Wikipedia

Pengguna:Natsukusha/bak pasir: Perbedaan antara revisi

Jelajahi riwayat secara interaktif
← Revisi sebelumnya
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
VisualTeks wiki
Natsukusha (bicara | kontrib)
Peninjau
2.084 suntingan
Tag: halaman dengan galat skrip Suntingan visualeditor-wikitext
 
(30 revisi perantara oleh 5 pengguna tidak ditampilkan)
Baris 1:
{{Infobox Writing system
{{Redirect|Keamiran Islam Afganistan|negara yang ada dari tahun 1996 hingga 2001|Keamiran Islam Afganistan (1996–2001)|entitas yang menguasai Afganistan|Taliban}}
|name=Aksara Sunda
{{Other uses|Republik Afganistan (disambiguasi)}}
|altname={{script/Sund|ᮃᮊ᮪ᮞᮛᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ}}
{{Infobox country
|type=[[abugida]]
| conventional_long_name = Keamiran Islam Afganistan
|languages=[[Bahasa Jawa Kuno|Kawi]], [[Bahasa Sunda|Sunda]], [[bahasa Cirebon|Cirebon]], [[bahasa Arab|Arab]]
| common_name = Afganistan
|fam1={{hipotesis abjad aram-brahmi}}
| native_name = {{unbulleted list|{{native name|ps|د افغانستان اسلامي امارت|italic=no}}<br />{{small|{{transl|ps|Də Afġānistān Islāmī Imārat}}}}|{{native name|prs|امارت اسلامی افغانستان|italic=no}}<br />{{small|{{transl|prs|Imārat-i Islāmī-yi Afghānistān}}}}}}
|fam2=[[Aksara Pallawa]]
| image_flag = Flag of Taliban.svg
|fam3=[[Aksara Kawi]]
| flag_caption = Flag
|sisters={{keluarga kawi}}
| image_coat = Taliban CoA.svg
|time=abad ke-14 hingga sekarang
| alt_coat = Coat of Arms of the Islamic Emirate <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://law.acku.edu.af/fa/download/file/fa/12686/77746 |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603201955/http://law.acku.edu.af/fa/download/file/fa/12686/77746 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|unicode=[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1B80.pdf U+1B80–U+1BBF]<br>[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1CC0.pdf U+1CC0–U+1CCF]
| national_motto =
|iso15924=Sund
| national_anthem = {{lang|ps|دا د باتورانو کور}}<br />{{transl|ps|Dā də bātorāno kor}}<br />"[[This is the Home of the Brave]]"<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|title=BBCNazer.com {{!}} زندگى و آموزش {{!}} حرف های مردم: سرود ملی|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nazer/lifeandlearning_dari/story/2007/08/070830_ws-aep-pt-national-anthem.shtml|access-date=18 August 2021|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref name="Amirzai">{{Cite web|last= Amirzai |first= Shafiq l|title=د ملي سرود تاریخ {{!}} روهي|url=https://rohi.af/news/35829|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Rohi.Af|language=ps}}</ref><ref name="nunn.asia">{{Cite web|date=16 January 2018|title=ملا فقیر محمد درویش د جهادي ترنم منل شوی سرخیل|url=https://www.nunn.asia/113730/%d9%85%d9%84%d8%a7-%d9%81%d9%82%db%8c%d8%b1-%d9%85%d8%ad%d9%85%d8%af-%d8%af%d8%b1%d9%88%db%8c%d8%b4-%d8%af-%d8%ac%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%af%d9%8a-%d8%aa%d8%b1%d9%86%d9%85-%d9%85%d9%86%d9%84-%d8%b4%d9%88%db%8c/|access-date=18 August 2021|website=نن ټکی اسیا|language=ps}}</ref><ref name="Tharoor">{{Cite news|last=Tharoor|first=Ishaan|date=19 June 2013|title=The Taliban's Qatar Office: Are Prospects for Peace Already Doomed?|magazine=Time|url=https://world.time.com/2013/06/19/the-talibans-qatar-office-are-prospects-for-peace-already-doomed/|access-date=19 August 2021|issn=0040-781X}}</ref>{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:DaBatoranoKor.ogg]]}}
|imagesize=230px
| image_map = Afganistan (orthographic projection).svg
|sample=Old sundanese script.svg
| map_caption =
| capital = [[Kabul]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|34|31|N|69|11|E|region:AF_source:geonames|display=inline,title}}<ref>[{{geonameslink|gnid=1149361|name=islamic-republic-of-afghanistan}} Islamic Republic of Afganistan] in [{{geonamesabout}} Geonames.org (CC BY)]</ref>
| largest_city = Kabul
| languages_type = [[Languages of Afganistan|Major languages]]
| languages = {{hlist|[[Pashto]]|[[Dari Persian|Dari]]}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
| 42% [[Pashtun]]
| 27% [[Tajiks|Tajik]]
| {{figure space}}9% [[Hazaras|Hazara]]
| {{figure space}}9% [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]
| {{figure space}}4% [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]]
| {{figure space}}3% [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]
| {{figure space}}2% [[Baloch people|Baloch]]
| {{figure space}}4% [[Ethnic groups in Afganistan|Others]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_ref = {{Efn|The last census in Afganistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to the [[Afganistan conflict (1978–present)|ongoing conflict]] in the country, no official census has been conducted since.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://afghanistan.unfpa.org/en/node/15230|title = Population Matters|date = 3 March 2016}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/afghanistans-ethnic-mosaic/articleshow/85552093.cms
| title=Afganistan's ethnic mosaic| author=timesofindia| website=[[The Times of India]]| date= 23 August 2021| publisher= | via=}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web | url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/afghanistan-population
| title="Afganistan Population 2021"| author=World Population Review| date= 19 September 2021| publisher= | via=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1258799/afghanistan-share-of-population-by-ethnic-group/
| title=Distribution of Afghan population by ethnic group 2020| author=statista.com| date= 20 August 2021| publisher= | via=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-ethnic-groups-brief-investigation
| title=Afghan Ethnic Groups: A Brief Investigation| author=reliefweb.int| date= 14 August 2011| publisher= | via=}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups_year = 2019 unofficial estimates
| religion = {{unbulleted list
| 99.7% [[Islam in Afganistan|Islam]] ([[State religion|official]])
| {{figure space}}0.3% [[Demographics of Afganistan#Religion|Others]] (2009 estimate)<ref name=Factbook />
}}
| demonym = [[Afghans|Afghan]]{{Efn|Other names that have been used as demonyms are '''Afghani''',<ref>Dictionary.com. [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]], Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani Reference.com] (Retrieved 13 November 2007).</ref> '''Afghanese''' and '''Afganistani''' (See [[Afghans]] for further details.)<ref>Dictionary.com. [[WordNet]] 3.0. [[Princeton University]]. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani Reference.com] (Retrieved 13 November 2007). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328102257/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani |date=28 March 2014}}</ref>|name="Demonym"|group="Note"}}<ref name="Constitution of Afganistan">{{cite web|title=Constitution of Afganistan|url=https://www.afghanembassy.us/about-afghanistan/constitution/|year=2004|access-date=16 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920112856/http://www.afghanembassy.us/about-afghanistan/constitution/|archive-date=20 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Afghan {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=the Cambridge English Dictionary |isbn=9781107660151 |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghan }}</ref>
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[provisional government|provisional]] [[theocratic]] [[Islamic state|Islamic]] [[emirate]]<!--Non-monarchy emirate--><ref>{{cite news |last1=Choi |first1=Joseph |title=EU: Provisional Taliban government does not fulfill promises |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/571292-eu-provisional-taliban-government-does-not-fulfill-promises |access-date=18 March 2022 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=8 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bezhan |first1=Frud |title=Key Figures In The Taliban's New Theocratic Government |url=https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-government-figures/31448372.html |access-date=6 February 2022 |work=[[Radio Farda]] |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |date=7 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="CTC Sentinel">{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Seth G. |title=Afganistan’s Future Emirate? The Taliban and the Struggle for Afganistan |journal=CTC Sentinel |date=December 2020 |volume=13 |issue=11 |url=https://ctc.usma.edu/afghanistans-future-emirate-the-taliban-and-the-struggle-for-afghanistan/ |access-date=5 March 2022 |publisher=[[Combating Terrorism Center]]}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = [[Leader of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan|Leader]]
| leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Hibatullah Akhundzada]]}}
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Afganistan|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Hasan Akhund]] ([[Acting (law)|acting]])
| leader_title3 = [[Chief Justice of Afganistan|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name3 = [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]]
| legislature = [[Rahbari Shura|Leadership Council]] (consultative body)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sofoglu |first1=Murat |title=How the Taliban governs itself |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/how-the-taliban-governs-itself-50274 |access-date=13 March 2022 |work=[[TRT World]] |date=27 September 2021}}</ref>
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Afganistan|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak Dynasty]]
| established_date1 = [[Mirwais Hotak|1709]]–[[Siege of Kandahar|1738]]
| established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[Durrani Empire]]}}
| established_date2 = 1747–1823
| established_event3 = [[Emirate of Afganistan|Emirate]]
| established_date3 = 1823–1839
| established_event4 = [[Durrani Empire|Restoration of the Durrani Empire]]
| established_date4 = [[First Anglo-Afghan War|1839–1842]]
| established_event5 = [[Emirate of Afganistan|Restoration of the Emirate]]
| established_date5 = [[First Anglo-Afghan War|1842–1926]]
| established_event6 = [[Treaty of Gandamak|Anglo-Afghan Agreement]]
| established_date6 = [[Second Anglo-Afghan War|26 May 1879]]
| established_event7 = [[Third Anglo-Afghan War|Independence]]
| established_date7 = [[Afghan Independence Day|19 August 1919]]
| established_event8 = [[Kingdom of Afganistan|Kingdom]]
| established_date8 = 9 June 1926
| established_event9 = [[Republic of Afganistan (1973–1978)|Republic]]
| established_date9 = 17 July 1973
| established_event10 = [[Democratic Republic of Afganistan|Democratic Republic]]
| established_date10 = [[Saur Revolution|27–28 April 1978]]
| established_event11 = [[Islamic State of Afganistan|Islamic State]]
| established_date11 = 28 April 1992
| established_event12 = [[Islamic Emirate of Afganistan (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate]]
| established_date12 = 7 September 1996
| established_event13 = {{nowrap|[[Islamic Republic of Afganistan|Islamic Republic]]}}
| established_date13 = 26 January 2004
| established_event14 = [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|Restoration of Islamic Emirate]]
| established_date14 = 15 August 2021
| area_km2 = 652,867<ref>Central Statistics Office Afganistan</ref>
| area_rank = 40th
| area_sq_mi = 252,072
| percent_water = negligible
| population_estimate = 40,218,234<ref name=":2" />
| population_estimate_year = 2021
| population_estimate_rank = 37th
| population_density_km2 = 48.08
| population_density_sq_mi = 119
| population_density_rank = 174th
| GDP_PPP = $72.911&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=63&pr.y=8&sy=2018&ey=2023&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Afganistan |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=14 November 2018}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2018
| GDP_PPP_rank = 96th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,024<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 169th
| GDP_nominal = $21.657&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2018
| GDP_nominal_rank = 111st
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $493<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 177th
| HDI = 0.511<!-- number only -->
| HDI_year = 2019<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year -->
| HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 169th
| currency = [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] ({{lang|prs|افغانی}})
| currency_code = AFN
| time_zone = D†
| utc_offset = +4:30<br />[[Solar Hijri calendar|Solar Calendar]]
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Afganistan|+93]]
| cctld = [[.af]]<br />[[افغانستان.]]
| status = [[UN member state]] under an [[Recognition of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan|unrecognized government]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban closer to international recognition, says foreign minister |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220203-taliban-closer-to-international-recognition-says-foreign-minister |access-date=14 March 2022 |work=[[Agence France-Presse]] |location=[[Kabul]] |agency=[[France 24]] |date=3 February 2022}}</ref>
| today =
}}
{{contains Sundanese script}}
 
'''Aksara Sunda''' adalah salah satu [[aksara]] tradisional Indonesia yang berkembang di pulau [[pulau Jawa|Jawa]]. Aksara ini terutama digunakan untuk menulis bahasa [[bahasa Sunda|Sunda]], tetapi dalam perkembangannya juga digunakan untuk menulis beberapa bahasa daerah lainnya seperti bahasa [[Bahasa Kawi|Kawi]], [[bahasa Cirebon|Jawa Cirebon]] dan [[bahasa Arab|Arab]]. Aksara Sunda merupakan turunan dari [[aksara Brahmi]] India melalui perantara [[aksara Kawi]] dan berkerabat dekat dengan [[aksara Jawa]]. Aksara Sunda aktif digunakan dalam sastra maupun tulisan sehari-hari masyarakat Sunda sejak abad ke-14 hingga akhir abad ke-18 sebelum fungsinya berangsur-angsur tergantikan dengan [[aksara Jawa]] dan [[Alfabet Latin|Latin]]. Aksara ini masih diajarkan di [[Jawa Barat]] dan [[Banten]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kompasiana.com|date=2022-01-28|title=Aksara Sunda dan Keberaksaraan Masyarakat Sunda|url=https://www.kompasiana.com/isursuryati3843/61f3a18e06310e7a8950ba73/aksara-sunda-dan-keberaksaraan-masyarakat-sunda|website=KOMPASIANA|language=id|access-date=2022-05-28}}</ref> sebagai bagian dari muatan lokal, tetapi dengan penerapan yang terbatas dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.
'''Afganistan''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Afganistan.ogg|æ|f|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|ᵻ|s|t|æ|n|,_|æ|f|ˈ|ɡ|ɑː|n|ᵻ|s|t|ɑː|n}}), officially the '''Islamic Emirate of Afganistan''', is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]]. Referred to as the {{'}}''Heart of Asia''{{'}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Securing Stability in Afganistan, the ‘Heart of Asia’|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/11/securing-stability-in-afghanistan-the-heart-of-asia/|access-date=2022-02-25|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US}}</ref> it is bordered by Pakistan to [[Durand Line|the east and south]],<ref>The [[Government of India]] also regards Afganistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of [[Kashmir]] to be part of India. However, this is [[Kashmir conflict|disputed]], and the region bordering Afganistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: "Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)"(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008.</ref> Iran to [[Afganistan–Iran border|the west]], Turkmenistan to [[Afganistan–Turkmenistan border|the northwest]], Uzbekistan to [[Afganistan–Uzbekistan border|the north]], Tajikistan to [[Afganistan–Tajikistan border|the northeast]], and China to [[Afganistan–China border|the northeast and east]]. Occupying {{convert|652864|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} of land, the country is predominately mountainous with plains [[Afghan Turkestan|in the north]] and [[Sistan Basin|the southwest]], which are separated by the [[Hindu Kush]] mountain range. {{As of|2021}}, [[Demographics of Afganistan|its population]] is 40.2 million,<ref name=":2" /> composed mostly of ethnic [[Pashtuns]], [[Tajiks]], [[Hazaras]], and [[Uzbeks]]. [[Kabul]] is the country's largest city and also serves as its capital.
 
Aksara Sunda adalah sistem tulisan [[abugida]] yang terdiri dari 19 aksara dasar. Seperti aksara [[Rumpun_aksara_Brahmi|Brahmi]] lainnya, setiap konsonan merepresentasikan satu suku kata dengan vokal inheren /a/ yang dapat diubah dengan pemberian diakritik tertentu. Arah penulisan aksara Sunda adalah kiri ke kanan. Secara tradisional aksara ini ditulis tanpa spasi antarkata (''[[scriptio continua]]'').
[[Ancient history of Afganistan|Human habitation in Afganistan]] dates back to the [[Middle Paleolithic]] era, and the country's [[Geostrategy|strategic location]] along the historic [[Silk Road]] connected it to the cultures of other parts of [[Asia]] as well as [[Europe]], leaving behind a mosaic of ethnolinguistic and religious groups that has influenced the modern Afghan nation.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-17443-0_1|doi = 10.1007/978-1-349-17443-0_1|chapter = The Land and the People in History|title = Afganistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964–83|year = 1984|last1 = Hyman|first1 = Anthony|pages = 3–22|isbn = 978-0-333-36353-9}}</ref> Known as the {{'}}''Graveyard of Empires''{{'}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pillalamarri|first=Akhilesh|title=Why Is Afganistan the ‘Graveyard of Empires’?|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/why-is-afghanistan-the-graveyard-of-empires/|access-date=2022-02-25|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US}}</ref> the land has historically been home to various peoples and [[Invasions of Afganistan|has witnessed numerous military campaigns]], including those by [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Maurya Empire]], [[Muslim conquests of Afganistan|Arab Muslims]], the [[Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongols]], the [[European influence in Afganistan#The Great Game|British]], the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet Union]], and most recently by [[War in Afganistan (2001–2021)|an American-led coalition]]. Afganistan also served as the source from which the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrians]] and the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], among others, rose to form major empires.<ref name="Galvin-PreIslamic">{{cite web |url=http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011103002246/http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archivedate=3 November 2001|title=The Pre-Islamic Period |publisher=Illinois Institute of Technology |work=Afganistan Country Study |first=Luke |last=Griffin |date=14 January 2002 |access-date=14 October 2010}}</ref> The various conquests and periods in both the [[Greater Iran|Iranian]] and [[Greater India|Indian]] cultural spheres<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|author=Denise Cush, Catherine Robinson, Michael York|year=2012|page=200|isbn=9781135189792|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA200}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The remarkable rugs of war, Drill Hall Gallery|date=30 July 2021|publisher=The Australian|url=https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/the-remarkable-rugs-of-war-drill-hall-gallery/news-story/49fb932f8be798b1641425be98e4e0db|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210816041037/https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/the-remarkable-rugs-of-war-drill-hall-gallery/news-story/49fb932f8be798b1641425be98e4e0db|archive-date=16 August 2021}}</ref> made the area a center for [[Zoroastrianism]], Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam throughout history.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.redlandsdailyfacts.com/2021/09/15/professing-faith-religious-traditions-in-afghanistan-are-diverse/|title=Professing Faith: Religious traditions in Afganistan are diverse|date=16 September 2021}}</ref>
 
