasa Meroi berlanjut selama beberapa waktu setelah peristiwa tersebut<ref name=Rilly2008>{{cite book |doi=10.31338/UW.9788323533269.PP.211-226 |chapter=Enemy brothers. Kinship and relationship between Meroites and Nubians (Noba) |title=Between the Cataracts. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference for Nubian Studies Warsaw University 27 August-2 September 2006. Part 1. Main Papers |year=2008 |last1=Rilly |first1=Claude |isbn=978-83-235-3326-9 |s2cid=150559888 }}</ref> karena terdapat [[leksem]] dan ciri-ciri morfologis bahasa Meroi yang dapat dideteksi dalam [[bahasa Nubia Kuno]]. Dua contoh yaitu: Meroitic: {{angbr|m(a)s(a)-l(a)}}<ref>masa (sun) + la (determinant)</ref> berarti "matahari" → Nubia Kuno: ''mašal'' berarti "matahari"<ref name=Rilly2008/><ref>MEROITES AND NUBIANS: TERRITORY AND CONFLICTS: 2.5. Traces of extinct languages in Nile Nubian, p. 222 — https://www.academia.edu/36487671/Claude_Rilly_ENEMY_BROTHERS._KINSHIP_AND_RELATIONSHIP_BETWEEN_MEROITES_AND_NUBIANS_NOBA. There is also Ken(u)z(i): ''masil''. See http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\esu\nub&first=1&off=&text_word=sun for Ken(u)z(i). Further notes, Midob: *massal — proto-Nubian: */b/ or */m/ → Midob: /p/ and Midob: /l/ → /r/.</ref> dan Nubia Kuno: ''-lo'' ([[Fokus (linguistik)|partikel fokus]]) ← Meroi: -{{angbr|lo}} yang terdiri dari dua morfem, -{{angbr|l(a)}} ([[determinativus]]) + {{angbr|o}} ([[kopula]]).<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511920028.006 |chapter=Grammar |title=The Meroitic Language and Writing System |year=2012 |last1=Rilly |first1=Claude |last2=De Voogt |first2=Alex |pages=132–173 |isbn=978-0-511-92002-8 }}</ref> Bahasa tersebut kemungkinan menjadi punah sepenuhnya pada abad ke-6 ketika digantikan oleh [[Bahasa Yunani Abad Pertengahan|Yunani]], [[Bahasa Kubti|Kubti]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khalil |first1=Mokhtar |last2=Miller |first2=Catherine |title=Old Nubian and Language Uses in Nubia |journal=Égypte/Monde arabe |date=31 December 1996 |issue=27–28 |pages=67–76 |doi=10.4000/ema.1032 }}</ref> dan Nubia Kuno.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ochała |first1=Grzegorz |title=Multilingualism in Christian Nubia: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches |journal=Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies |date=10 June 2014 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.5070/D61110007 |s2cid=128122460 |url=https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/djns/vol1/iss1/1/ }}</ref>

Rowan (2006, 2011) mengusulkan bahwa inventarisasi suara dan [[fonotaktik]] bahasa Meroi (satu-satunya aspek bahasa yang aman) mirip dengan [[rumpun bahasa Afroasia]], dan berbeda dari [[rumpun bahasa Nil-Sahara]]. Misalnya, dia mencatat bahwa sangat jarang seseorang menemukan urutan [[Konsonan|K]][[Vokal|V]]K, di mana konsonan (C) keduanya merupakan [[konsonan bibir]] dan [[Konsonan hampiran langit-langit belakang|velar]], mencatat bahwa mirip dengan pembatasan konsonan yang ditemukan di seluruh rumpun bahasa Afroasia, menunjukkan bahwa Meroi mungkin adalah bahasa Afroasia seperti Mesir.<ref name="Rowan2011">{{cite journal|last=Rowan|first= Kirsty |date=2011|title=Meroitic Consonant and Vowel Patterning|journal=Lingua Aegytia|volume= 19 |issue=19|pages= 115–124 |url=http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/12835/}}</ref><ref name="Rowan2006">{{cite journal|last=Rowan|first=Kirsty|date=2006|url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf|title=Meroitic - An Afroasiatic Language?|journal={{abbr|SOAS|School of Oriental and African Studies}} Working Papers in Linguistics|issue=14|pages=169–206|access-date=2022-09-06|archive-date=2015-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227133051/http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-14/file37822.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Semitist Edward Lipiński (2011) juga mendukung asal Afroasia berdasarkan terutama pada kosakata.<ref>https://repozytorium.uni.lodz.pl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11089/4031/No_2_2011.87-104.pdf?sequence=1 {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

**——— (2006) [http://www.eprints.soas.ac.uk/29209/1/ Meroitic: A Phonological Investigation]{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. PhD thesis, SOAS (School of Oriental and African Studies) & Rowan, Kirsty. University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies (United Kingdom), ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2009. 10731304. [https://search.proquest.com/openview/7336a0637f6297187d2ed4da0361892e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y "PhD Thesis"]