== Bentuk ==
The modern state of Afganistan began with the [[Durrani dynasty]] in the 18th century, with the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Afghan Empire]] at its peak having spanned from [[eastern Iran]] to [[North India|northern India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Afganistan: the land that forgot time|date=26 October 2001|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/26/afghanistan.terrorism11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Pashtun will outlast all empires, but can they hold Afganistan's center?|date=30 September 2021|author=Pepe Escobar|url=https://thecradle.co/Article/columns/2260}}</ref> Following its decline and the death of [[Timur Shah Durrani|Timur Shah]], it was divided into the smaller independent kingdoms of [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]], [[Principality of Qandahar|Kandahar]] and Kabul, before being reunited in the 19th century after wars of unification led by [[Dost Mohammad Khan]]. During this time, Afganistan became a [[buffer state]] in the [[Great Game]] between the [[British Empire]] (in [[British Raj|British-ruled India]]) and the [[Russian Empire]]; from India, the British attempted to subjugate Afganistan but were repelled in the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]]; however, the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] saw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence over Afganistan. Following the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1919, Afganistan became free of foreign dominance, and eventually emerged as the independent [[Kingdom of Afganistan]] in June 1926 under [[Amanullah Khan]]. This monarchy lasted almost 50 years, until [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]] was [[1973 Afghan coup d'état|overthrown in 1973]], following which the [[Republic of Afganistan (1973–1978)|Republic of Afganistan]] was established. Since the late 1970s, Afganistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including [[Afganistan conflict (1978–present)|coups, revolutions, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars]]. The country is currently under the control of the [[Taliban]], an [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamist political movement]] which returned to power in 2021 after [[War in Afganistan (2001–2021)|a 20-year-long war]] with the United States and its allies.<ref name="CTC 2021">{{cite journal |author-last=Watkins |author-first=Andrew H. |date=November 2021 |url=https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CTC-SENTINEL-092021.pdf |title=An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months |url-status=live |editor1-last=Cruickshank |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Hummel |editor2-first=Kristina |journal=[[CTC Sentinel]] |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–14 |publisher=[[Combating Terrorism Center]] |location=[[West Point, New York]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129104726/https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CTC-SENTINEL-092021.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2021 |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>
=== Aksara ===
''Aksara'' merupakan huruf dasar yang merepresentasikan satu suku kata. Aksara Sunda memiliki sekitar 19 aksara dasar. Berikut adalah pengelompokannya.
==== ''Wyanjana'' ====
''Aksara wyanjana'' ({{Sund|ᮃᮾᮞᮛᮝᮡᮑ᮪ᮏᮔ}}) adalah aksara konsonan dengan vokal inheren /a/ atau /ɔ/. Sebagai salah satu aksara turunan [[aksara Brahmi|Brahmi]], aksara Sunda pada awalnya memiliki 19 aksara ''wyanjana'' untuk menuliskan 19 bunyi konsonan yang digunakan dalam bahasa [[Sanskerta]] dan [[bahasa Kawi|Kawi]]. Bentuknya dapat dilihat sebagaimana berikut:{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=1-2}}<ref name="mardikawi">{{cite book|url=http://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital/20186831-166.%20Serat%20Mardi%20Kawi%20Jilid%20I.pdf|title=Serat Mardi Kawi|volume=1|year=1930|publisher=De Bliksem|place=Solo|first=W J S|last=Poerwadarminta|page=9-12}}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width:60%;"
The country has high levels of [[terrorism]], [[Poverty in Afganistan|poverty]], and [[Undernutrition in children|child malnutrition]]. Afganistan's economy is the world's 96th-largest, with a [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of $72.9&nbsp;billion by [[purchasing power parity]]; the country fares much worse in terms of per-capita GDP (PPP), ranking 169th out of 186 countries {{As of|2018|lc=y}}.
|+ style="text-align:center;" | ''Aksara Wyanjana''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Tempat pelafalan
![[Bantuan:Pengucapan#Penyuaraan|Nirsuara]]
![[Bantuan:Pengucapan#Penyuaraan|Bersuara]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Konsonan nasal|Sengau]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Semivokal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Sibilan]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Konsonan celah suara|Celah]]
|-
! Tidak [[Aspirasi (linguistik)|Teraspirasi]]
! Tidak [[Aspirasi (linguistik)|Teraspirasi]]
|-
! style="text-align:center; "| [[Konsonan langit-langit belakang|Velar]]
| style="text-align:center; "| [[Berkas:Nglegena ka.png|30px]]<br>ᮊ<hr>ka
| style="text-align:center; "| [[Berkas:Nglegena ga.png|30px]]<br>ᮌ<hr>ga
| style="text-align:center; "| [[Berkas:Nglegena nga.png|30px]]<br>ᮍ<hr>ṅa{{ref label|nga|1}}
!
!
| style="text-align:center; "| [[Berkas:Nglegena ha.png|30px]]<br>ᮠ<hr>ha{{ref label|ha|5}}
|-
! style="text-align:center;"|[[Konsonan langit-langit|Palatal]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena ca.png|30px]]<br>ᮎ<hr>ca
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena ja.png|30px]]<br>ᮏ<hr>ja
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena nya.png|30px]]<br>ᮑ<hr>ña{{ref|nya|2}}
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena ya.png|30px]]<br>ᮚ<hr>ya
! style="text-align:center;" |
!
|-
! align=center|[[Konsonan tarik-belakang|Retrofleks]]
| align=center| [[Berkas:Nglegena tha.png|30px]]<br><hr>ṭa{{ref label|tha|3}}
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align=center| [[Berkas:Nglegena ra.png|30px]]<br>ᮛ<hr>ra
! align="center" |
!
|-
! style="text-align:center;"|[[Konsonan gigi|Dental]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena ta.png|30px]]<br>ᮒ<hr>ta
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena da.png|30px]]<br>ᮓ<hr>da
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena na.png|30px]]<br>ᮔ<hr>na
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena la.png|30px]]<br>ᮜ<hr>la
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Nglegena sa.png|30px]]<br>ᮞ<hr>sa
!
|-
! align=center|[[Konsonan bibir|Labial]]
| align=center| [[Berkas:Nglegena pa.png|30px]]<br>ᮕ<hr>pa
| align=center| [[Berkas:Nglegena ba.png|30px]]<br>ᮘ<hr>ba
| align=center| [[Berkas:Nglegena ma.png|30px]]<br>ᮙ<hr>ma
| align=center| [[Berkas:Nglegena wa.png|30px]]<br>ᮝ<hr>wa
!
!
|-
| colspan="9" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | Catatan
<small>
:{{note|nga|1}} /ŋa/ sebagaimana nga dalam kata "mengalah"
:{{note|nya|2}} /ɲa/ sebagaimana nya dalam kata "menyanyi"
:{{note|nya|3}} /ʈa/ sebagaimana tha dalam kata bahasa Sunda "kathah"
:{{note|nya|4}} /ɖa/ sebagaimana dha dalam kata bahasa Sunda "padha"
:{{note|ha|5}} berperan ganda sebagai fonem /ha/ dan /a/ dalam bahasa Kawi
Pelafalan berikut tidak digunakan dalam bahasa Sunda modern:
:{{note|sya|6}} /ɕa/ mendekati pengucapan sya dalam kata "syarat"
</small>
|-
|}
Dalam perkembangannya, bahasa Sunda modern tidak lagi menggunakan keseluruhan aksara ''wyanjana'' dalam deret Sanskerta-Kawi. Aksara Sunda modern hanya menggunakan 18 bunyi konsonan dan 18 aksara dasar yang kemudian disebut sebagai ''aksara nglegena'' ({{Sund|ᮃᮾᮞᮛᮍᮣᮨᮌᮨᮔ}}).
 
==== Etymology''Swara'' ====
''Aksara swara'' ({{Sund|ᮃᮾᮞᮛᮞᮭᮛ}}) adalah aksara yang digunakan untuk menulis suku kata yang tidak memiliki konsonan di awal, atau dalam kata lain suku kata yang hanya terdiri vokal. Aksara Sunda memiliki 7 aksara vokal yang diwarisi dari tradisi tulis Sanskerta. Bentuknya dapat dilihat sebagaimana berikut:<ref name="mardikawi"/>
{{Main|Name of Afganistan}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width:60%;"
The [[Root (linguistics)|root]] name "[[Afghan (ethnonym)|''Afghān'']]" is, according to some scholars, derived from the [[Sanskrit]] name of the ''[[Aśvaka]]n'' or ''Assakan'', ancient inhabitants of the [[Hindu Kush]] region.<ref>''"The name Afghan has evidently been derived from Asvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian... "'' (Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180. See also: Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; J.W. McCrindle).</ref><ref>''"Even the name Afghan is Aryan being derived from Asvakayana, an important clan of the Asvakas or horsemen who must have derived this title from their handling of celebrated breeds of horses"'' (See: Imprints of Indian Thought and Culture abroad, p 124, Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan).</ref><ref>cf: ''"Their name (Afghan) means "cavalier" being derived from the [[Sanskrit]], ''Asva'', or ''Asvaka'', a horse, and shows that their country must have been noted in ancient times, as it is at the present day, for its superior breed of horses. Asvaka was an important tribe settled north to Kabul river, which offered a gallant resistance but ineffectual resistance to the arms of Alexander "''(Ref: Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1999, p 275, Royal Scottish Geographical Society).</ref><ref>''"Afghans are Assakani of the [[Greeks]]; this word being the [[Sanskrit]] [[Ashvaka]] meaning 'horsemen'"'' (Ref: Sva, 1915, p 113, Christopher Molesworth Birdwood).</ref><ref>Cf: ''"The name represents Sanskrit Asvaka in the sense of a ''cavalier'', and this reappears scarcely modified in the Assakani or Assakeni of the historians of the expedition of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]"'' (Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial [[Anglo-Indian]] words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological..by Henry Yule, AD Burnell).</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} ''Aśvakan'' literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "[[cavalry]]men" (from ''[[aśva]]'' or ''aspa'', the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan]] words for "[[horse]]").<ref>{{cite book |title=Ancient India |first=Ramesh Chandra |last=Majumdar |author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |orig-year=1952 |isbn=978-8-12080-436-4 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg=PA99}}</ref> Historically, the ethnonym ''Afghān'' was used to refer to ethnic [[Pashtuns]].<ref name="Afghan">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Ch. M. Kieffer |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgan-in-current-political-usage-any-citizen-of-afghanistan-whatever-his-ethnic-tribal-or-religious-affiliation |title=Afghan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |edition=online |publisher=Columbia University |date=15 December 1983|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116233835/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgan-in-current-political-usage-any-citizen-of-afghanistan-whatever-his-ethnic-tribal-or-religious-affiliation |archive-date=16 November 2013 }}</ref> The Arabic and Persian form of the name, ''Afġān'', was first attested in the 10th-century geography book ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Afghans|last1=Vogelsang|first1=Willem|year=2002|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=0-631-19841-5|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC&pg=PA18|access-date=6 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709112010/https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA18|archive-date=9 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The last part of the name, "''[[-stan]]''" is a Persian suffix for "place of". Therefore, "Afganistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'':<ref>{{EI3|last=Nölle-Karimi|first=Christine|title=Afganistan until 1747|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_24776|year=2020}}</ref>
|+ style="text-align:center;" | ''Aksara Swara''
{{blockquote|The name Afganistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans/Pashtuns, ''afāghina'', sing. ''afghān'') can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated the easternmost part of the [[Kartid]] realm. This name was later used for certain regions in the [[Safavid Iran|Ṣafavid]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] empires that were inhabited by Afghans. While based on a state-supporting elite of [[Durrani|Abdālī/Durrānī]] Afghans, the [[Durrani Empire|Sadūzāʾī Durrānī polity]] that came into being in 1160/1747 was not called Afganistan in its own day. The name became a state designation only during the colonial intervention of the nineteenth century.}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Tempat pelafalan
! [[Konsonan langit-langit belakang|Velar]]
! [[Konsonan langit-langit|Palatal]]
! [[Konsonan bibir|Labial]]
! [[Konsonan tarik-belakang|Retrofleks]]
! [[Konsonan gigi|Dental]]
! Velar-Palatal
! Velar-Labial
|-
! style="text-align:center; "| Pendek
| style="text-align:center; "| [[Berkas:Vowel akara.png|25px]]<br>ᮃ<hr>a
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Vowel ikara.png|25px]]<br>ᮄ<hr>i
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Vowel ukara.png|25px]]<br>ᮅ<hr>u
| style="text-align:center; "| [[Berkas:Ganten pa cerek2.png|25px]]<br>ᮻ<hr>ṛ/re{{ref label|re|1}}
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Ganten nga lelet2.png|25px]]<br>ᮼ<hr>ḷ/le{{ref label|le|2}}
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Vowel ekara.png|25px]]<br>ᮆ<hr>é{{ref label|e|3}}
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Berkas:Vowel okara.png|25px]]<br>ᮇ<hr>o
|-
| colspan="11" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Catatan'''
<small>
:{{note|re|1}} pa cerek, /rə/ sebagaimana re dalam kata "remah"
:{{note|le|2}} nga lelet, /lə/ sebagaimana le dalam kata "lemah"
:{{note|e|3}} /e/ sebagaimana e dalam kata "enak"
</small>
|}
''Pa cerek'' ꦉ dan ''da lelet'' ꦊ adalah [[Syllabic consonant|konsonan silabis]] yang dalam bahasa Sanskerta-Kawi dianggap sebagai huruf vokal.<ref name="woodard" />{{sfn|Poerwadarminta|1930|pp=11}} Ketika digunakan untuk bahasa selain Sanskerta, pelafalan kedua aksara ini sering kali bervariasi. Dalam perkembangan bahasa Sunda modern, hanya ''pa cerek'' dan ''nga lelet'' yang digunakan; ''pa cerek'' dilafalkan /rə/ (sebagaimana re dalam kata "remah") sementara ''nga lelet'' dilafalkan /lə/ (sebagaimana le dalam kata "lemah"). Dalam pengajaran modern, aksara ini sering kali dipisahkan dari aksara ''swara'' menjadi kategori sendiri yang disebut ''aksara gantèn''. Kedua aksara ini wajib digunakan untuk mengganti tiap kombinasi ra+''pepet'' (ꦫꦼ → ꦉ) serta la+''pepet'' (ꦭꦼ → ꦊ) tanpa terkecuali.{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=20}}
 
=== HistoryDiakritik ===
Diakritik (''sandhangan'' ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦔꦤ꧀) adalah tanda yang melekat pada aksara untuk mengubah vokal inheren aksara yang bersangkutan. Sebagaimana aksara, diakritik Sunda juga dapat dibagi ke dalam beberapa kelompok tergantung dari fungsi dan penggunaannya.
{{Main|History of Afganistan}}
[[File:Nomads in Badghis Province.jpg|thumb|Tents of [[Afghans|Afghan]] [[nomad]]s in the northern [[Badghis Province|Badghis province]] of Afganistan. Early peasant farming villages came into existence in Afganistan about 7,000 years ago.]]
Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afganistan, such as the [[Greco-Bactrians]], [[Indo-Scythians]], [[Kushan]]s, [[Kidarites]], [[Hephthalites]], [[Alkhons]], [[Nezaks]], [[Zunbils]], [[Turk Shahi]]s, [[Hindu Shahi]]s, [[Lawiks]], [[Saffarids]], [[Samanids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ghurids]], [[Khalji]]s, [[Kartids]], [[Lodi dynasty|Lodis]], [[Sur Empire|Surs]], [[Mughals]], and finally, the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak]] and [[Durrani Empire|Durrani]] dynasties, which marked the political origins of the modern state.{{sfn|Runion|2007|page=44-49}} Throughout millennia several cities within the modern day Afganistan served as capitals of various empires, namely, Bactra ([[Balkh]]), Alexandria on the Oxus ([[Ai-Khanoum]]), [[Kapisi]], [[Sigal, Sakastan|Sigal]], [[Kabul]], [[Kunduz]], [[Zaranj]], [[Firozkoh]], [[Herat]], Ghazna ([[Ghazni]]), Binban ([[Bamyan]]), and [[Kandahar]].
 
==== ''Swara'' ====
The country has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the [[ancient Iranian peoples]] who established the dominant role of [[Indo-Iranian languages]] in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires; among them the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the [[Macedonian Empire]], the [[Maurya Empire]], and the [[Islamic Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity|author=George Erdosy|page=321|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ZRShEIFwMC|isbn=3110144476|date=1995}}</ref> For its success in resisting foreign occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afganistan has been called the "[[Graveyard of empires (Afganistan)|graveyard of empires]]",{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=255}} though it is unknown who coined the phrase.<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last = Nordland| first = Rod| title = The Empire Stopper| work = The New York Times| date = 29 August 2017| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/29/world/asia/afghanistan-graveyard-empires-historical-pictures.html| quote = Afganistan has long been called the "graveyard of empires" – for so long that it is unclear who coined that disputable term.| access-date = 18 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181205023840/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/29/world/asia/afghanistan-graveyard-empires-historical-pictures.html| archive-date = 5 December 2018| url-status = live}}</ref>
''Sandhangan swara'' (ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ) adalah ''sandhangan'' yang digunakan untuk mengubah voᮊkal inheren /a/ menjadi vokal lainnya, sebagaimana berikut:{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=19-24}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width:60%;"
|+ style="text-align: center;" | ''Sandhangan Swara''
|- style="text-align: center"
! style="width: 80px;" | -a
! style="width: 80px;" | -i
! style="width: 80px;" | -u
! style="width: 80px;" | -é{{ref label|1|1}}
! style="width: 80px;" | -o
! style="width: 80px;" | -e{{ref label|2|2}}
! style="width: 80px;" |-eu{{ref label|5a|5a}}{{ref label|5b|5b}}
|- style="text-align: center"
| -
| [[Berkas:Sandangan wulu.png|30px]]<br> ꦶ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan suku.png|30px]]<br> ꦸ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan taling.png|30px]]<br> ꦺ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan taling-tarung.png|30px]]<br> ꦺꦴ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan pepet.png|30px]]<br> ꦼ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan pepet-tarung.png|30px]]<br> ꦼꦴ
|-
| style="text-align: center" | -
| style="text-align: center" |wulu
| style="text-align: center" |suku
| style="text-align: center" |taling
| style="text-align: center" |taling-tarung
| style="text-align: center" |pepet
| style="text-align: center" |pepet-tarung
|- style="text-align: center"
! ka
! ki
! ku
! ké
! ko
! ke
! keu
|- style="text-align: center"
| ᮊ
| ᮊᮤ
| ᮊᮥ
| ᮊᮦ
| ᮊᮧ
| ᮊᮨ
| ᮊᮩ
|-
| colspan="7" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Catatan'''
<small>
:{{note|1|1}} /e/ sebagaimana e dalam kata "enak"
:{{note|2|2}} /ə/ sebagaimana e dalam kata "empat", bunyi bahasa Kawi yang tidak berasal dari Sanskerta
Pelafalan berikut tidak digunakan dalam bahasa Sunda modern:
:{{note|3|3}} [[diftong]] /aj/ sebagaimana ai dalam kata "sungai"
:{{note|4|4}} [[diftong]] /aw/ sebagaimana au dalam kata "pantau"
:{{note|5a|5a}} bunyi bahasa Kawi yang tidak berasal dari Sanskerta, dalam kajian Kawi umum diromanisasi menjadi ö
:{{note|5b|5b}} dalam penulisan Sunda digunakan untuk /ɨ/ sebagaimana eu dalam kata bahasa Sunda "peuyeum"
</small>
|}
Sebagaimana aksara ''swara'', hanya ''sandhangan ''vokal pendek yang umumnya diajarkan dan digunakan dalam bahasa Sunda kontemporer, sementara ''sandhangan'' vokal panjang digunakan dalam penulisan bahasa Sanskerta dan Kawi.
 
==== ''Panyigeging wanda'' ====
===Prehistory and antiquity===
''Sandhangan panyigeging wanda'' (ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦥꦚꦶꦒꦼꦒꦶꦁꦮꦤ꧀ꦢ) digunakan untuk menutup suatu suku kata dengan konsonan, sebagaimana berikut:{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=24-28}}
{{Main|Ancient history of Afganistan}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width:40%;"
Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afganistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afganistan compares to [[Egypt]] in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites.<ref name="JFS">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afganistan.html |title=Afganistan&nbsp;– John Ford Shroder, University of Nebraska |publisher=Encarta |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040717092902/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afganistan.html |archive-date=17 July 2004 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1881896-1,00.html |title=Afganistan: A Treasure Trove for Archaeologists |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=26 February 2009 |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726153721/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1881896-1%2C00.html |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|+ style="text-align: center;" | ''Sandhangan Panyigeging Wanda''
[[File:Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE).png|thumb| The extent of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] during its mature phase|upright=1.2]]
|- style="text-align: center"
!style="width:80px;" | [[nasal]]{{ref label|panyangga|1}}
!style="width:80px;" | -ng
!style="width:80px;" | -r
!style="width:80px;" | -h
!style="width:80px;" | pemati{{ref label|pangkon|2}}
|- style="text-align: center"
| [[Berkas:Sandangan panyangga.png|30px]]<br> ꦀ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan cecak.png|30px]]<br> ꦁ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan layar.png|30px]]<br> ꦂ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan wignyan.png|30px]]<br> ꦃ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan pangkon.png|30px]]<br> ꧀
|-
| style="text-align: center" | panyangga
| style="text-align: center" | cecak
| style="text-align: center" | layar
| style="text-align: center" | wignyan
| style="text-align: center" | pangkon
|- style="text-align: center"
! kam
! kang
! kar
! kah
! k
|- style="text-align: center"
| ꦏꦀ
| ꦏꦁ
| ꦏꦂ
| ꦏꦃ
| ꦏ꧀
|-
| colspan="6" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Catatan'''
<small>
:{{note|panyangga|1}} umumnya hanya ditemukan dalam salinan lontar Sunda untuk menuliskan kata keramat seperti ''[[om|ong]]'' ꦎꦀ
:{{note|pangkon|2}} tidak digunakan untuk suku kata tertutup yang terjadi di tengah kata atau kalimat (lihat [[#Pasangan|pasangan]])
|}
 
====Ancient era''Wyanjana'' ====
''Sandhangan wyanjana'' (ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ) digunakan untuk menuliskan gugus konsonan dengan [[semivokal]] dalam satu suku kata, sebagaimana berikut:{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=29-32}}
{{see also|Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afganistan}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width:40%;"
[[Archaeological]] exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afganistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron Age]]s have been found in Afganistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of [[Mundigak]] (near [[Kandahar]] in the south of the country) was a center of the [[Helmand culture]]. More recent findings established that the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] stretched up towards modern-day Afganistan, making the ancient civilization today part of Pakistan, Afganistan, and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afganistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afganistan.<ref name="The Ancient Indus pp.1">{{cite book|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society|page=1|author=Rita Wright|date=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ|isbn=978-0521576529|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628065355/https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ|archive-date=28 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. pp.96</ref> There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afganistan as well. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afganistan, shows Afganistan to have been a part of [[Indus Valley Civilization]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xjGtwAACAAJ|title=Notes on Shortugai: An Harappan Site in Northern Afganistan|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilization of Central Asia|author=Louis Depree|year=1981}}</ref>
|+ style="text-align: center;" | ''Sandhangan Wyanjana''
|- style="text-align: center"
!style="width:80px;"| -m-
!style="width:80px;"| -y-
!style="width:80px;"| -r-
!style="width:80px;"| -l-
!style="width:80px;"| -w-
|- style="text-align: center"
| [[Berkas:Sandangan keret.png|30px]]<br> ꦽ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan pengkal.png|30px]]<br> ꦾ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan cakra2.png|30px]]<br> ꦿ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan panjingan la.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦭ
| [[Berkas:Sandangan gembung wa.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦮ
|-
| style="text-align: center" | ''keret''
| style="text-align: center" | ''pengkal''
| style="text-align: center" | ''cakra''
| style="text-align: center" | ''panjingan la''
| style="text-align: center" | ''gembung''
|- style="text-align: center"
! kma
! kya
! kra
! kla
! kwa
|- style="text-align: center"
| ᮊᮬ
| ᮊᮡ
| ᮊᮢ
| ᮊᮣ
| ᮊᮭ
|}
 
=== Pasangan ===
After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afganistan; among them were many [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians]]. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the [[Caspian Sea]]. The region at the time was referred to as [[Ariana]].<ref name="JFS" /><ref>Bryant, Edwin F. (2001) ''The quest for the origins of Vedic culture: the Indo-Aryan migration debate'' [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-19-513777-4}}.</ref>
Vokal inheren dari tiap aksara dasar dapat dimatikan dengan penggunaan diaktrik ''pangkon''. Akan tetapi, ''pangkon'' normalnya tidak digunakan di tengah kata atau kalimat, sehingga untuk menuliskan suku kata tertutup di tengah kata dan kalimat, digunakanlah bentuk ''pasangan'' (ꦥꦱꦔꦤ꧀). Berbeda dengan ''pangkon'', ''pasangan'' tidak hanya mematikan konsonan yang diiringinya tetapi juga menunjukkan konsonan selanjutnya. Sebagai contoh, aksara ''ma'' (ꦩ) yang diiringi bentuk ''pasangan'' dari ''pa'' (꧀ꦥ) menjadi ''mpa'' (ꦩ꧀ꦥ). Bentuk ''pasangan'' setiap aksara ada di tabel berikut:{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=2}}
 
{| class="wikitable""
[[File:ScythianBelt.jpg|thumb|left|A "Bactrian gold" [[Scythian]] belt depicting [[Dionysus]], from [[Tillya Tepe]] in the ancient region of [[Bactria]]]]
|+ style="text-align: center;" | ''Aksara'' dan ''Pasangan''
|-style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! ha/a
! na
! ca
! ra
! ka
! da
! ta
! sa
! wa
! la
! pa
! dha
! ja
! ya
! nya
! ma
! ga
! ba
! tha
! nga
|- style="length:20%; height: 4em;"
! rowspan="2" style="width:10%; text-align:center;" |Nglegena
! align="center" | Aksara
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ha.png|30px]]<br>ꦲ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena na.png|30px]]<br>ꦤ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ca.png|30px]]<br>ꦕ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ra.png|30px]]<br>ꦫ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ka.png|30px]]<br>ꦏ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena da.png|30px]]<br>ꦢ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ta.png|30px]]<br>ꦠ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena sa.png|30px]]<br>ꦱ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena wa.png|30px]]<br>ꦮ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena la.png|30px]]<br>ꦭ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena pa.png|30px]]<br>ꦥ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda da.png|30px]]<br>ꦝ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ja.png|30px]]<br>ꦗ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ya.png|30px]]<br>ꦪ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena nya.png|30px]]<br>ꦚ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ma.png|30px]]<br>ꦩ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ga.png|30px]]<br>ꦒ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena ba.png|30px]]<br>ꦧ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena tha.png|30px]]<br>ꦛ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena nga.png|30px]]<br>ꦔ
|-
! align="center" | Pasangan
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ha.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦲ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena na.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦤ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ca.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦕ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ra.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦫ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ka.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦏ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena da.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦢ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ta.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦠ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena sa.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦱ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena wa.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦮ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena la.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦭ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena pa.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦥ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena dha.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦝ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ja.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦗ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ya.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦪ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena nya.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦚ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ma.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦩ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ga.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦒ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena ba.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦧ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena tha.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦛ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan nglegena nga.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦔ
|- style="length:20%; height: 4em;"
! rowspan="2" style="width:10%; text-align:center;" |Murda
! align="center" |Aksara
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda na.png|30px]]<br>ꦟ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda ca.png|30px]]<br>ꦖ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform_height_ra_agung.png|30px]]<br>ꦬ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda ka.png|30px]]<br>ꦑ
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda ta.png|30px]]<br>ꦡ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda sa.png|30px]]<br>ꦯ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda pa.png|30px]]<br>ꦦ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Murda nya.png|30px]]<br>ꦘ
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda ga.png|30px]]<br>ꦒ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Murda ba.png|30px]]<br>ꦨ
!
!
|-
! align="center" |Pasangan
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda na.png|30px]]<br>ꦟ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda ca.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦖ{{ref label|1|1}}
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan lain-lain ra agung.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦬ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda ka.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦑ
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda ta.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦡ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda sa.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦯ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda pa.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦦ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda nya.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦘ
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda ga.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦓ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda ba.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦨ
!
!
|- style="length:20%; height: 4em;"
! rowspan="2" style="width:10%; text-align:center;" |Mahaprana
! align="center" | Aksara
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
!
! align="center" |
!
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Nglegena dha.png|30px]]<br>ꦣ
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Mahaprana sa.png|30px]]<br>ꦰ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Mahaprana dha.png|30px]]<br>ꦞ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Mahaprana ja.png|30px]]<br>ꦙ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Uniform height Mahaprana tha.png|30px]]<br> ꦜ
! align="center" |
|-
! align="center" | Pasangan
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
!
! align="center" |
!
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan murda da.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦣ
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan mahaprana sa.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦰ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan mahaprana dha.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦞ
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan mahaprana ja.png|30px]]<br> ꧀ꦙ
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
! align="center" |
| align="center" |[[Berkas:Pasangan mahaprana tha.png|30px]]<br>꧀ꦜ
! align="center" |
|-
| colspan="23" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Catatan'''
<small>
:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; tanda bulat (◌) pada karakter bukanlah bagian dari ''pasangan'', tetapi mengindikasikan posisi aksara yang diiringinya
:{{note|1|1}} kerap digunakan sebagai bagian dari [[#Pepadan|''pepadan'']] yang tidak memiliki fungsi fonetis
:{{note|2|2}} pasangan dalam tabel ini merupakan bentuk yang digunakan dalam penulisan Sunda modern. Beberapa aksara memiliki bentuk pasangan yang berbeda dalam penulisan Sanskerta-Kawi
</small>
|}
 
Contoh pemakaian pasangan dapat dilihat sebagaimana berikut:
By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the [[Medes]] and incorporated [[Arachosia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]], and [[Bactria]] within its eastern boundaries. An [[Epigraphy|inscription]] on the tombstone of [[Darius I of Persia]] mentions the [[Kabulistan|Kabul Valley]] in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909000527/http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 September 2012 |title=Chronological History of Afganistan&nbsp;– the cradle of Gandharan civilisation |publisher=Gandhara.com.au | date=15 February 1989 |access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref> The region of [[Arachosia]], around [[Kandahar]] in modern-day southern Afganistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to [[Persis|Persia]] and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism".<ref name="Gnoli 1989 133">{{Cite book|last=Gnoli|first=Gherado|title=The Idea of Iran, an Essay on its Origin|publisher=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|year=1989|pages=133|quote=... he would have drawn inspiration from a ireligious policy which intended to counteract the Median Magi's influence and transfer the 'Avesta-Schule' from Arachosia to Persia: thus the Avesta would have arrived in Persia through Arachosia in the 6th century B.C. [...] Alltough [...] Arachosia would have been only a second fatherland for Zoroastrianism, a significant role should still be attributed to this south-eastern region in the history of the Zoroastrian tradition.}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite book|last=Gnoli|first=Gherado|title=The Idea of Iran, an essay on its Origin|publisher=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|year=1989|pages=133|quote=linguistic data [...] prove the presence of the Zoroastrian tradition in Arachosia both in the Achaemenian age, in the last quarter of the 6th century, and in the Seleucid age.}}</ref><ref name="ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica">{{Cite web|title=ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/arachosia|access-date=19 February 2021|website=iranicaonline.org}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" summary="reordering"
|-
! colspan=10 scope="col" | komponen
! scope="col" | penulisan
! align="center" | keterangan
|- align="center"
| [[Berkas:Nglegena ha.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:Nglegena ka.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:Sandangan pangkon.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:Nglegena sa.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:Nglegena ra.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;" | =
| [[Berkas:Kata aksara.png|80px|link=|alt=aksara]]
| align="left"| a + (ka + (pangkon + sa)) + ra → a + (ka + (pasangan sa)) + ra = a(ksa)ra
|- align="center"
| [[Berkas:Nglegena ka.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:Nglegena na.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:Sandangan pangkon.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:Nglegena tha.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;border-right:#aaaaaa hidden;" | +
| [[Berkas:sandangan wulu.png|30px]]
| style="border-left:#aaaaaa hidden;" | =
| [[Berkas:Kata kanthi.png|40px|link=|alt=aksara]]
| align="left"| ka + (na + (pangkon + tha) + -i) → ka + (na + (pasangan tha) + -i) = ka(nthi)
|}
 
=== Angka ===
[[Alexander the Great]] and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afganistan in 330 BCE after defeating [[Darius III of Persia]] a year earlier in the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the [[Seleucid Empire]] controlled the region until 305 BCE when they gave much of it to the [[Maurya Empire]] as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the [[Hindu Kush]] until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after [[Ashoka]]'s rule ended, leading to the [[Hellenistic]] reconquest by the [[Greco-Bactrians]]. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. They were defeated and expelled by the [[Indo-Scythians]] in the late 2nd century BCE.<ref name="LoC-pdf">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afganistan.pdf |title=Country Profile: Afganistan |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] on Afganistan | date=August 2008 |access-date=10 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408085103/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afganistan.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2014 }}</ref>{{sfn|Runion|2007|page=44}}
Aksara Sunda memiliki lambang bilangannya sendiri yang berlaku selayaknya [[angka Arab]], tetapi sebagian bentuknya memiliki rupa yang persis sama dengan beberapa aksara Sunda, semisal angka 1 ꧑ dengan aksara ''wyanjana'' ga ꦒ, atau angka 8 ꧘ dengan aksara ''murda'' pa ꦦ. Karena persamaan bentuk ini, angka yang digunakan di tengah kalimat perlu diapit dengan tanda baca ''pada pangkat'' atau ''pada lingsa'' untuk memperjelas fungsinya sebagai lambang bilangan. Semisal, "tanggal 17 Juni" ditulis ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀꧇꧑꧗꧇ꦗꦸꦤꦶ atau ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀꧈꧑꧗꧈ꦗꦸꦤꦶ. Pengapit ini dapat diabaikan apabila fungsi lambang bilangan sudah jelas dari konteks, misal nomor halaman di pojok kertas. Bentuknya dapat dilihat sebagaimana berikut:{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4}}{{sfn|Darusuprapta|2002|pp=44-45}}
{| class="wikitable" style="width:40%;"
|+ style="text-align: center;" |Angka
|- style="text-align: center"
! 0
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
|- style="text-align: center"
| [[Berkas:Angka 0.png|30px]]<br>᮰
| [[Berkas:Angka 1.png|30px]]<br>᮱
| [[Berkas:Angka 2.png|30px]]<br>᮲
| [[Berkas:Angka 3.png|30px]]<br>᮳
| [[Berkas:Angka 4.png|30px]]<br>᮴
| [[Berkas:Angka 5.png|30px]]<br>᮵
| [[Berkas:Angka 6.png|30px]]<br>᮶
| [[Berkas:Angka 7.png|30px]]<br>᮷
| [[Berkas:Angka 8.png|30px]]<br>᮸
| [[Berkas:Angka 9.png|30px]]<br>᮹
|}
 
=== Tanda baca ===
[[File:Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg|thumb|Approximate maximum extent of the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], formed by the fragmentation of [[Alexander the Great]]'s Empire, circa 180 BCE]]
Teks tradisional Sunda ditulis tanpa spasi antarkata (''[[scriptio continua]]'') dan memiliki sejumlah tanda baca yang disebut ''pada'' (ꦥꦢ). Bentuknya sebagaimana berikut:
{{ Annotated image
{| class="wikitable" style="width:80%;"
| image=Hephthalites (map).jpg
|+ style="text-align: center;" | ''Pada''
| = right
|-style="text-align: center"
| annotations =
! rowspan=2|''lingsa''
{{Annotation|75|80|[[Sasanian Empire|<center>SASANIAN<br />EMPIRE</center>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
! rowspan=2|''lungsi''
{{Annotation|15|60|[[Byzantine Empire|<center>BYZANTINE<br />EMPIRE</center>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
! rowspan=2|''adeg''
{{Annotation|250|55|[[Northern Wei|<center>NORTHERN<br />WEI</center>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
! rowspan=2|''adeg-adeg''
{{Annotation|273|95|[[Liang dynasty|<center>LIANG</center>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
! rowspan=2|''pisèlèh''
{{Annotation|155|90|[[Alchon Huns|<center>Alchon<br />Huns</center>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
! rowspan=2|''rerenggan''
{{Annotation|180|110|[[Gupta Empire|<center>GUPTA<br />EMPIRE</center>]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
! rowspan=2|''pangkat''
{{Annotation|230|27|[[Rouran Khaganate|JUAN-JUAN KHAGANATE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
! rowspan=2|''rangkap''
{{Annotation|190|13|[[Tiele people|Gaoju Turks]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
! colspan=5| surat
|caption= <center>The Imperial [[Hephthalites]] c. 500 CE</center>
! colspan=2| koreksi
}}
|-
!''andhap''
!''madya''
!''luhur''
!''guru''
!''pancak''
!''tirta tumètès''
!''isèn-isèn''
|-style="text-align: center"
| [[Berkas:pada lingsa1.png|15px]]<br>꧈
| [[Berkas:pada lungsi1.png|15px]]<br>꧉
| [[Berkas:pada adeg2.png|15px]]<br>꧊
| [[Berkas:pada adeg-adeg.png|15px]]<br>꧋
| [[Berkas:pada piseleh kiri kanan.png|30px]]<br>꧌...꧍
| [[Berkas:Pada rerenggan kiri kanan.png|55px]]<br>꧁...꧂
| [[Berkas:pada pangkat1.png|12px]]<br>꧇
| [[Berkas:pada rangkep.png|15px]]<br>ꧏ
| [[Berkas:pada surat andhap.png|40px]]<br>꧃
| [[Berkas:pada surat madya.png|40px]]<br>꧄
| [[Berkas:pada surat luhur.png|40px]]<br>꧅
| [[Berkas:pada guru1.png|32px]]<br>꧋꧆꧋
| [[Berkas:pada pancak1.png|32px]]<br>꧉꧆꧉
| [[Berkas:Pada tirta tumetes tiga.png|35px]]<br>꧞꧞꧞
| [[Berkas:Pada tirta isen-isen tiga.png|35px]]<br>꧟꧟꧟
|}
Dalam pengajaran modern, tanda baca yang paling sering digunakan adalah ''pada adeg-adeg'', ''pada lingsa'', dan ''pada lungsi'', yang masing-masing berfungsi untuk membuka paragraf (sebagaimana [[pillcrow|''pillcrow'']]), memisahkan kalimat (sebagaimana [[koma (tanda baca)|koma]]), dan mengakhiri kalimat (sebagaimana [[tanda titik|titik]]). ''Pada adeg'' dan ''pada pisèlèh'' umumnya digunakan untuk mengapit sisipan di tengah teks seperti [[tanda kurung|kurung]] atau [[tanda petik|petik]], sementara ''pada pangkat'' berfungsi seperti [[titik dua]]. ''Pada rangkap'' kadang digunakan sebagai [[iteration mark|tanda pengulangan kata]] yang dalam bahasa Indonesia informal setara dengan penggunaan angka 2 untuk kata [[Reduplikasi|berulang]] (misal ''kata-kata'' ꦏꦠꦏꦠ → ''kata2'' ꦏꦠꧏ).{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4-5}}
 
Beberapa tanda baca tidak memiliki ekivalen dalam ejaan latin dan sering kali bersifat dekoratif, karena itu bentuk dan penggunaannya cenderung bervariasi antarpenulis, semisal ''rerenggan'' yang kadang digunakan untuk mengapit judul. Dalam surat-menyurat, seperangkat tanda baca digunakan di awal surat sebagai tanda pembuka dan kadang digunakan pula sebagai penanda status sosial dari sang pengirim surat; dari ''pada andhap'' yang rendah, ''pada madya'' yang menengah, hingga ''pada luhur'' yang tinggi. ''Pada guru'' kadang digunakan sebagai pilihan netral yang tidak memiliki konotasi sosial, sementara ''pada pancak'' digunakan untuk mengakhiri surat. Namun perlu diperhatikan bahwa bentuk dan fungsi ini merupakan kaidah yang digeneralisasi. Sebagaimana ''rerenggan'', tanda baca pemulai dan pengakhir surat dalam prakteknya bersifat dekoratif dan opsional, dengan beragam susunan bentuk yang bervariasi antara daerah dan juru tulis.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4-5}}
The [[Silk Road]] appeared during the first century BCE, and Afganistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia and north to the cities of [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]] and [[Khiva]] in present-day Uzbekistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unama.unmissions.org/afghanistan-and-silk-road-land-heart-world-trade-bijan-omrani|title='Afganistan and the Silk Road: The land at the heart of world trade' by Bijan Omrani|date=8 March 2010|website=UNAMA}}</ref> Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afganistan was mining and trading [[lapis lazuli]] stones<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/countries-alongside-silk-road-routes/afghanistan|title=Afganistan – Silk Roads Programme|website=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> mainly from the [[Badakhshan]] region.
 
Ketika terjadi kesalahan dalam penulisan naskah, beberapa juru tulis keraton menggunakan tanda koreksi khusus alih-alih mencoret bagian yang salah: ''tirta tumétès'' yang ditemukan di naskah-naskah Yogyakarta, dan ''isèn-isèn'' yang ditemukan di naskah Surakarta. Tanda koreksi ini langsung dibubuhkan mengikuti bagian yang salah sebelum penulis melanjutkan dengan penulisan yang benar. Semisal seorang juru tulis ingin menulis ''pada luhur'' ꦥꦢꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ namun terlanjur menulis ''pada hu'' ꦥꦢꦲꦸ sebelum ia sadar kesalahannya, maka kata ini dapat dikoreksi menjadi ''pada hu···luhur'' ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧞꧞꧞ꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ atau ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧟꧟꧟ꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=5}}
During the first century BCE, the [[Parthian Empire]] subjugated the region but lost it to their [[Indo-Parthian]] vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast [[Kushan Empire]], centered in Afganistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making [[Buddhism]] flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the [[Sassanids]] in the 3rd century CE, though the [[Indo-Sassanids]] continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the [[Kidarite]]s who, in turn, was replaced by the [[Hephthalites]]. They were replaced by the [[Turk Shahi]] in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called [[Hindu Shahi]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=0-391-04173-8|page=125|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201142728/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|archive-date=1 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by [[Buddhist]] culture.<ref name="Habibi">{{cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afganistan.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023100306/http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afganistan.htm|archive-date=23 October 2008 |title=Afghan and Afganistan |work=[[Abdul Hai Habibi]]|publisher=alamahabibi.com|year=1969|access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA141|year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1|page=141}}</ref>
 
==== Medieval history''Pepadan'' ====
Selain tanda baca biasa, salah satu ciri khas penulis aksara Sunda adalah ''pepadan'' (ꦥꦼꦥꦢꦤ꧀), yakni seperangkat tanda baca penanda sajak yang bentuk dan pengerjaannya sering kali memiliki nilai artisik tinggi. Beberapa bentuknya dapat dilihat sebagaimana berikut:
{{Main|Muslim conquests of Afganistan|Mongol conquest of Central Asia}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="text-align: center;" | ''Pepadan''
|-
! colspan=2 style="text-align: center"| pada kecil
! colspan=3 style="text-align: center"| pada besar
|-
| style="text-align: center"|[[Berkas:Pepadan from serat jayalengkara 9r.jpg|210px]]
| style="text-align: center"|[[Berkas:Pepadan from babad mataram 10r.jpg|210px]]
| style="text-align: center"|[[Berkas:Pepadan from serat jayalengkara 24r.jpg|210px]]
| style="text-align: center"|[[Berkas:Pepadan from serat selarasa 44r.jpg|210px]]
| style="text-align: center"|[[Berkas:Pepadan from jatikusuma 50v.jpg|210px]]
|-
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| [[Berkas:Pada surat luhur.png|40px]]<br>꧅
| colspan=3 rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| [[Berkas:Pada tembang purwa.png|120px]]<br>꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅
|}
Perangkat tanda baca ''pepadan'' dapat dikenal dengan berbagai nama dalam teks-teks tradisional. Behrend (1996) membagi ''pepadan'' ke dalam dua kelompok umum: ''pada kecil'' yang merupakan tanda baca tunggal, serta ''pada besar'' yang sering kali disusun berderet dari beberapa tanda baca. ''Pada kecil'' digunakan untuk menandakan pergantian [[bait (sastra)|bait]] yang biasanya muncul setiap 32 hingga 48 suku kata tergantung [[metrum]] yang digunakan. ''Pada besar'' digunakan untuk menandakan pergantian [[tembang]] (diikuti pula oleh metrum, [[irama]], dan citra pelantunan) yang biasanya muncul tiap 5 hingga 10 halaman, meski hal ini sangat tergantung dari susunan naskah yang bersangkutan.{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=188}} Pedoman penulisan aksara Sunda sering kali membagi pada besar menjadi tiga jenis pada, ''purwa pada'' ꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅ yang digunakan di awal tembang pertama, ''madya pada'' ꧅ ꦟ꧀ꦢꦿ ꧅ yang digunakan di pergantian tembang, dan ''wasana pada'' ꧅ ꦆ ꧅ yang digunakan di penutup tembang terakhir.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=4-5}} Namun karena bentuknya yang sangat bervariasi antarnaskah, tiga tanda baca ini sering kali melebur dan dianggap satu dalam praktek penulisan sebagian besar naskah Sunda.{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=190}}
 
''Pepadan'' merupakan elemen aksara yang paling menonjol dalam naskah Sunda dan hampir selalu ditulis dengan kemampuan artisik tinggi yang meliputi kaligrafi, pewarnaan, hingga [[penyepuhan]] dengan [[kertas emas]].{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=189-190}} Dalam sejumlah naskah mewah, bentuk ''pepadan'' bahkan bisa menjadi petunjuk untuk tembang yang digunakan; ''pepadan'' dengan elemen sayap atau figur burung yang menyerupai gagak (''dhandhang'' dalam bahasa Sunda) merujuk pada tembang ''dhandhanggula'', sementara ''pepadan'' dengan elemen ikan mas merujuk pada tembang ''maskumambang'' (secara harfiah berarti "emas mengambang di air"). Salah satu pusat penulisan naskah dengan gubahan ''pepadan'' yang paling indah adalah [[skriptorium]] [[Kadipaten Pakualaman]] di Yogyakarta.{{sfn|Behrend|1996|pp=190}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Naskah-naskah Skriptorium Pakualaman|first=Sri Ratna|last=Saktimulya|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|place=Jakarta|year=2016|isbn=602424228X}}</ref>
====Islamic conquest====
[[File:Saffarid dynasty 861-1003.png|thumb|left|[[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid]] rule at its greatest extent under [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar]]]]
[[Arab]] [[Muslim]]s brought Islam to [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in 642&nbsp;CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the [[Islamic conquest of Afganistan|arrival of Islam]], the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often resulting in [[Syncretism]] between the dominant religions<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Weber|first1=Olivier|url=|title=Eternal Afganistan|last2=Unesco|date=2002|publisher=Chêne|isbn=978-92-3-103850-1|quote=Gradually there emerged a fabulous syncretism between the Hellenistic world and the Buddhist universe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Grenet|first=Grenet|title=Zoroastriansm among the Kushans|year=2016}}</ref> such as [[Zoroastrianism]],<ref name="Gnoli 1989 133"/><ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica"/> [[Buddhism]] or [[Greco-Buddhism]], [[Ancient Iranian religion]]s,<ref name="Allen">{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|url=|title=The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History|date=5 November 2015|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14218-0|quote=With Aurmuzd, Sroshard, Narasa and Mihr, we are on safer ground because all are Zoroastrian deities: Aurmuzd is the supreme god of light, Ahura Mazda; and Mihr, the sun god, is linked with the Iranian Mithra. Exactly the same non-Buddhist[...]}}</ref> [[Hinduism]], [[Christianity]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gorder|first1=A. Christian Van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeHAxxEpe-cC&q=nestorian+christians+Afganistan&pg=PA34|title=Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran|date=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7391-3609-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kennedy|first1=Hugh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk7BS9XC10QC&q=Zaranj+christians+Afganistan&pg=PT127|title=The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In|date=9 December 2010|publisher=Orion|isbn=978-0-297-86559-9|quote=.. when the patriarch at Ctesiphon had to broker a compromise that left one bishop at the capital Zaranj and another further east at Bust, now in southern Afganistan. A Christian text composed in about 850 also records a monastery of ...}}</ref> and [[Judaism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yossef|first1=Noam Bar'am-Ben|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVMwAAAAYAAJ&q=Judaism+in+Afganistan+ghor|title=Brides and Betrothals: Jewish Wedding Rituals in Afganistan|date=1998|publisher=Israel Museum|isbn=978-965-278-223-6|quote=The Jews of Afganistan According to tradition , the first Jews reached ... in Hebrew script found in the Tang - e Azao Valley in the Ghor region ...}}</ref><ref name="EndeSteinbach2010">{{cite book|last1=Ende|first1=Werner|title=Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society|last2=Steinbach|first2=Udo|date=15 April 2010|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9780801464898|page=257|quote=At the time of the first Muslim advances, numerous local natural religions were competing with Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Hinduism in the territory of modern Afganistan.}}</ref> An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as [[Ahura Mazda]], [[Nana (Kushan goddess)|Lady Nana]], [[Anahita]] or [[Mithra|Mihr(Mithra)]] and portrayed [[Greek mythology|Greek Gods]] like [[Heracles]] or [[Tyche]] as protectors of Buddha.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Adrych|first1=Philippa|url=|title=Images of Mithra|last2=coins)|first2=Robert Bracey (Writer on|last3=Dalglish|first3=Dominic|last4=Lenk|first4=Stefanie|last5=Wood|first5=Rachel|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-879253-6|quote=The Rabatak inscription includes Miiro amongst a list of gods: Nana, Ahura Mazda, and Narasa. All of these gods likely had images dedicated at the Bagolaggo, presumably alongside statues of Kanishka}}</ref><ref name="Allen"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|url=|title=The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History|date=5 November 2015|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14218-0|quote=The two most important deities are goddesses: one is the lady Nana', daughter of the moon god and sister of the sun god, the Kushan form of Anahita, Zoroastrian goddess of fertility}}</ref> The [[Zunbils]] and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870&nbsp;CE by the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid]] Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the [[Samanids]] extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the [[Ghaznavids]] rose to power in the 10th century.<ref name="Elliot-2">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London | date=1867–1877 |access-date=18 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408220905/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |archive-date=8 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Mustawfi">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |title=The Geographical Part of the NUZHAT-AL-QULUB |author =Hamd-Allah Mustawfi of Qazwin |work=Translated by Guy Le Strange |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |year=1340 |access-date=19 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726144951/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Elliot-3">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul (p.3) |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London | date=1867–1877 |access-date=18 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726133107/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref>
 
== Pengurutan ==
By the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively [[Islamized]] the wider region,{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=22-23}} with the exception of [[Kafiristan]].<ref name="nuristan.info">{{cite web|url=http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|title=Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan|author=Richard F. Strand|date=31 December 2005|work=nuristan.info|author-link=Richard Strand|access-date=2 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401180243/http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Mahmud made [[Ghazni]] into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian [[Al-Biruni]] and the poet [[Ferdowsi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Afganistan: A Country Study|date=1986|publisher=Foreign Area Studies, The American University|editor1=Richard Nyrop|editor2=Donald Seekins|page=10}}</ref> The [[Ghaznavid dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Ghurids]], whose architectural achievements included the remote [[Minaret of Jam]]. The Ghurids controlled Afganistan for less than a century before being conquered by the [[Khwarazmian dynasty]] in 1215.{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=23}}
Aksara Sunda modern umum diurutkan menggunakan deret Hanacaraka yang dinamakan berdasarkan lima aksara pertama dalam deret tersebut.{{efn|Setara dengan kata "alfabet" yang berasal dari nama dua huruf pertama dalam [[alfabet Yunani]] (A-B, alfa-beta) serta kata "abjad" yang berasal dari empat huruf pertama dalam [[abjad Arab]] (ا-ب-ج-د, alif-ba-jim-dal).}} Dalam urutan tersebut, ke-20 aksara dasar yang digunakan dalam bahasa Sunda modern membentuk sebuah [[pangram]] yang sering kali dikaitkan dengan legenda [[Aji Saka]].{{sfn|Robson|2011|pp=13-14}}{{sfn|Rochkyatmo|1996|pp=8-11}}<!--Terdapat pula berbagai versi dan legenda lainnya mengenai asal-usul legendaris hanacaraka, misal pada ''Serat Manik Maya'', asal-usul hanacaraka dikaitkan ke seorang tokoh bernama Empu Sangkaadi.{{sfn|Robson|2011|pp=13-14}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=2W25AAAAIAAJ&q=Javaansch+Leesboek&dq=Javaansch+Leesboek&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjFxsG_7KDpAhVBJHIKHTeWAK4Q6AEIbzAI|title=Javaansch Leesboek: vier verhalen uit de oudere Javaansche letterkunde
|year=1937|publisher=H.J. Paris|place=Amsterdam|first=M|last=Prijohoetomo|page=3, 10}}</ref>--> Asal-usul deret ini tidak diketahui dengan pasti, tetapi deret Hanacaraka diperkirakan telah digunakan oleh masyarakat Sunda setidaknya sejak abad ke-15 ketika ranah Sunda mulai menerima pengaruh Islam yang signifikan.{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=5-6}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ricci|first=Ronit|journal=Itinerario|volume=39|issue=03|date=Desember 2015|publisher=Leiden|doi=10.1017/S0165115315000868|title=Reading a History of Writing: heritage, religion and script change in Java|url=https://www.academia.edu/41523387/Reading_a_History_of_Writing_heritage_religion_and_script_change_in_Java|page=424}}</ref> Terdapat berbagai macam tafsiran mengenai makna filosofis dan esoteris yang konon terkandung dalam urutan hanacaraka.{{sfn|Rochkyatmo|1996|pp=35-41}}{{sfn|Rochkyatmo|1996|pp=51-58}}
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width:80%;"
====Mongols and Babur with the Lodi Dynasty====
|+ ''Deret Hanacaraka''
[[File:Genghis Khan empire-en.svg|thumb|260px|[[Mongol invasions and conquests]] depopulated large areas of Afganistan]]
|-style="text-align:center;"
In 1219&nbsp;CE, [[Genghis Khan]] and his [[Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongol army overran the region]]. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of [[Herat]] and [[Balkh]] as well as [[Bamyan, Afganistan|Bamyan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |title=Central Asian world cities |publisher=Faculty.washington.edu | date=29 September 2007 |access-date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723185841/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |archive-date=23 July 2013 }}</ref> The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society.<ref>{{cite news |last=Page |first=Susan |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-02-17-afghanistan-forces_N.htm |title=Obama's war: Deploying 17,000 raises stakes in Afganistan |work=USA Today |date=18 February 2009 |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513040037/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-02-17-afghanistan-forces_N.htm |archive-date=13 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mongol rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]] in the northwest while the [[Khalji dynasty]] administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of [[Timur]] (aka Tamerlane), who established the [[Timurid Empire]] in 1370. Under the rule of [[Shah Rukh]] the city{{which|date=August 2021}} served as the focal point of the [[Timurid Renaissance]], whose glory matched [[Florence]] of the [[Italian Renaissance]] as the center of a cultural rebirth.<ref>Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective – Page 129</ref><ref>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia – Page 465</ref>
|[[Berkas:Hanacaraka legend 1.png|200px]]
|[[Berkas:Hanacaraka legend 2.png|200px]]
|[[Berkas:Hanacaraka legend 3.png|200px]]
|[[Berkas:Hanacaraka legend 4.png|200px]]
|-
| align=center| {{java|ꦲꦤꦕꦫꦏ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦢꦠꦱꦮꦭ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦥꦝꦗꦪꦚ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦩꦒꦧꦛꦔ|18px|0}}
|-
| align=center| ''(h)ana caraka''<br>ada dua utusan
| align=center| ''data sawala''<br>yang berselisih pendapat
| align=center| ''padha jayanya''<br>sama kuatnya
| align=center| ''maga bathanga''<br>inilah mayat mereka
|}
 
Deret hanacaraka bukanlah satu-satunya cara untuk mengurutkan aksara Sunda. Untuk penulisan bahasa [[Sanskerta]] dan [[bahasa Kawi|Kawi]] yang memerlukan 33 aksara dasar, aksara Sunda dapat diurutkan berdasarkan [[fonologi|tempat pelafalannya]] (''warga'') menurut prinsip fonologi Sanskerta yang pertama kali dijabarkan oleh [[Pāṇini]].<ref name="mardikawi"/>{{sfn|Everson|2008|pp=5-6}} Deret ini, yang kadang disebut deret Kaganga berdasarkan tiga aksara pertamanya, merupakan deret standar dalam aksara-aksara turunan [[aksara Brahmi|Brahmi]] yang masih bisa digunakan untuk menulis bahasa Sanskerta, seperti aksara [[Devanagari|Dewanagari]], [[aksara Tamil|Tamil]], dan [[aksara Khmer|Khmer]].
In the early 16th century, [[Babur]] arrived from [[Ferghana]] and captured Kabul from the [[Arghun dynasty]].{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=92–93}} [[Babur]] would go on to conquer the Afghan [[Lodi dynasty]] who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the [[First Battle of Panipat]].{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=75}} Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek [[Khanate of Bukhara]], Iranian [[Safavids]], and Indian [[Mughals]] ruled parts of the territory.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|pp=319, 321}} During the Medieval Period, the northwestern area of Afganistan was referred to by the regional name [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan ([[Herat]] and [[Balkh]]) are now located in Afganistan, while the regions of [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]], [[Zabulistan]], [[Ghazni]], [[Kabulistan]], and [[name of Afganistan|Afganistan]] formed the [[frontier]] between Khorasan and [[Hindustan]]. However, up to the 19th century the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to describe their country; [[Sir George Elphinstone]] wrote with amazement that the country known to outsiders as "Afganistan" was referred to by its own inhabitants as "Khorasan" and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed him to Khorasan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziaeDwAAQBAJ&q=elphinstone+khorasan&pg=PA128|title=Mountstuart Elphinstone in South Asia: Pioneer of British Colonial Rule|first=Shah Mahmoud|last=Hanifi|date=15 July 2019|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780190914400}}</ref><ref name="EI">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ|chapter=Khurasan |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |page=55 |quote=In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the term "Khurassan" frequently had a much wider denotation, covering also parts of what are now Soviet Central Asia and Afganistan |publisher=Brill |year=2009}}</ref><ref name="Routledge">{{cite book |title=Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354 |last1=Ibn Battuta |edition=reprint, illustrated |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-34473-9 |page=416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA180|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416132656/https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA180 |archive-date=16 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Firishta">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |title=The History of India |volume=6 |chapter=Chapter 200: Translation of the Introduction to Firishta's History |page=8 |access-date=22 August 2010 |author =Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah |others=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute |location=London |year=1560|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726121158/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |author-link=Firishta }}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width:80%;"
===Modern history===
|+ ''Deret Sanskerta (Kaganga)''
==== Hotak Dynasty ====
|-style="text-align:center;"
[[File:Map of the Hotak Empire 1715, Mirwais Hotak.png|thumb|300px|Map of the Hotak Empire during the Reign of [[Mirwais Hotak]], 1715.]]
! colspan="5"|''Pancawalimukha''
{{Main|Hotak dynasty}}
! rowspan=3|[[Semivokal|''Ardhasuara'']]
In 1709, [[Mirwais Hotak]], a local [[Ghilzai]] tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated [[Gurgin Khan]] and established his own kingdom.<ref name="Browne">{{cite web|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D29 |title=A Literary History of Persia, Volume 4: Modern Times (1500–1924), Chapter IV. An Outline of the History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722–1922) |author=Edward G. Browne |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |access-date=9 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726142425/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014&ct=29 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother [[Abdul Aziz Hotak|Abdul Aziz]], who was soon killed by Mirwais' son [[Mahmud Hotak|Mahmud]] for possibly planning to concede territories back to the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of [[Isfahan]], captured the city after the [[Battle of Gulnabad]] and proclaimed himself King of Persia.<ref name="Browne" /> The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by [[Nader Shah]] after the 1729 [[Battle of Damghan (1729)|Battle of Damghan]].
! rowspan=3|[[Sibilan|''Ūṣma'']]
! rowspan=3|[[Konsonan celah suara|''Wisarga'']]
|-style="text-align:center;"
! [[Konsonan langit-langit belakang|''Kaṇṭya'']]
! [[Konsonan langit-langit|''Tālawya'']]
! [[Konsonan tarik-belakang|''Mūrdhanya'']]
! [[Konsonan gigi|''Dantya'']]
! [[Konsonan bibir|''Oṣṭya'']]
|-style="text-align:center;"
|[[Berkas:Labiaal.svg|95px]]
|[[Berkas:Dentaal.svg|95px]]
|[[Berkas:Retroflex.svg|95px]]
|[[Berkas:Palataal.svg|95px]]
|[[Berkas:Velaar.svg|95px]]
|-
| align=center| {{java|ꦏꦑꦒꦓꦔ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦕꦖꦗꦙꦚ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦛꦜꦝꦞꦟ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦠꦡꦢꦣꦤ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦥꦦꦧꦨꦩ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦪꦫꦭꦮ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦯꦰꦱ|18px|0}}
| align=center| {{java|ꦲ|18px|0}}
|-
| align=center| ka kha ga gha nga
| align=center| ca cha ja jha nya
| align=center| ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa
| align=center| ta tha da dha na
| align=center| pa pha ba bha ma
| align=center| ya ra la wa
| align=center| śa ṣa sa
| align=center| ha
|}
 
== Contoh teks ==
==== Fall of the Hotak Dynasty ====
Berikut adalah cuplikan ''[[Serat katuranggan kucing|Serat Katuranggan Kucing]]'' yang dicetak pada tahun 1871 dengan bahasa dan ejaan Sunda modern.<ref name="gb">[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=BfRhOG2SfNoC&pg=PP7&hl=id&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Serat Katoerangganing ning Koetjing'' ({{script/Java|ꦱꦼꦫꦠ꧀ꦏꦠꦸꦫꦁꦒꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦁꦏꦸꦠ꧀ꦕꦶꦁ}})], diterbitkan oleh Percetakan GCT Van Dorp & Co di Semarang, tahun 1871. Pindaian Google Books dari koleksi Perpustakaan Nasional Belanda, No 859 B33.</ref>
[[File:Mapofthehotaks1728.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the Hotak Empire at its height in 1728. Disputed between [[Hussain Hotak]] (Centered in Kandahar) and [[Ashraf Hotak]] (centered in Isfahan)]]
{| class="wikitable"
In 1738, Nader Shah and his [[Afsharid dynasty|forces]] captured Kandahar in the [[Siege of Kandahar]], the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah [[Hussain Hotak]]. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invaded India]], Nader Shah had plundered [[Delhi]], alongside his 16 year old commander, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.<ref name="Brit-Durrani">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |title=Ahmad Shah Durrani |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=9 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404104909/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |archive-date=4 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Engels">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |title=Afganistan |access-date=25 August 2010 |author =Friedrich Engels |work=Andy Blunden |publisher=The New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. I |year=1857|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427034439/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |archive-date=27 April 2014 |author-link=Friedrich Engels }}</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Pada
! colspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Bahasa Sunda
! rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Bahasa Indonesia
|-
! style="text-align: center"| Aksara Sunda
! style="text-align: center"| Latin
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 7
| {{script/Java|꧅ꦭꦩꦸꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦲꦮꦏ꧀ꦏꦺꦲꦶꦉꦁꦱꦢꦪ꧈ ꦭꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦁꦏꦶꦮꦠꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦁꦥꦸꦠꦶꦃ꧈ ꦊꦏ꧀ꦱꦤꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦫꦥꦿꦪꦺꦴꦒ꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤ꧀ꦏꦿꦲꦶꦤꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦠꦶꦤꦼꦏꦤꦤ꧀ꦱꦱꦼꦢꦾꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦭꦁꦏꦸꦁꦲꦸꦠꦩ꧈ }}
| ''Lamun sira ngingu kucing, awaké ireng sadaya, lambung kiwa tèmbong putih, leksanira prayoga, aran wulan krahinan, tinekanan sasedyanira ipun, yèn bundhel langkung utama''
| Kucing yang berwarna hitam semua tetapi perut sebelah kirinya terdapat tèmbong (bercak) putih disebut wulan krahinan. Kucing ini membawa kebaikan berupa tercapainya semua keinginan. Lebih baik jika ekornya buṇḍel (membulat).
|-
| style="text-align: center" | 8
| {{script/Java|꧅ꦲꦗꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦭꦸꦫꦶꦏ꧀ꦲꦶꦉꦁꦧꦸꦤ꧀ꦠꦸꦠ꧀ꦥꦚ꧀ꦗꦁ꧈ ꦥꦸꦤꦶꦏꦲꦮꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦭꦩꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ꧈ ꦱꦼꦏꦼꦭꦤ꧀ꦱꦿꦶꦁꦠꦸꦏꦂꦫꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦝꦣꦁꦱꦸꦁꦏꦮ꧈ ꦥꦤ꧀ꦲꦢꦺꦴꦃꦫꦶꦗꦼꦏꦶꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀‍꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦤꦺꦴꦫꦔꦥꦲ꧈}}
| ''Aja sira ngingu kucing, lurik ireng buntut panjang, punika awon lamaté, sekelan sring tukaran, aran dhadhang sungkawa, pan adoh rijeki nipun, yèn bundhel nora ngapa''
| Kucing dengan bulu lurik hitam berekor panjang jangan dipelihara. Kucing itu disebut dhadhang sungkawa. Kehidupanmu akan sering bertengkar dan jauh dari rizki. Apabila ekornya buṇḍel, maka tidak masalah.
|}
 
Berikut adalah cuplikan dari ''[[Kakawin Ramayana|Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa]]'' yang dicetak pada tahun 1900 dengan bahasa dan ejaan Kawi.<ref>{{cite book|first=Hendrik|last=Kern|year=1900|title=Rāmāyaṇa Kakawin. Oudjavaansch heldendicht|place=’s Gravenhage|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Santoso|first=Soewito|year=1980|url=https://archive.org/details/RamayanaKakawinVol.2/page/n111/mode/2up|title=Rāmāyaṇa Kakawin|volume=II|p=398|publisher=International Academy of Indian Culture|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
==== Rise of the Durrani Empire ====
{| class="wikitable"
{{Main|Durrani Empire|Ahmad Shah Durrani}}
|-
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 [[Pashtuns]]. The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his acension in 1747, Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against the [[Mughal Empire]], [[Maratha Empire]], and then receding, [[Afsharid Empire]]. Ahmad Shah had captured [[Kabul]] and [[Peshawar]] from the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conquered [[Herat]] in 1750, and had also captured [[Kashmir]] in 1752.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&q=durrani+capture+kashmir&pg=PA43 | title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris| isbn=9781849043427| last1=Snedden| first1=Christopher| year=2015}}</ref> Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], (1750–1751) and (1754–1755).<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kdl9oAEACAAJ|title=The Pearl in Its Midst: Herat and the Mapping of Khurasan (15th–19th Centuries)|date=2014|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|isbn=978-3-7001-7202-4}}</ref> His first campaign had seen the siege of [[Mashhad]], however he was forced to retreat after 4 months. In November 1750, he moved to siege [[Khanate of Nishapur|Nishapur]], however he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat in early 1751. Ahmad Shah returned in 1754, he captured [[Ferdows|Tun]], and on 23 July, he sieged [[Mashhad]] once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, however Shah rokh was reappointed in 1755. He was forced to give up [[Torshiz]], [[Bakharz]], [[Torbat-e Jam|Jam]], [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], and [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Turbat-e Haidari]] to the Afghans. Following this, Ahmad Shah had sieged [[Khanate of Nishapur|Nishapur]] once again, and captured it.
! rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Pada
! colspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Bahasa Sunda
! rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Bahasa Indonesia
|-
! style="text-align: center"| Aksara Sunda
! style="text-align: center"| Latin
|-
| style="text-align: center" | XVI<hr>31
| {{script/Java|꧅ꦗꦲ꧀ꦤꦷꦪꦴꦲ꧀ꦤꦶꦁꦠꦭꦒꦏꦢꦶꦭꦔꦶꦠ꧀꧈ ꦩꦩ꧀ꦧꦁꦠꦁꦥꦴꦱ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤꦸꦥꦩꦤꦶꦏꦴ꧈ ꦮꦶꦤ꧀ꦠꦁꦠꦸꦭꦾꦁꦏꦸꦱꦸꦩꦪꦱꦸꦩꦮꦸꦫ꧀꧈ ꦭꦸꦩꦿꦴꦥ꧀ꦮꦺꦏꦁꦱꦫꦶꦏꦢꦶꦗꦭꦢ꧉}}
| ''Jahnī yāhning talaga kadi langit, mambang tang pās wulan upamanikā, wintang tulya ng kusuma ya sumawur, lumrā pwekang sari kadi jalada.''
| Air jernih telaga bagaikan langit, seekor kura-kura mengambang di dalamnya bagai bulan, bintangnya adalah bunga-bunga yang bertebaran, menyebarkan sarinya bagaikan awan.
|}
 
== Perbandingan dengan variasi Baku ==
==== Objectives and Invasions of India ====
Kerabat paling dekat dari aksara Sunda adalah [[aksara Sunda]]. Sebagai keturunan langsung [[aksara Kawi]], aksara Sunda dan Sunda masih memiliki banyak kesamaan dari segi struktur dasar masing-masing huruf. Salah satu perbedaan mencolok antara aksara Sunda dan Sunda adalah sistem tata tulis; Tata tulis Sunda cenderung bersifat konservatif dan mempertahankan banyak aspek dari ejaan Kawi yang tidak lagi digunakan dalam aksara Sunda. Sebagai contoh, kata ''desa'' dalam aksara Sunda kini ditulis ꦢꦺꦱ. Dalam tata tulis Sunda kontemporer, ejaan ini dianggap sebagai ejaan kasar atau kurang tepat, karena ''desa'' merupakan kosakata serapan Sanskerta yang seharusnya dieja sesuai pengucapan Sanskerta aslinya: ''deśa'' ꦢꦺꦯ, menggunakan aksara sa ''murda'' alih-alih aksara sa ''nglegena''. Seperti bahasa Sunda, [[bahasa Sunda]] juga tidak lagi membedakan pelafalan seluruh aksara dalam deret Sanskerta-Kawi, termasuk antara sa ''nglegena'' dan sa ''murda'', tetapi ejaan asli selalu dipertahankan kapan pun memungkinkan. Salah satu alasannya agar sejumlah kata serapan dari bahasa Sanskerta-Kawi [[homofon|yang bunyinya sama]] dalam bahasa Sunda dapat tetap dibedakan dalam tulisan, misal antara kata ''pada'' (ꦥꦢ, tanah/bumi), ''pāda'' (ꦥꦴꦢ, kaki), dan ''padha'' (ꦥꦣ, sama), serta antara kata ''asta'' (ꦲꦱ꧀ꦠ, adalah), ''astha'' (ꦲꦱ꧀ꦡ, tulang), dan ''aṣṭa'' (ꦄꦰ꧀ꦛ, delapan).<ref>{{cite book|last=Tinggen|first=I Nengah|year=1993|title=Pedoman Perubahan Ejaan Bahasa Sunda dengan Huruf Latin dan Huruf Sunda|place=Singaraja|publisher=UD. Rikha|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Medra|first=I Nengah|title=Pedoman Pasang Aksara Sunda|place= Denpasar|publisher= Dinas Kebudayaan Pemerintah Daerah Tingkat I Sunda|year=1998|url=http://www.babadbali.com/aksarabali/books/tobacaan.htm|page=44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=fqRkAAAAMAAJ&dq=kamus+inggris+bali+indonesia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjUuJ3l66XpAhVIbSsKHYplDocQ6AEIKzAA|title=Kamus Inggris, Sunda, Indonesia|first=I Gusti Made |last=Sutjaja|year=2006|publisher=Lotus Widya Suari bekerjasama dengan Penerbit Univ. Udayana|isbn=9798286855}}</ref>
{{Main|Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani}}
[[File:Portrait of Ahmad-Shah Durrani. Mughal miniature. ca. 1757, Bibliothèque nationale de France.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] {{Circa|1757}}.]]
Ahmad Shah invaded India 8 times during his reign. With the capture of [[Peshawar]], Ahmad Shah had used this as a convenient striking point to lead his military campaigns into [[Punjab]] and India.
 
Perbandingan bentuk kedua aksara tersebut dapat dilihat sebagaimana berikut:
Ahmad Shah had sought out multiple reasons for his invasions, Ahmad Shah saw Afganistan in a dire state, and one that needed to expand and exploit a weak but rich neighboring country, which Ahmad Shah had capitalized on in multiple opportunities during his Invasions of India, he sought the reasons needed to fill his treasury in a war-plunder conquest based economy.{{sfn|Mehta|p=248}} Ahmad Shah had launched his first invasion in 1748, crossing the indus river, his armies sacked and absorbed [[Lahore]] into the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Realm]]. Ahmad Shah had met Mughal armies at the [[Battle of Manupur (1748)]], where he was defeated and forced to retreat to back to Afganistan.<ref>{{Google books |id=NbUB_ACAR5QC |page=509 |title=History of Islam}}</ref> Ahmad Shah had returned the next year in 1749, where he had captured the area around [[Lahore]] and [[Punjab]], presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah would lead 6 more invasions, the most important being his sixth invasion, with the [[Third Battle of Panipat]], which created a power vacumn in northern India, halting [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] expansion.
 
{| class="wikitable"
===Death of Ahmad Shah and his Successors===
|+ style="text-align: center;" | Aksara Dasar (konsonan)
{{Main|Timur Shah Durrani|Zaman Shah Durrani|Mahmud Shah Durrani|Shah Shuja Durrani}}
|-style="text-align:center;"
Ahmad Shah Durrani had died in October 1772, what followed would be a civil war in succession, with his named successor, [[Timur Shah Durrani]] succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza.<ref name="Drahm">{{cite journal |last1=Drahm |first1=Abdel |title=Afganistan A History From 1260 To The Present |journal=AAF |date=2020 |page=146 |url=https://archive.org/details/Book_1094 |access-date=4 October 2021}}</ref>
!
! ka
! ga
! nga
! ca
! ja
! nya
! ṭa
! ta
! da
! na
! pa
! ba
! ma
! ya
! ra
!ro
! la
! wa
! sa
! ha
|-
! text-align:center;" |Sunda
| align=center| ꦏ
| align=center| ꦒ
| align=center| ꦔ
| align=center| ꦕ
| align=center| ꦗ
| align=center| ꦚ
| align=center| ꦛ
| align=center| ꦠ
| align=center| ꦢ
| align=center| ꦤ
| align=center| ꦥ
| align=center| ꦧ
| align=center| ꦩ
| align=center| ꦪ
| align=center| ꦫ
|
| align=center| ꦭ
| align=center| ꦮ
| align=center| ꦱ
| align=center| ꦲ
|-
! text-align:center;" |Sunda
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮊ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮌ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮍ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮎ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮏ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮑ}}
| align=center|
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮒ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮓ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮔ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮕ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮘ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮙ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮚ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮛ}}
|
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮜ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮝ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮞ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮠ}}
|-
! text-align:center;" |Fon
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬓ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬕ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬗ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬘ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬚ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬜ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬝ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬢ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬤ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬦ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬧ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬩ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬫ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬬ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬭ}}
|
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬮ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬯ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬲ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬳ}}
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
[[Timur Shah Durrani]] ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan, the influential prime minister of the [[Durrani Empire]], and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders in [[Kabul]] and [[Kandahar]] to bring support toward himself. Timur Shah's reforms also saw the capital of the [[Durrani Empire]] being shifted from [[Kandahar]] to [[Kabul]], being able to cover the empire better as a base of ordination since it was essentially the heartland of the empire. This reform saw [[Kabul]] as the modern capital of Afganistan today. Having consolidated power to himself, Timur Shah would fight multiple series of rebellions to consolidate and hold the empire apart, Timur Shah would also lead campaigns into [[Punjab]] against the Sikhs like his father did, however being more successful. Most prominent example of his battles during this campaign would be where Timur Shah led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani, with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen. Against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs would lose over 30,000 in this battle and would stage a Durrani resurgence in [[Punjab]].<ref name="Fayz">{{cite journal |last1=Muhammad Katib Hazarah |first1=Fayz |title=The History Of Afganistan Fayż Muḥammad Kātib Hazārah's Sirāj Al Tawārīkh By R. D. Mcchesney, M. M. Khorrami |journal=AAF |date=2012 |page=131 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-history-of-afghanistan-fayz-muhammad-katib-hazarahs-siraj-al-tawarikh-by-r.-/page/n63/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> The Durranis lost [[Multan]] in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death, following this victory by Timur Shah, Timur Shah was able to lay siege to [[Multan]] and recapture it,<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Muhammad Khan |first1=Ashiq |title=THE LAST PHASE OF MUSLIM RULE IN MULTAN (1752 - 1818) |date=1998 |issue=1 |page=159 |publisher=University of Multan, MULTAN |url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/handle/123456789/5209 |access-date=4 December 2021|type=Thesis }}</ref> incorporating it into the Durrani empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until the [[Siege of Multan (1818)]]. Timur Shah would be succeeded by his son, [[Zaman Shah Durrani]] after his death on 18 or 20 May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, a mistake that would plunge the empire in civil war over succession crises.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=155}}
|+ style="text-align: center;" | Aksara Dasar (vokal)
|-style="text-align:center;"
!
! a
! i
! u
! ṛ
! ḷ
! é{{ref label|1|1}}
! o
! e
! eu
|-
! text-align:center;" |Sunda
| align=center| ꦄ
| align=center| ꦆ
| align=center| ꦈ
| align=center| ꦉ
| align=center| ꦊ
| align=center| ꦌ
| align=center| ꦎ
|
|
|-
! text-align:center;" |Sunda
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬅ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬇ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬉ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬋ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬍ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬏ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᬑ}}
|
|
|-
! text-align:center;" |Fon
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮃ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮄ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮅ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮻ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮼ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮆ}}
| align=center| {{script/Sund|ᮇ}}
| align=center|{{script/Sund|ᮈ}}
| align=center|{{script/Sund|ᮉ}}
|-
| colspan="29" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Catatan'''
<small>
:{{note|1|1}}/e/ sebagaimana e dalam kata "enak"
:{{note|2|2}} [[diftong]] /aj/ sebagaimana ai dalam kata "sungai"
:{{note|3|3}} [[diftong]] /aw/ sebagaimana au dalam kata "pantau"
</small>
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
[[Zaman Shah Durrani]] would succeed to the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Throne]] following the death of his father, Timur Shah Durrani. This instigated civil war with his brothers, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]], and Humayun Mirza revolting against him. With Humayun centered in [[Kandahar]], and Mahmud Shah centered in [[Herat]].{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=158}} Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and also force the loyalty of [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]].{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=158}} Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns into [[Punjab]], with the first two campaigns capturing [[Lahore]], but being forced to retreat due to issues from a possible [[Qajar Iran|Qajar]] invasion, or his brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani revolting. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for [[Punjab]] in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=162}} However, he was forced to withdraw, with his brother, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] revolting, Zaman Shah would be toppled from his reign, replaced by his brother, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]].{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=162}} However, just under 2 years in his reign, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] would be deposed by his brother, [[Shah Shuja Durrani]], on 13 July 1803.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=166}} Shah Shuja would attempt to consolidate the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Realm]], which had been long striven by civil war. Shah Shuja would later be deposed by his brother at the [[Battle of Nimla (1809)]],{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=172}} where [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] would defeat and force Shah Shuja to flee, with Shah Mahmud usurping the throne again for his second reign beginning on 3 May 1809.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=176}}
|+ style="text-align: center;" | Diakritik
|- style="text-align: center"
!
! -a
! -i
! -u
! -é{{ref label|1|1}}
! -o
! -e{{ref label|4|4}}
! -eu{{ref label|5|5}}
! -ng
! -r
! -h
! pemati
|- style="text-align: center"
! Sunda
| -
| ꦶ
| ꦸ
| ꦺ
| ꦺꦴ
| ꦼ
| ꦼꦴ
| ꦁ
| ꦂ
| ꦃ
| ꧀
|- style="text-align: center"
! Sunda
| -
|{{script/Sund| ᮤ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮥ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮦ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮧ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮨ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮩ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮀ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮁ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮂ}}
|{{script/Sund| ᮪}}
|-
!Fon
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center"
!
! ka
! ki
! ku
! ké
! ko
! ke
! keu
! kang
! kar
! kah
! k
|- style="text-align: center"
! Sunda
| ꦏ
| ꦏꦶ
| ꦏꦸ
| ꦏꦺ
| ꦏꦺꦴ
| ꦏꦼ
| ꦏꦼꦴ
| ꦏꦁ
| ꦏꦂ
| ꦏꦃ
| ꦏ꧀
|- style="text-align: center"
! Sunda
| {{script/Sund|ᮔ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮤ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮥ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮦ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮧ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮨ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮩ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮀ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮁ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔᮂ}}
| {{script/Sund|ᮔ᮪}}
|-
!Fon
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="12" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Catatan'''
<small>
:{{note|1|1}} /e/ sebagaimana e dalam kata "enak"
:{{note|2|2}} [[diftong]] /aj/ sebagaimana ai dalam kata "sungai"
:{{note|3|3}} [[diftong]] /aw/ sebagaimana au dalam kata "pantau"
:{{note|4|4}} /ə/ sebagaimana e dalam kata "empat"
:{{note|5|5}} /ɨ/ sebagaimana eu dalam kata bahasa Sunda "peyeum". Dalam alih aksara bahasa Kawi, diromanisasi menjadi ö<ref name="mardikawi"/>
</small>
|}
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width:40%;"
==== Barakzai dynasty and British wars ====
|+ style="text-align: center;" | Angka
{{Further|Dost Mohammad Khan|Herat (1793–1863)|European influence in Afganistan|Anglo-Afghan Wars|Durand Line|Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)}}
|- style="text-align: center"
[[File:Afghan foot soldiers in 1841.jpg|thumb|left|Afghan tribesmen in 1841, painted by British officer [[James Rattray]]]]
!
[[File:Afganistan 1860.png|thumb|400px|Map of Afganistan ([[Emirate of Afganistan|Emirate]]) and surrounding nations in 1860, following the conquest of [[Principality of Qandahar|
! 0
Kandahar]], and before the [[Herat Campaign of 1862–63|conquest of Herat.]]]]
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
|- style="text-align: center"
! Sunda
| ꧐
| ꧑
| ꧒
| ꧓
| ꧔
| ꧕
| ꧖
| ꧗
| ꧘
| ꧙
|- style="text-align: center"
! Sunda
| {{script/Sund|᮰}}
| {{script/Sund|᮱}}
| {{script/Sund|᮲}}
| {{script/Sund|᮳}}
| {{script/Sund|᮴}}
| {{script/Sund|᮵}}
| {{script/Sund|᮶}}
| {{script/Sund|᮷}}
| {{script/Sund|᮸}}
| {{script/Sund|᮹}}
|-
!Fon
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the [[Qajar dynasty|Persians]] in the west and the [[Sikh Empire]] in the east. Afganistan was divided, including the [[Herat (1793-1863)|Emirate of Herat]] centered in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the [[Barakzai dynasty|Barakzai tribe]], installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire, mostly ruling as governors of major cities and provinces. After his murder for apparent treason against the Durrani king. Fateh Khan would be sentenced by [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]], having him executed. His brothers, notably including [[Dost Mohammad Khan]], rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afganistan had many temporary rulers until [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] declared himself emir in 1826.<ref name="Tanner 2009 126">{{cite book |title=Afganistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban |last=Tanner |first=Stephen |year=2009 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-306-81826-4 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=J3pUS_-uD-oC |page=126 }} |page=126}}</ref> [[Punjab]] and [[Kashmir]] were lost to [[Ranjit Singh]], who invaded [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in March 1823 and captured the city of [[Peshawar]] at the [[Battle of Nowshera]].<ref name="Nalwa">{{cite book |title=Hari Singh Nalwa, "champion of the Khalsaji" (1791–1837) |last=Nalwa |first=Vanit |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-7304-785-5 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=ULhgNexD92QC |page=198 }} |page=198}}</ref> In 1837, during the [[Battle of Jamrud]] near the [[Khyber Pass]], [[Wazir Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]] and the Afghan army failed to capture the [[Jamrud Fort]] from the [[Sikh Khalsa Army]], but killed Sikh Commander [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], thus ending the [[Afghan-Sikh Wars]]. By this time the British were advancing from the east and the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|first major conflict]] during "[[the Great Game]]" was initiated.<ref name="Chahryar">{{cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |last=Chahryar |first=Adle |year=2003 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103876-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&pg=PA296|page=296}}</ref>
|+ style="text-align: center;" | Tanda Baca
|-
! rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Sunda
!''pada lingsa''
!''pada lungsi''
!''pada pangkat''
!''pada adeg-adeg''
!''pada luhur''
|-
| style="text-align: center" | ꧈
| style="text-align: center" | ꧉
| style="text-align: center" | ꧇
| style="text-align: center" | ꧋
| style="text-align: center" | ꧅
|-
! rowspan=2 style="text-align: center"| Sunda
!''carik siki''
!''carik parérén''
!''carik pamungkah''
!''panti''
!''pamada''
|-
| style="text-align: center" | {{script/Sund|᭞}}
| style="text-align: center" | {{script/Sund|᭟}}
| style="text-align: center" | {{script/Sund|᭝}}
| style="text-align: center" | {{script/Sund|᭚}}
| style="text-align: center" | {{script/Sund|᭛}}
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
In 1838, a [[British Army|British]] expeditionary force marched into Afganistan and arrested [[Dost Mohammad Khan (Emir of Afganistan)|Dost Mohammad]], sent him into exile in India and replaced him with [[Shah Shuja Durrani|Shah Shuja]], the former [[List of heads of state of Afganistan|Durrani]] king as a puppet on the throne.<ref name=ingram1980>{{cite journal|jstor=40105749 |url=http://pahar.in/wpfb-file/1980-great-britains-great-game-an-introduction-by-ingram-from-intl-hist-rev-v2-s-pdf/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816181410/http://pahar.in/wpfb-file/1980-great-britains-great-game-an-introduction-by-ingram-from-intl-hist-rev-v2-s-pdf/ |archive-date=16 August 2016 |title=Great Britain's Great Game: An Introduction |last1=Ingram |first1=Edward |journal=The International History Review |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=160–171 |year=1980 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1980.9640210 }}</ref><ref name=ingram1984>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fr9cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 In Defence of British India: Great Britain in the Middle East, 1775–1842] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106130452/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fr9cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |date=6 January 2017 }} By Edward Ingram. Frank Cass & Co, London, 1984. {{ISBN|0714632465}}. p7-19</ref> Following an uprising that saw the assassination of [[Shah Shuja Durrani|Shah Shuja]], the [[1842 retreat from Kabul]] of British-Indian forces and the annihilation of [[William George Keith Elphinstone|Elphinstone]]'s army, and the [[Battle of Kabul (1842)|Battle of Kabul]] that led to its recapture, the British gave up on their attempts to try and subjugate Afganistan, and allowed Dost Mohammad Khan as ruler and withdrew their military forces from Afganistan. Dost Mohammad Khan would spend most of his reign consolidating the parts of Afganistan that were lost in the Durrani civil wars. Dost Mohammad Khan would launch numerous campaigns, and also be able to reunite the Afghan realm in his reign, securing [[Herat (1793–1863)]] in the [[Herat Campaign of 1862–63]]. Dost Mohammad died on 9 June 1863, a few months after his [[Herat Campaign of 1862–63|campaign]] to capture [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]]. Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne of Afganistan, between [[Sher Ali Khan]], [[Mohammad Afzal Khan]], and [[Mohammad Azam Khan]] in the [[Afghan Civil War (1863–1869)]]. Sher Ali would win this civil war and would go on to rule the realm until In 1878, the British had returned in the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] which was fought over perceived Russian influence in the region, [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] replaced [[Mohammad Ayub Khan (Emir of Afganistan)|Ayub Khan]] who had succeeded [[Sher Ali Khan]] after his death in 1879. Britain would gain control of Afganistan's foreign relations as part of the [[Treaty of Gandamak]] of 1879, making it an official [[British Protectorate|British Protected State]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Onley |first1=James |title=THE RAJ RECONSIDERED: BRITISH INDIA'S INFORMAL EMPIRE AND SPHERES OF INFLUENCE IN ASIA AND AFRICA |date=March 2009 |volume=XL |issue=Routledge |page=Page 9 of URL/Page 52 |url=https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |access-date=18 September 2021}}</ref> In 1893, Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic [[Pashtun]] and [[Baloch people|Baloch]] territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]], which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afganistan. [[Shia Islam in Afganistan|Shia]]-dominated [[Hazarajat]] and pagan [[Kafiristan]] remained politically independent until being [[Muslim conquests of Afganistan|conquered]] by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-women-hope-more-gains-under-new-administration|title=Afghan Women Hope for More Gains Under New Administration – Afganistan|website=ReliefWeb}}</ref> The ''Iron Amir'' viewed railway and telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British as "[[trojan horse]]s" and therefore prevented railway development in Afganistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/21/afghan.rail/index.html|title=Afghan rail plan among proposals for donors |date=21 January 2002|website=CNN}}</ref> He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, [[Habibullah Khan]].
|+ style="text-align: center;" | Contoh Kalimat (bahasa Kawi)
|-
! style="text-align: center"| Sunda
| {{script/Java|꧅ꦗꦲ꧀ꦤꦷꦪꦴꦲ꧀ꦤꦶꦁꦠꦭꦒꦏꦢꦶꦭꦔꦶꦠ꧀꧈ ꦩꦩ꧀ꦧꦁꦠꦁꦥꦴꦱ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤꦸꦥꦩꦤꦶꦏꦴ꧈ ꦮꦶꦤ꧀ꦠꦁꦠꦸꦭꦾꦁꦏꦸꦱꦸꦩꦪꦱꦸꦩꦮꦸꦫ꧀꧈ ꦭꦸꦩꦿꦴꦥ꧀ꦮꦺꦏꦁꦱꦫꦶꦏꦢꦶꦗꦭꦢ꧉}}
|-
! style="text-align: center"| Sunda
| {{script/Sund|᭛ᬚᬳ᭄ᬦᬷᬬᬵᬳ᭄ᬦᬶᬂᬢᬮᬕᬓᬤᬶᬮᬗᬶᬢ᭄᭞ ᬫᬫ᭄ᬩᬂᬢᬂᬧᬵᬲ᭄ᬯᬸᬮᬦᬸᬧᬫᬦᬶᬓᬵ᭞ ᬯᬶᬦ᭄ᬢᬂᬢᬸᬮ᭄ᬬᬂᬓᬸᬲᬸᬫᬬᬲᬸᬫᬯᬳᬸᬭ᭄᭞ ᬮᬸᬫ᭄ᬭᬧ᭄ᬯᬾᬓᬂᬲᬭᬶᬓᬤᬶᬚᬮᬤ᭟}}
|-
! style="text-align: center"|
| ''Jahnī yāhning talaga kadi langit, mambang tang pās wulan upamanikā, wintang tulya ng kusuma ya sumawur, lumrā pwékang sari kadi jalada.''<br>(Kakawin Rāmāyaṇa XVI.31)
|}
 
== Blok Unicode ==
{{blockquote|How can a small power like Afganistan, which is like a goat between these lions [Britain and Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, [could] stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?|author=[[Abdur Rahman Khan]], the "Iron Amir", in 1900<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/2.htm|title=Afganistan - HISTORY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REwmr2bFYfkC&pg=PA2|title = Afganistan: The Soviet Invasion in Perspective|isbn = 9780817982133|last1 = Arnold|first1 = Anthony|date = June 1985}}</ref>}}
{{Main |Sundanese (blok Unicode)|Sundanese Supplement| l2 = Sundanese Supplement (blok Unicode)}}
Aksara Sunda resmi dimasukkan ke dalam [[Unicode]] sejak April 2008 dengan dirilisnya Unicode versi 5.1. Blok Unicode untuk aksara Sunda adalah U+1B80–U+1BBF dan blok Unicode untuk aksara Sunda tambahan adalah U+1CC0–U+1CCF.
 
{{Unicode chart Sundanese}}
During the [[First World War]], when Afganistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the Central Powers in the [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Their efforts to bring Afganistan into the Central Powers failed, but it caused discontent among the population for keeping neutrality against the British. Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip in February 1919, and [[Amanullah Khan]] eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan provoked the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]], entering British India via the [[Khyber Pass]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Afganistan in the Great War|first=Christopher|last=Wyatt|date=2 September 2015|journal=Asian Affairs|volume=46|issue=3|pages=387–410|doi=10.1080/03068374.2015.1081001|s2cid = 159788830}}</ref>
{{Unicode chart Sundanese Supplement}}
 
== Galeri ==
[[File:King Amanullah standing.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Emir of Afganistan|Emir]] [[Amanullah Khan|Amanullah]] invaded British India in 1919 and proclaimed Afganistan's full independence thereafter. He proclaimed himself [[King of Afganistan]] in June 1926.]]
<!-- Dimohon untuk tidak menambahkan foto lagi karena sudah terlalu banyak. Disarankan untuk menambahkannya ke galeri foto Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Javanese_script -->
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="2" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|align=center colspan=2|
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
Berkas:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Steen met tekst Grissee TMnr 60046661.jpg|Prasasti beraksara Sunda dari sekitar abad ke-18 di kompleks makam Kyai Tumenggung Pusponegoro, [[Gresik]]
Serat jayalengkara wulang 02v-03r.jpg| Salah satu halaman ''Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang'' yang disalin pada tahun 1803, koleksi British Library
Berkas:Mss jav 28 f013v.png| Salah satu halaman ''Serat Damar Wulan'' yang disalin pada tahun 1804, koleksi British Library
Berkas:IND-(NethEastInd)-Government recepis-5 Gulden (1846) unsigned remainder.jpg|Lembar obligasi pemerintahan Hindia Belanda seharga 5 Gulden/Rupiah tahun 1846, dengan nominal yang dieja dengan huruf Latin, abjad [[huruf Pegon|Pégon]], dan aksara Sunda
Berkas:Bromartani.jpg|Koran ''[[Bromartani]]'', koran pertama berbahasa dan beraksara Sunda yang terbit antara tahun 1855 hingga 1856
Berkas:Book title commemorating Wilhelmina's ascension-Semarang 1898.jpg|Halaman judul buku kenang-kenangan yang merayakan kenaikan [[Ratu Wilhelmina]], dicetak di Semarang tahun 1898
Berkas:Serat bratayudha.jpg| Salah satu halaman ''Serat [[Baratayuda|Bratayudha]]'' yang disalin pada tahun 1902, koleksi Widya Budaya
Berkas:Serat damar wulan f.2r.jpg|Halaman pembuka ''Serat Damar Wulan'' yang disalin sekitar abad ke-18, koleksi British Library
Berkas:Javanese advertisement - droste's cacao.jpg|Iklan Droste's Cacao
Berkas:Javanese advertisement - lampoe osram.jpg|Iklan Lampoe Osram
Berkas:Bocah mangkunagaran.jpg|''Bocah Mangkunagaran'' (1937), kumpulan cerita dan informasi mengenai wilayah [[praja Mangkunegaran|Mangkunegara]]
Berkas:IND-78b-De Javasche Bank-5 Gulden (1937).jpg|Uang kertas 5 Gulden yang dikeluarkan [[De Javasche Bank]] tahun 1937, dengan peringatan pemalsuan multiaksara yang termasuk aksara Sunda
Berkas:Prasasti Pakubuwana X.jpg|[[Prasasti Pakubuwana X]] yang memperingati pembangunan sejumlah gapura di Surakarta pada tahun 1938
Berkas:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Demonstratieauto van de Dienst der Volksgezondheid ca. 1925 TMnr 60012956.jpg|Mobil yang digunakan Dinas Kesehatan Rakyat (''Dienst der Volks Gezondheid'') sekitar tahun 1925
Berkas:Netherlands Indies-94-De Javasche Bank-100 Gulden (1946).jpg|Uang kertas 100 Gulden yang dikeluarkan De Javasche Bank tahun 1946, seri Gulden terakhir dengan aksara Sunda yang dicetak ulang pada tahun 1950
Berkas:Jalan Slamet Riyadi (Road sign in Surakarta).jpg|Penggunaan aksara Sunda pada papan nama jalan di Surakarta. Terdapat kesalahan penulisan pada kata ''brigjen'' yang seharusnya ditulis dengan diaktrik ''taling'' agar dibaca ''brigjèn''. [[:Commons:File:Jalan Slamet Riyadi.jpg|Papan nama di jalan yang sama namun ruas yang berbeda]] juga menunjukkan ketidakseragaman ejaan.
Berkas:"+arya+" ꦥꦥꦤ꧀ ꦢꦭꦤ꧀ ꦕꦶꦥ꧀ꦠ ꦩꦔꦸꦤ꧀ꦏꦸꦱꦸꦩ papan nama jalan cipto mangunkusumo cirebon 2020.jpg|Papan nama jalan di Cirebon
Berkas:Tanda bahaya listrik dalam bahasa Belanda, Melayu dan Sunda.jpg|Tanda bahaya listrik dalam bahasa Belanda, Melayu dan Sunda di Surabaya
Berkas:Javanese script in modern use.jpg|Dekorasi kontemporer dengan elemen desain aksara Sunda
Berkas:Yogyakarta Sultanate Hamengkubhuwono X Emblem.svg|Lambang [[Kesultanan Yogyakarta]] dengan stilisasi aksara Sunda di bidang tengahnya
Berkas:"+Arya+" pintu masuk makam buyut tambi 2014.jpg|Pintu masuk situs makam Buyut Tambi di [[Indramayu]], [[Sunda Barat]] menggunakan aksara Sunda. Terdapat kesalahan penulisan pada aksara sa (terbalik) dan pada kata ''kramat'' yang seharusnya ditulis dengan ''sandhangan cakra'' alih-alih ''pasangan'' ra.
Berkas:Mesin ketik beraksara Sunda buatan pabrik Royal Bar-Lock dilihat dari dekat.jpg|Detail tombol-tombol mesin tik aksara Sunda bermerek Royal Bar-Lock yang pernah dipakai oleh [[Keraton Surakarta]] dari tahun 1917 hingga 1960, koleksi Museum Penerangan
<!-- Dimohon untuk tidak menambahkan foto lagi karena sudah terlalu banyak. Disarankan untuk menambahkannya ke galeri foto Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Javanese_script -->
</gallery>
|}
<!--Berkas:Bocah mangkunagaran.jpg|''Bocah Mangkunagaran'' (1937), kumpulan cerita dan informasi mengenai wilayah Mangkunegara
Berkas:Bharata-Yuddha oudjavaansch heldendicht.pdf|''Bharata-Yuddha'' (1903), edisi cetak [[Kakawin Bhāratayuddha]] dalam aksara Sunda dengan bahasa dan ejaan Kawi
Berkas:Coat of arms of Yogyakarta.svg|[[Lambang Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta|Lambang]] [[DI Yogyakarta]] dengan aksara Sunda di bagian pinggir lingkaran merah-->
 
== Lihat pula ==
After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919|Treaty of Rawalpindi]] on 19 August 1919, [[Emir of Afganistan|Emir]] Amanullah Khan declared the [[Emirate of Afganistan]] a [[sovereign state|sovereign]] and fully [[independent state]]. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Weimar Republic]] of Germany.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pj8DIT_bva0C&pg=PA42|title=The Origins of Conflict in Afganistan|first=Jeffery J.|last=Roberts|date=14 June 2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275978785}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title='Drang Nach Osten' Continued? Germany and Afganistan during the Weimar Republic|author=Nicosia, Francis R.|year=1997|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–257|doi = 10.1177/002200949703200207|jstor = 261243|s2cid = 160565967}}</ref> He proclaimed himself [[King of Afganistan]] on 9 June 1926, when the Emirate of Afganistan became the [[Kingdom of Afganistan]]. Following a 1927–28 tour of Europe and [[Turkey]], he introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was [[Mahmud Tarzi]], an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afganistan's 1923 [[constitution of Afganistan|constitution]], which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of [[slavery]] was abolished in the Emirate of Afganistan in 1923.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | year = 1976| volume = 25| encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia Americana]]|publisher=Americana Corporation | page = 24 |title=Afganistan }}</ref> King Amanullah's wife, [[Soraya Tarzi|Queen Soraya]], was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 September 2020|title=Queen Soraya of Afganistan: A woman ahead of her time|url=https://arab.news/5hdva|access-date=3 July 2021|website=Arab News}}</ref>
* [[Bahasa Sunda]]
* [[Sastra Sunda]]
* [[Kongres Aksara Sunda]]
* [[Aksara Nusantara]]
*[[Sundanisasi (aksara)]]
 
== Catatan ==
Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional [[burqa]] for women and the opening of several co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, and this led to the [[Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)]]. Faced with the overwhelming armed opposition, King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to [[Saqqawist]] forces led by [[Habibullah Kalakani]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|title=Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising|last1=Muḥammad|first1=Fayz̤|last2=McChesney|first2=R. D.|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=9781558761544|pages=39, 40|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404143046/https://books.google.nl/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Prince]] [[Mohammed Nadir Shah]], Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|title=Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising|last1=Muḥammad|first1=Fayz̤|last2=McChesney|first2=R. D.|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=9781558761544|pages=275, 276|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404143046/https://books.google.nl/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 by [[Abdul Khaliq Hazara (assassin)|Abdul Khaliq]], a fifteen-year-old [[Hazara people|Hazara]] student who was an [[Amanullah loyalist]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Culture and customs of Afganistan |last1=Hafizullah |first1=Emadi |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-313-33089-1 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bY8ck6iktikC&pg=PA35 |access-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225052702/https://books.google.com/books?id=bY8ck6iktikC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA35 |archive-date=25 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{notelist}}
 
== Rujukan ==
[[Mohammed Zahir Shah]], Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned as King from 1933 to 1973. The [[Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947|tribal revolts of 1944–1947]] saw King Zahir's reign challenged by [[Zadran (Pashtun tribe)|Zadran]], [[Safi (Pashtun tribe)|Safi]], [[Mangal (Pashtun tribe)|Mangal]], and [[Wazir (Pashtun tribe)|Wazir]] tribesmen led by [[Mazrak Zadran]], [[Salemai]], and [[Faqir Ipi|Mirzali Khan]], among others, many of whom were [[Amanullah loyalist]]s. Close relations with the Muslim states Turkey, the [[Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq]] and [[Pahlavi dynasty|Iran/Persia]] were also pursued, while further international relations were sought by joining the [[League of Nations]] in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a [[Da Afganistan Bank|national bank]], and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry.<ref name="Eur2002"/> The country built close relationships with the [[Axis powers]], with [[Nazi Germany]] having the largest share in Afghan development at the time, along with the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and the [[Empire of Japan]].<ref name="Hyman2016">{{cite book|author=Anthony Hyman|title=Afganistan under Soviet Domination, 1964–91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvO-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|date=27 July 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-21948-3|page=46}}</ref>
{{reflist}}
 
===Contemporary historyDaftar pustaka ===
* {{cite book|url=https://www.sastra.org/katalog/judul?ti_id=75|title=Baoesastra Djawa|last=Poerwadarminta|first=W.J.S|publisher=J.B. Wolters|year=1939|isbn=0834803496|location=Batavia|language=JV|ref=harv}}
[[File:Zahir Shah of Afganistan in 1930s-cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mohammed Zahir Shah|King Zahir]], the last reigning monarch of Afganistan, who reigned from 1933 until 1973.]]
* {{cite journal|last=Arps|first=B|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/15216|title=How a Javanese Gentleman put his Library in Order|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|year=1999|issue=3|volume=155|page=416-469|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last=Behrend|first=T E|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41017542_Manuscript_production_in_nineteenth-century_Java_Codicology_and_the_writing_of_Javanese_literary_history|title=Manuscript Production in Nineteenth Century Java. Codicology and the Writing of Javanese Literary History|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|year=1993|volume=149|issue=3|doi=10.1163/22134379-90003115|pages=407-437|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Behrend|first=T E|chapter=Textual Gateways: the Javanese Manuscript Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/illuminationswri0000kuma|title=Illuminations: The Writing Traditions of Indonesia|editor=Ann Kumar|editor2=John H. McGlynn|publisher=Lontar Foundation|year=1996|isbn=0834803496|location=Jakarta|language=EN|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|url=http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf|first=Michael|last=Everson|title=Proposal for encoding the Javanese script in the UCS|journal=ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2|issue=N3319R3|date=6 Maret 2008|publisher=Unicode|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Molen|first=Willem van der|year=1993|title=Javaans Schrift|publisher=Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden|journal=Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië, Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden|place=Leiden|volume=Semaian 8|isbn=90 73084 09 1|language=nl|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=8FNTAAAACAAJ&dq=javaans+schrift&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi42vnx_J3pAhVWbn0KHRTPDeYQ6AEIKDAA|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Molen|first=Willem van der|year=2000|chapter=Hoe Heft Zulks Kunnen Geschieden? Het Begin van de Javaanse Typografie|publisher=Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van Zuidoost-Azië en Oceanië, Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden|title=Woord en Schrift in de Oost. De betekenis van zending en missie voor de studie van taal en literatuur in Zuidoost-Azie|editor=Willem van der Molen|place=Leiden|volume=Semaian 19|language=nl|url=https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Woord_en_schrift_in_de_Oost.html?id=TQjZAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y|isbn=9074956238|page=132-162|ref=harv}}
* {{cite Journal|last=Moriyama|first=Mikihiro|url=https://kyoto-seas.org/pdf/34/1/340108.pdf|journal=Southeast Asian Studies|volume=34|issue=1|date=Juni 1996|title=Discovering the 'Language' and the 'Literature' of West Java: An Introduction to the Formation of Sundanese Writing in 19th Century West Java|pages=151-183|ref=harv}}
* {{cite Journal|url=https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/javanese-script-as-cultural-artifact-historical-background|last=Robson|first=Stuart Owen|year=2011|title=Javanese script as cultural artifact: Historical background|journal=RIMA: Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs|volume=45|issue=1-2|page=9-36|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|url=http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/7638/1/PELESTARIAN%20DAN%20MODERNISASI%20AKSARA%20DAERAH.pdf|title=Pelestarian dan Modernisasi Aksara Daerah: Perkembangan Metode dan Teknis Menulis Aksara Sunda|last=Rochkyatmo|first=Amir|date=1 Januari 1996|publisher=Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan|language=id|ref=harv}}
 
==== Pedoman penulisan ====
Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of [[Prime Minister of Afganistan|Prime Minister]] and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, [[Shah Mahmud Khan]], became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], the king's cousin and brother-in-law, and a [[Pashtun]] nationalist who sought the creation of a [[Pashtunistan]], leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1103837.html|title=Afganistan: History Of 1973 Coup Sheds Light On Relations With Pakistan|access-date=6 July 2019|date=18 July 2003|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|author=Ron Synovitz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626230602/https://www.rferl.org/a/1103837.html|archive-date=26 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> During his ten years at the post until 1963, Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]]. Afterward, the [[1964 Constitution of Afganistan|1964 constitution]] was formed, and the first non-royal Prime Minister was sworn in.<ref name="Eur2002">{{cite book|author=Eur|title=The Far East and Australasia 2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LclscNCTz9oC&pg=PA62|year=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-85743-133-9|page=62}}</ref>
* {{cite conference|url=https://archive.org/details/wewaton-sriwedari|conference=Kongres Sriwedari|year=1926|title=Wawaton Panjeratipoen Temboeng Djawi mawi Sastra Djawi dalasan Angka|author=Koemisi Kasoesastran ing Sriwedari, Soerakarta|publisher=Landsdrukkerij|place=Weltevreden|ref=harv}} Dikenal juga sebagai ''Wewaton Sriwedari'' atau ''Paugeran Sriwedari''. Terjemahan bahasa Indonesia dapat dibaca [https://www.sastra.org/bahasa-dan-budaya/pengetahuan-bahasa/2520-sastra-sriwedari di sini]
* {{cite book|last=Darusuprapta|title=Pedoman Penulisan Aksara Sunda|place=Yogyakarta|publisher=Yayasan Pustaka Nusantara bekerja sama dengan Pemerintahan Provinsi Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, Daerah Tingkat I Sunda Tengah, dan Daerah Tingkat I Sunda Timur|year=2002|isbn=979-8628-00-4|url=https://archive.org/details/pedoman-penulisan-aksara-jawa-2002|ref=harv}}
 
Bahasa Sanskerta dan Kawi
King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. However, Afganistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in [[World War II]] nor aligned with either power bloc in the [[Cold War]] thereafter. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afganistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-war period. On a per capita basis, Afganistan received more Soviet [[development aid]] than any other country. Afganistan had, therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a [[1973 Afghan coup|bloodless coup]] and became the first [[President of Afganistan]], abolishing the monarchy.
 
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/serat-mardi-kawi/W.%20J.%20S.%20Poerwadarminta%20-%20Serat%20Mardi%20Kawi%2C%20Jilid%20I%20%281931%29|title=Serat Mardi Kawi|volume=1|year=1930|publisher=De Bliksem|place=Solo|first=W J S|last=Poerwadarminta|ref=harv}}
====Democratic Republic and Soviet war====
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/serat-mardi-kawi/W.%20J.%20S.%20Poerwadarminta%20-%20Serat%20Mardi%20Kawi%2C%20Jilid%20II%20%281931%29|title=Serat Mardi Kawi|volume=2|year=1931|publisher=De Bliksem|place=Solo|first=W J S|last=Poerwadarminta|ref=harv}}
{{main|Democratic Republic of Afganistan|Soviet–Afghan War|Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/serat-mardi-kawi/W.%20J.%20S.%20Poerwadarminta%20-%20Serat%20Mardi%20Kawi%2C%20Jilid%20III%20%281931%29|title=Serat Mardi Kawi|volume=3|year=1931|publisher=De Bliksem|place=Solo|first=W J S|last=Poerwadarminta|ref=harv}}
{{further|History of Afganistan (1978–1992)}}
{{multiple image
|image1=Afgan1987 Gardez UAZ469.jpg
|caption1=Soviet troops in [[Gardez]], Afganistan in 1987
|image2=Jamiat e-Islami in Shultan Valley 1987 with Dashaka.jpg
|caption2=[[Hezb-i Islami Khalis]] fighters in the Sultan Valley of [[Kunar Province]], 1987
|width2=150
}}
In April 1978, the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afganistan]] (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], in what is called the [[Saur Revolution]]. The PDPA declared the establishment of the [[Democratic Republic of Afganistan]], with its first leader named as [[People's Democratic Party of Afganistan|People's Democratic Party]] general secretary [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]].{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=186-88}} This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afganistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0FvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR16|title=Afganistan War: A Documentary and Reference Guide|first=Ryan|last=Wadle|date=1 October 2018|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440857478}}</ref> The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of [[War in Afganistan (1978–present)|civil war]] by 1979, waged by guerrilla ''[[mujahideen]]'' (and smaller [[Maoist]] guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a [[proxy war]] as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States [[Operation Cyclone|supported]] them through Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI),<ref name=Meher>{{cite book |last=Meher |first=Jagmohan |title=America's Afganistan War: The Success that Failed |publisher=Gyan Books |year=2004 |pages=68–69, 94 |isbn=978-81-7835-262-6}}</ref> and the [[Soviet Union]] sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hussain |first=Rizwan |title=Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afganistan |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2005 |pages=108–109 |isbn=978-0-7546-4434-7}}</ref> Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA&nbsp;– the dominant [[Khalq]] and the more moderate [[Parcham]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Afganistan: A Modern History|publisher=[[I.B.Tauris]]|year=2005|isbn=978-1850438571|author=Rasanayagam, Angelo|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange/page/73 73]|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange|url-access=registration|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref>
 
Bahasa Sunda
In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member, then-prime minister [[Hafizullah Amin]], who assumed the new general secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afganistan|People's Democratic Party]]. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin and thousands of people went missing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/83854.stm|title=Afganistan: 20 years of bloodshed|publisher=BBC|date=26 April 1998|access-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217184807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/83854.stm|archive-date=17 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Displeased with Amin's government, the [[Soviet Army]] invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin just three days later.{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=234}} A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's [[Babrak Karmal]] but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afganistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kalinovsky |first=Artemy M. |title=A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afganistan |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2011 |pages=25–28 |isbn=978-0-674-05866-8}}</ref> The United States and Pakistan,<ref name=Meher/> along with smaller actors like Saudi Arabia and China, continued supporting the rebels, delivering billions of dollars in cash and weapons including two thousand [[FIM-92 Stinger]] [[surface-to-air missiles]].<ref name="The Brunei Times">{{cite web |year=2009 |url=https://www.bt.com/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban |title=Story of US, CIA and Taliban |work=[[The Brunei Times]] |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205090713/http://www.bt.com.bn/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban |archive-date=5 December 2013 }}</ref><ref name="The Nation">{{cite web|year=1999 |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0,1 |title=The Cost of an Afghan 'Victory' |work=[[The Nation]] |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302090727/http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0%2C1 |archive-date=2 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000<ref name="562k">{{cite journal|last1=Lacina|first1=Bethany|last2=Gleditsch|first2=Nils Petter|url=http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf|title=Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths|journal=European Journal of Population|volume=21|issue=2–3|year=2005|page=154|doi=10.1007/s10680-005-6851-6|s2cid=14344770|access-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175909/http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> and 2&nbsp;million Afghans,<ref name="Kakar">{{Cite book|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress|title=The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982|last=Kakar|first=Mohammed|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520208933|quote=The Afghans are among the latest victims of genocide by a superpower. Large numbers of Afghans were killed to suppress resistance to the army of the Soviet Union, which wished to vindicate its client regime and realize its goal in Afganistan.|date=3 March 1997|access-date=7 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106175142/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress|archive-date=6 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2chrSJCW54C&pg=PA129|title=The Widening Circle of Genocide|last=Klass|first=Rosanne|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1994|isbn=978-1-4128-3965-5|page=129|quote=During the intervening fourteen years of Communist rule, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Afghan civilians were killed by Soviet forces and their proxies- the four Communist regimes in Kabul, and the East Germans, Bulgarians, Czechs, Cubans, Palestinians, Indians and others who assisted them. These were not battle casualties or the unavoidable civilian victims of warfare. Soviet and local Communist forces seldom attacked the scattered guerilla bands of the Afghan Resistance except, in a few strategic locales like the Panjsher valley. Instead they deliberately targeted the civilian population, primarily in the rural areas.}}</ref><ref name="Reisman">{{cite web|url=http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf|title=Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afganistan|last1=Reisman|first1=W. Michael|last2=Norchi|first2=Charles H.|access-date=7 January 2017|quote=According to widely reported accounts, substantial programmes of depopulation have been conducted in these Afghan provinces: Ghazni, Nagarhar, Lagham, Qandahar, Zabul, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia, Paktika and Kunar...There is considerable evidence that genocide has been committed against the Afghan people by the combined forces of the Democratic Republic of Afganistan and the Soviet Union.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026182528/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf|archive-date=26 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good|url-access=registration|title=Afganistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban|last=Goodson|first=Larry P.|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-295-98050-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good/page/5 5]}}</ref><ref name="Soviet-war-video">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYUzL1qhltA |title=Soldiers of God: Cold War (Part 1/5) |publisher=CNN |year=1998 |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20160229172016/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DvYUzL1qhltA |archive-date=29 February 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="landmines">[[UNICEF]], [http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm Land-mines: A deadly inheritance] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805102916/http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm | date=5 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afganistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |title=Landmines in Afganistan: A Decades Old Danger |publisher=Defenseindustrydaily.com | date=1 February 2010 |access-date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111130437/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afganistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |archive-date=11 January 2014 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} and displaced about 6&nbsp;million people who subsequently fled Afganistan, mainly to [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/prm/releases/onepagers/202635.htm |title=Refugee Admissions Program for Near East and South Asia |publisher=Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration |access-date=29 December 2013 }}</ref> Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of [[landmine]]s were planted,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1051546.html|title=Afganistan: Land Mines From Afghan-Soviet War Leave Bitter Legacy (Part 2)|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty}}</ref> and some cities such as [[Herat]] and [[Kandahar]] were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistan's [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]] functioned as an organizational and networking base for the anti-Soviet Afghan resistance, with the province's influential [[Deobandi]] ulama playing a major supporting role in promoting the 'jihad'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haroon|first=Sana|year=2008|title=The Rise of Deobandi Islam in the North-West Frontier Province and Its Implications in Colonial India and Pakistan 1914–1996|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=18|issue=1|pages=66–67|jstor=27755911|doi=10.1017/S1356186307007778|s2cid=154959326}}</ref> After the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afganistan|Soviet withdrawal]], the [[Afghan Civil War (1989-92)|civil war ensued]] until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leader [[Mohammad Najibullah]] collapsed in 1992.<ref name="Columbia:Afganistan:History">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html |title=Afganistan: History&nbsp;– ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Infoplease.com | date=11 September 2001 |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810051626/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html |archive-date=10 August 2012 }}</ref><ref name=Stenersen>[https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 'Mujahidin vs. Communists: Revisiting the battles of Jalalabad and Khost] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802084503/https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 |date=2 August 2018 }}. By Anne Stenersen: a Paper presented at the conference ''COIN in Afganistan: From Mughals to the Americans'', Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), 12–13 February 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2018.</ref>{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=239, 244}}
 
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=AupPpeV6EZUC&pg=PP18&dq=Soendasch+spel-+en+lees+boek,+met+Soendasche+letter&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwilx6H1taPpAhUPzTgGHUiXDFoQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Soendasch spel- en lees boek, met Soendasche letter|year=1862|publisher=Landsdrukkerij|place=Batavia|first=K F|last=Holle|ref=harv}}
The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afganistan. The [[militarization]] of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups and other such things becoming the norm in Afganistan for decades thereafter.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archived Version|url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6891/1/Aqab_Mehmood_Malik_Strategic_%26_Nuclear_Studies_2015_NDU_19.05.2016.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909110438/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6891/1/Aqab_Mehmood_Malik_Strategic_%26_Nuclear_Studies_2015_NDU_19.05.2016.pdf|archive-date=9 September 2020|website=prr.hec.gov.pk}}</ref> The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia and military in favor of powerful [[warlords]].<ref name="cdlib">{{Cite web|url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print|title=Afganistan|website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref>
 
Bahasa Madura
====Post–Cold War conflict====
{{see also|Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)|Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate of Afganistan (1996–2001)|Northern Alliance}}
[[File:War in Afganistan (1992–2001).png|thumb|upright=1.5|Development of the civil war from 1992 to late 2001]]
Another civil war broke out after the [[Peshawar Accords|creation]] of a dysfunctional coalition [[Islamic State of Afganistan|government]] between leaders of various ''mujahideen'' factions. Amid a state of [[anarchy]] and factional infighting,<ref name="Amin Saikal">{{cite book |last=Amin Saikal |author-link=Amin Saikal |title=Modern Afganistan: A History of Struggle and Survival |edition=2006 1st |page=352 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York |isbn=978-1-85043-437-5|date=13 November 2004 }}</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch (4)">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands |title=Blood-Stained Hands, Past Atrocities in Kabul and Afganistan's Legacy of Impunity |date=7 July 2005 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212081418/http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands |archive-date=12 December 2009}}</ref><ref name="Roy Gutman">GUTMAN, Roy (2008): How We Missed the Story: Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afganistan, Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace, 1st ed., Washington D.C.</ref> various ''mujahideen'' factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion,<ref name="Human Rights Watch (4)" /><ref name="Afganistan Justice Project">{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |title=Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001 |publisher=Afganistan Justice Project |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm#P81_13959 |title=Afganistan: The massacre in Mazar-i Sharif. (Chapter II: Background) |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]| date=November 1998| access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102042606/http://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm |archive-date=2 November 2008}}</ref> while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting.<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /> Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |page=63|title=Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001 |publisher=Afganistan Justice Project |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> The [[Taliban]] emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (''talib'') from Islamic [[Madrassas in Pakistan|madrassas (schools) in Pakistan]],<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /><ref name="Matinuddin, Kamal 1999 pp.25">Matinuddin, Kamal, ''The Taliban Phenomenon, Afganistan 1994–1997'', [[Oxford University Press]], (1999), pp. 25–26</ref> who soon had military support from Pakistan.<ref name="George Washington University">{{cite web |year=2007 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm#17 |title=Documents Detail Years of Pakistani Support for Taliban, Extremists |publisher=[[George Washington University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002159/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm |archive-date=3 December 2013 }}</ref> Taking control of [[Kandahar]] city that year,<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /> they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of [[Burhanuddin Rabbani|Rabbani]] from Kabul in 1996,<ref name="IRB, Can.,1997">{{cite report |ref={{sfnRef|Chronology of Events|1997}} |title=Afganistan: Chronology of Events January 1995 – February 1997 |date=February 1997 |publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012061437/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Coll, ''Ghost Wars'' (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14.</ref> where they established an [[Islamic Emirate of Afganistan (1996–2001)|emirate]]<ref name=c-profile>[https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afganistan.pdf Country profile: Afganistan (published August 2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625161206/https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afganistan.pdf |date=25 June 2018 }}(page 3). Library of Congress. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</ref> that gained international recognition from 3 countries: [[Pakistan]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11451718
|title=Who are the Taliban?
|date=16 August 2021
|publisher=BBC
|access-date=18 August 2021
|quote=Pakistan was also one of only three countries, along with Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which recognised the Taliban when they were in power in Afganistan.}}</ref> The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic [[sharia]] law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially [[Taliban treatment of women|women]].<ref name=Skain>{{cite book|last=Skain|first=Rosemarie|title=The women of Afganistan under the Taliban|year=2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-1090-3|page=41}}</ref><ref>* {{cite news |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/news/mn-5602 |date=18 November 2001 |author1=James Gerstenzan |author2=Lisa Getter |title=Laura Bush Addresses State of Afghan Women |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010184219/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/news/mn-5602 |archive-date=10 October 2012 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/a-woman-among-warlords/womens-rights-in-the-taliban-and-post-taliban-eras/66/ |date=11 September 2007 |title=Women's Rights in the Taliban and Post-Taliban Eras |work=A Woman Among Warlords |publisher=[[PBS]] |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114011223/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/a-woman-among-warlords/womens-rights-in-the-taliban-and-post-taliban-eras/66/ |archive-date=14 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of [[scorched earth]], burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.<ref name=Rashid2>{{cite book|last=Rashid|first=Ahmed|title=Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia|year=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-830-4|page=253}}</ref><ref name="Newsday 2001">{{cite news|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-12/news/0110120312_1_taliban-fighters-massacres-in-recent-years-mullah-mohammed-omar|title=Taliban massacres outlined for UN|date=October 2001|work=Chicago Tribune|first=Edward A|last=Gargan|access-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916074935/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-12/news/0110120312_1_taliban-fighters-massacres-in-recent-years-mullah-mohammed-omar|archive-date=16 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="papillonsartpalace.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.papillonsartpalace.com/massacre.htm |title=Confidential UN report details mass killings of civilian villagers |access-date=12 October 2001 |work=Newsday |year=2001 |publisher=newsday.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021118162327/http://www.papillonsartpalace.com/massacre.htm |archive-date=18 November 2002 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=APAB&d_place=APAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F8B4F98500EA0F8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |agency=Associated Press |title=U.N. says Taliban starving hungry people for military agenda |date=7 January 1998 |access-date=7 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913121938/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=APAB&d_place=APAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F8B4F98500EA0F8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |archive-date=13 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goodson|first=Larry P.|title=Afganistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics and the Rise of the Taliban|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-98111-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good/page/121 121]}}</ref><ref name="NPR">{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/aug/afghanistan/ |publisher=NPR |title=Re-Creating Afganistan: Returning to Istalif |date=1 August 2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023072254/http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/aug/afghanistan/ |archive-date=23 October 2013 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}}
 
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/madoereeschespr01kiligoog|title=Madoereesche spraakkunst|last=Kiliaan|first=Hendrik Nicolaas|date=1897|location=Batavia|publisher=Landsdrukkerij|ref=harv}}
[[Battle of Kabul (1992–96)|After the fall of Kabul]] to the Taliban, [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] and [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] formed the [[Northern Alliance]], later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the [[Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif (1997–98)|Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif]] in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, [[Pervez Musharraf]], began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.<ref name="Webster University Press Book">{{cite book |last=Marcela Grad |title=Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader |edition=1 March 2009 |page=310 |publisher=Webster University Press }}</ref><ref name="George Washington University" /><ref name="History Commons">{{cite web |year=2010 |url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |title=Ahmed Shah Massoud |publisher=[[History Commons]] |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125130822/http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |archive-date=25 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Maley">{{cite book |last=Maley |first=William |title=The Afganistan wars |year=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-21313-5 |page=288}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed Rashid/The Telegraph">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afganistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |title=Afganistan resistance leader feared dead in blast |work=The Telegraph |location=London | date=11 September 2001 |first=Ahmed |last=Rashid|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108225950/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afganistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |archive-date=8 November 2013 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} By 2000 the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the north-east. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab [[suicide attack]]ers in [[Panjshir Valley]]. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4 Life under Taliban cuts two ways]". ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]''. 20 September 2001 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233031/http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4 | date=30 December 2013 }}</ref>
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FuTuSGlAMXoC&pg=PP1|title=Sorat tjarakan Madurah|year=1866|place=Batavia|ref={{harvid|Sorat tjarakan Madurah|1866}}}} <!-- Nama penulis tidak diketahui, format sfn: {{sfn|Sorat tjarakan Madurah|1866|p=x}} -->
 
==== 21stPranala centuryluar ====
{{commons category}}
{{Further|War in Afganistan (2001–2021)|Islamic Republic of Afganistan|Taliban insurgency|Fall of Kabul (2021)}}
{{commons category|Manuscripts in Javanese script|Naskah Aksara Sunda}}
{{Cleanup|section|reason=Too overloaded, detailed content already covered by the War article|date=October 2021}}
{{commons category|Printed Javanese Script |Publikasi Cetak Aksara Sunda}}
In October 2001, the [[United States invasion of Afganistan|United States invaded Afganistan]] to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over [[Osama Bin Laden]], the prime suspect of the [[September 11 attacks]], who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating his [[al-Qaeda]] network in Afganistan.<ref name="CNN">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc |title=Brigade 055 |publisher=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729101159/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc|archive-date=29 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author =Rory McCarthy in Islamabad |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11 |title=New offer on Bin Laden |newspaper=The Guardian | date= 17 October 2001|access-date=17 July 2012 |location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628053351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11|archive-date=28 June 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/21/politics/trump-afghanistan-pakistan-india/index.html 'Trump calls out Pakistan, India as he pledges to 'fight to win' in Afganistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901150353/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/21/politics/trump-afghanistan-pakistan-india/index.html |date=1 September 2017 }}. CNN, 24 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.</ref> The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country.<ref name="Rejects">{{cite web|date=30 January 2006|title=WPO Poll: Afghan Public Overwhelmingly Rejects al-Qaeda, Taliban|url=http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/10127/Afganistan_Jan06_art2.pdf;jsessionid=51A568EB80A658471A265A1D06EF8ADB?sequence=3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102172723/http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/10127/Afganistan_Jan06_art2.pdf;jsessionid=51A568EB80A658471A265A1D06EF8ADB?sequence=3|archive-date=2 January 2017|access-date=2 January 2017|website=[[University of Maryland Libraries]]|quote=Equally large percentages endorse the US military presence in Afganistan. Eighty-three percent said they have a favorable view of "the US military forces in our country" (39% very favorable). Just 17% have an unfavorable view.}}</ref><ref name="Public Opinion">{{cite web|date=29 January 2015|title=Afghan Futures: A National Public Opinion Survey|url=http://acsor-surveys.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Afghan-Futures-Wave-6-Analysis_FINAL-v2.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329093740/http://acsor-surveys.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Afghan-Futures-Wave-6-Analysis_FINAL-v2.pdf|archive-date=29 March 2017|access-date=2 January 2017|website=[[Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research]]|page=4|quote=Seventy-seven percent support the presence of U.S. forces; 67 percent say the same of NATO/ISAF forces more generally. Despite the country's travails, eight in 10 say it was a good thing for the United States to oust the Taliban in 2001. And much more blame either the Taliban or al Qaeda for the country's violence, 53 percent, than blame the United States, 12 percent. The latter is about half what it was in 2012, coinciding with a sharp reduction in the U.S. deployment.}}</ref> During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end.<ref name="NYTOct8">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html |title=A Nation challenged: The attack; U.S. and Britain strike Afganistan, aiming at bases and terrorist camps; Bush warns 'Taliban will pay a price' |last=Tyler |first=Patrick | date=8 October 2001 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=28 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411134316/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html |archive-date=11 April 2014 }}</ref>
=== Koleksi digital ===
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/ Koleksi naskah British Library]
* [http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/ Koleksi naskah Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia]
* [https://www.sastra.org/katalog Koleksi naskah Yayasan Sastra Lestari]
* [https://widyapustaka.webnode.com/paugeran/ Koleksi acuan Widyapustaka]
* [https://sea.lib.niu.edu/islandora/object/SEAImages%3Alontar?display=list ''Southeast Asia Digital Library'' kompilasi Northern Illinois University]
 
=== Naskah digital ===
[[File:Inbound Choppers in Afganistan 2008.jpg|thumb|right|U.S. troops and [[Boeing CH-47 Chinook|Chinooks]] in Afganistan, 2008]]
* [https://www.loc.gov/item/2012320671/ ''Babad Tanah Jawi''] (1862) koleksi Perpustakaan Kongres AS no. DS646.27
In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the [[Afghan Interim Administration]] under [[Hamid Karzai]] was formed. The [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) was established by the [[UN Security Council]] to help assist the [[Karzai administration]] and provide basic security.<ref>{{UN document |docid=S-RES-1386(2001) |type=Resolution|body=Security Council|year=2001|resolution_number=1386 |access-date=21 September 2007| date=31 May 2001}}&nbsp;– ([[s:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386|UNSCR 1386]])</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nato.usmission.gov/ |title=United States Mission to Afganistan|publisher=Nato.usmission.gov|access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021065112/http://nato.usmission.gov/ |archive-date=21 October 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute [[famine]] at the time, Afganistan had one of the highest [[infant mortality|infant]] and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://merip.org/2001/09/afghanistans-refugee-crisis/|title=Afganistan's Refugee Crisis|date=24 September 2001|website=MERIP}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/research/afghanistan-civilians-risk|title=Afganistan: Civilians at Risk|website=Doctors Without Borders – USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2001/11/01/limbs-of-no-body/|website=Monthly Review |title=Limbs of No Body: The World's Indifference to the Afghan Tragedy|first=Mohsen |last=Makhmalbaf|date=1 November 2001}}</ref> and infrastructure was in ruins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.returntohope.com/inDepth/RebuildingAfganistan#intro|title=Rebuilding Afganistan|website=Return to Hope}}</ref> Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/15/japan.aid.gen/index.html?related|title=Japan aid offer to 'broke' Afganistan |date=15 January 2002|website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/intnlrel193/readings/week6/afghan.html|title=Rebuilding Afganistan: The U.S. Role|website=Stanford University}}</ref>
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Sloane_MS_1403E Catatan utang pada selempir lontar] (1708) koleksi British Library no. Sloane MS 1403E
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=MSS_Malay_A_3 Kamus bahasa Melayu-Sunda-Madura] dari awal abad ke-19, koleksi British Library no. MSS Malay A 3
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Add_MS_12341 Kumpulan dokumen Keraton Yogyakarta] (1786–1812) koleksi British Library no. Add Ms 12341
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Or_15932 ''Papakem Pawukon''] dari Bupati Sepuh Demak di Bogor (1814) koleksi British Library no. Or 15932
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Add_MS_12337 ''Wejangan Hamengkubuwana I''] (1812) koleksi British Library no. Add MS 12337
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Add_MS_45273 ''Raffles Paper'' - vol III] (1816) kumpulan surat-surat yang diterima Raffles dari penguasa-penguasa Nusantara, koleksi British Library no. Add MS 45273
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=MSS_Jav_24 ''Serat Jaya Lengkara Wulang''] (1803) koleksi British Library no. MSS Jav 24
* [https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=MSS_Jav_28 ''Serat Selarasa''] (1804) koleksi British Library no. MSS Jav 28
* [http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/web/detail/335633/usana ''Usana Sunda''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619221833/http://khastara.perpusnas.go.id/web/detail/335633/usana |date=2020-06-19 }} (1870) salinan Sunda dari sebuah lontar Sunda berjudul sama, koleksi Perpustakaan Nasional Indonesia no. CS 152
<!--* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bharata-Yuddha_oudjavaansch_heldendicht.pdf Bharata-Yuddha; oudjavaansch heldendicht] (1903) Bharatayuddha dalam bahasa dan ejaan Kawi[https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=MSS_Jav_36 ''Babad Mataram'' dan ''Babad ing Sangkala''] (1738) koleksi British Library no. MSS Jav 36-->
* [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=0hm2yOwsEgkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Dongèng-dongèng Pieuntengen''] (1867) kumpulan dongeng berbahasa Sunda dan beraksara Sunda yang dikompilasikan oleh [[Muhammad Musa]]
 
=== Lainnya ===
Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered Afganistan to help the [[Reconstruction in Afganistan|rebuilding process]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Julie|last=Fossler|url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/index.aspx|title=USAID Afganistan|publisher=Afganistan.usaid.gov|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017104214/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/Index.aspx|archive-date=17 October 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx?lang=eng |title=Canada's Engagement in Afganistan: Backgrounder |publisher=Afganistan.gc.ca | date=9 July 2010|access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215180833/http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx|archive-date=15 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Taliban insurgency|Taliban began an insurgency]] to regain control of Afganistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and [[Afghan National Army|Afghan troops]] led many offensives against the Taliban, but failed to fully defeat them. Afganistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment, [[Corruption in Afganistan|government corruption]], and the Taliban insurgency.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931&section=8865284&page=1|work=[[ABC News (US)|ABC News]] |access-date=28 September 2010|title=Pakistan Accused of Helping Taliban| date=31 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221050959/http://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931&section=8865284&page=1 |archive-date=21 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afganistan-attacks.html|work=The Telegraph|access-date=28 September 2010|title=Wikileaks: Pakistan accused of helping Taliban in Afganistan attacks | date=26 July 2010|location=London|first1=Rob|last1=Crilly|first2=Alex |last2=Spillius|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129073942/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afganistan-attacks.html|archive-date=29 January 2014}}</ref> Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/afghan-president-karzai-receives-philadelphia-liberty-medal|title=Afghan President Karzai Receives Philadelphia Liberty Medal|website=Philanthropy News Digest (PND)}}</ref> and the [[Afghan government]] was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name [[Islamic Republic of Afganistan]]. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the [[Afghan National Security Forces]]. Following 2002, nearly five million [[Afghan diaspora|Afghans]] were [[repatriated]].<ref name="Adelman2016">{{cite book|author=Howard Adelman|title=Protracted Displacement in Asia: No Place to Call Home|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLYFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167|date=15 April 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-07407-6|page=167}}</ref> The number of NATO troops present in Afganistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11371138|title=The foreign troops left in Afganistan|work=BBC News|date=15 October 2015}}</ref> dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forces.net/operations/afghanistan/how-many-troops-are-currently-afghanistan|title=How Many Troops Are Currently in Afganistan?|first=18 May 2018|last=at 11:38&nbsp;am|website=Forces Network}}</ref>
* [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3319.pdf Proposal Unicode untuk aksara Sunda]
* [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19004-javanese-keret.pdf Dokumentasi Unicode mengenai diakritik KERET]
* [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17038-cakra.pdf Dokumentasi Unicode mengenai diakritik CAKRA]
* [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19083-javanese-pengkal.pdf Dokumentasi Unicode mengenai diakritik PENGKAL]
* [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19003-javanese-tolong.pdf Dokumentasi Unicode mengenai diakritik TOLONG]
* [https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/javanese/ Blog Studi Asia-Afrika British Library, topik Sunda]
* [https://www.omniglot.com/writing/javanese.htm Artikel aksara Sunda] di omniglot.com
* [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/java/ ''Character Picker'' aksara Sunda] oleh Richard Ishida
* [https://bennylin.github.io/transliterasijawa/ Laman transliterasi aksara Sunda oleh Benny Lin]
* Unduh fon aksara Sunda di situs web [https://sites.google.com/site/jawaunicode/main-page Tuladha Jejeg], [https://aksaradinusantara.com/fonta/aksara/jawa Aksara di Nusantara], atau repositori [https://github.com/googlefonts/noto-fonts/tree/main/hinted/ttf/NotoSansJavanese Google Noto]
 
{{Aksara Sunda}}
In September 2014 [[Ashraf Ghani]] became president after the [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] where for the first time in Afganistan's history power was democratically transferred.<ref>{{cite news|title=Huge security as Afghan presidential election looms|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26880022|newspaper=BBC|date=4 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021190735/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26880022|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Afganistan votes in historic presidential election|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26893972|newspaper=BBC|date=5 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021152941/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26893972|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Shalizi and Harooni|first=Hamid and Mirwais|title=Landmark Afganistan Presidential Election Held Under Shadow of Violence|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/04/landmark-afghan-election-_n_5095143.html|newspaper=HuffPost|date=4 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225603/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/04/landmark-afghan-election-_n_5095143.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Afganistan's Future: Who's Who in Pivotal Presidential Election|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/afghanistans-future-whos-who-pivotal-presidential-election-n24756|work=NBC News|access-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930203820/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/afghanistans-future-whos-who-pivotal-presidential-election-n24756|archive-date=30 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Afghan president Ashraf Ghani inaugurated after bitter campaign|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/29/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-inaugurated|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421221706/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/29/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-inaugurated|archive-date=21 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afganistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led [[Operation Resolute Support]] was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.<ref name="2014APcessation">{{cite news|title=U.S. formally ends the war in Afganistan|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|access-date=28 December 2014|agency=Associated Press|issue=online|publisher=CBA News|date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228152651/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|archive-date=28 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Guardian28">{{cite news|title=Nato ends combat operations in Afganistan|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|access-date=11 January 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|date=28 December 2014|location=Kabul|author=Sune Engel Rasmussen in Kabul|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102134349/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|archive-date=2 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. formally ends the war in Afganistan|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|work=CBS News|access-date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228152651/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|archive-date=28 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and continue their fight against the Taliban.<ref name="soufangroup">{{cite web|url=http://www.soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-afghanistan-16-0/|title=TSG IntelBrief: Afganistan 16.0|website=The Soufan Group|access-date=27 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809184149/http://www.soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-afghanistan-16-0/|archive-date=9 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was estimated in 2015 that "about 147,000 people have been killed in the Afganistan war since 2001. More than 38,000 of those killed have been civilians".<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan Civilians|url=http://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/costs/human/civilians/afghan|publisher=Brown University|year=2015|access-date=3 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906062451/http://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/costs/human/civilians/afghan|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> A report titled ''Body Count'' concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afganistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.<ref name="IPPNW">
{{Aksara}}
* [http://www.ippnw.de/commonFiles/pdfs/Frieden/Body_Count_first_international_edition_2015_final.pdf "Body Count – Casualty Figures after 10 Years of the 'War on Terror' – Iraq Afganistan Pakistan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430175027/http://www.ippnw.de/commonFiles/pdfs/Frieden/Body_Count_first_international_edition_2015_final.pdf |date=30 April 2015 }} (PDF), by [[IPPNW]], [[Physicians for Global Survival|PGS]] and [[Physicians for Social Responsibility|PSR]], First international edition (March 2015)
{{Bahasa Sunda}}
* {{cite news |author=Gabriela Motroc |url=http://www.australiannationalreview.com/war-terror-reportedly-killed-13-million-people-decade/ |title=U.S. War on Terror has reportedly killed 1.3&nbsp;million people in a decade |work=Australian National Review |date=7 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505004045/http://www.australiannationalreview.com/war-terror-reportedly-killed-13-million-people-decade/ |archive-date=5 May 2015 }}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/30-Mar-2015/220-000-killed-in-us-war-in-afghanistan-80-000-in-pakistan-report |title=220,000 killed in US war in Afganistan 80,000 in Pakistan: report |work=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]] |date=30 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505055409/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/30-Mar-2015/220-000-killed-in-us-war-in-afghanistan-80-000-in-pakistan-report |archive-date=5 May 2015 }}
</ref>
[[File:2021 Taliban Offensive.png|thumb|left|A map of Afganistan showing the [[2021 Taliban offensive]]]]
On 14 April 2021, NATO Secretary General [[Jens Stoltenberg]] said the alliance had agreed to start [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afganistan (2020–2021)|withdrawing its troops from Afganistan]] by 1 May.<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO to Cut Forces in Afganistan, Match US Withdrawal |url=https://www.voanews.com/usa/nato-cut-forces-afghanistan-match-us-withdrawal |work=[[VOA News]] |date=14 April 2021}}</ref> Soon after the withdrawal of NATO troops started, the [[Taliban]] launched an [[2021 Taliban offensive|offensive against the Afghan government]], quickly advancing in front of collapsing Afghan government forces.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=Nic |title=Afganistan is disintegrating fast as Biden's troop withdrawal continues |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/24/asia/afghanistan-taliban-offensive-intl-cmd/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=24 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afganistan stunned by scale and speed of security forces' collapse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/13/afghanistan-stunned-by-scale-and-speed-of-security-forces-collapse |work=The Guardian |date=13 July 2021}}</ref> On 15 August 2021, as the Taliban once again controlled a vast majority of Afghan territory, they [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|re-captured the capital city of Kabul]], and many civilians, government officials and foreign diplomats were evacuated.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Afghan government's collapse is a humiliation for the US and Joe Biden |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2021/08/afghan-government-s-collapse-humiliation-us-and-joe-biden |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[New Statesman]] |date=15 August 2021}}</ref> President Ghani fled Afganistan that day.<ref>{{cite news |title=President Ashraf Ghani Flees Afganistan, Taliban Take Over Kabul: Report |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/taliban-enter-afghan-capital-kabul-news-agency-afp-2510885 |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=NDTV.com |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815081516/https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/taliban-enter-afghan-capital-kabul-news-agency-afp-2510885 |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 16 August 2021, an unofficial [[Coordination Council (Afganistan)|Coordination Council]] led by senior statesmen was in the process of coordinating the transfer of the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of Afganistan to the Taliban.<ref name="trib">{{cite news |title='Coordination council' to oversee peaceful transfer of power in Afganistan: Karzai |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2315763/coordination-council-to-oversee-peaceful-transfer-of-power-in-afghanistan-karzai |access-date=16 August 2021 |work=[[The Express Tribune]] |date=15 August 2021}}</ref> On 17 August, the First Vice President of the Islamic Republic of Afganistan, [[Amrullah Saleh]], proclaimed himself the caretaker [[President of Afganistan]] and announced the formation of an [[National Resistance Front of Afganistan|anti-Taliban front]] with a reported 6,000+ troops<ref>{{cite web|title=Operations|url=https://www.nrfafg.org/operations|access-date=21 August 2021|website=The National Resistance Front: Fighting for a Free Afganistan|publisher=National Resistance Front of Afganistan|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906001614/https://www.nrfafg.org/operations|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Anti-Taliban forces say they've taken three districts in Afganistan's north|date=21 August 2021|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/anti-taliban-forces-say-theyve-taken-three-districts-afghanistans-north-2021-08-21/|publisher=Reuters|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> in the [[Panjshir Valley]], along with [[Ahmad Massoud]].<ref>{{cite web|title=An anti-Taliban front forming in Panjshir? Ex top spy Saleh, son of 'Lion of Panjshir' meet at citadel|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2021/08/17/an-anti-taliban-front-forming-in-panjshir-ex-top-spy-saleh-son-of-lion-of-panjshir-meet-at-citadel.html|access-date=17 August 2021|website=The Week}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=17 August 2021|title=Afghan Vice President Saleh Declares Himself Caretaker President; Reaches Out To Leaders for Support|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/afghan-vice-president-saleh-declares-himself-caretaker-president-reaches-out-to-leaders-for-support-4097117.html|access-date=17 August 2021|website=News18}}</ref> However, on 6 September, the Taliban took control of most of the [[Panjshir province]], with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains to continue fighting within the province.<ref name="ft">{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/5b4b7b58-1edf-4510-ad15-813487f3c80e|title=Taliban says it has captured last Afghan region of resistance|last1=Kazmin|first1=Amy|last2=Findlay|first2=Stephanie|last3=Bokhari|first3=Farhan|work=[[Financial Times]]|date=6 September 2021|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref> Fights in the valley ceased mid-September,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/panjshir-resistance-taliban-massoud.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/panjshir-resistance-taliban-massoud.html |archive-date=2021-12-28 |url-access=limited|title = In Panjshir, Few Signs of an Active Resistance, or Any Fight at All|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 17 September 2021|last1 = Huylebroek|first1 = Jim|last2 = Blue|first2 = Victor J.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> while resistances leaders [[Amrullah Saleh]] and [[Ahmad Massoud]] fled to neighboring [[Tajikistan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/middle-east-watch/after-renegade-province%E2%80%99s-fall-panjshir-resistance-leaders-surface-tajikistan|title = The National Interest: Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan resistance has sanctuary in Tajikistan, but fighting Taliban a 'non-viable prospect'|url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20211004-afghan-resistance-has-sanctuary-in-tajikistan-but-fighting-taliban-a-non-viable-prospect|agency=FRANCE24.English|website=France 24|date=4 October 2021|access-date=5 October 2021|publication-date=}}.</ref><ref name="ft"/>
[[File:Taliban Humvee in Kabul, August 2021 (cropped).png|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Taliban fighters in Kabul on a captured [[Humvee]] following the [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|2021 fall of Kabul]].]]
The Islamic Emirate of Afganistan was swiftly restored as its opponents were defeated or left the country. It is apparently led by [[Head of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan|supreme leader]] [[Hibatullah Akhundzada]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=Zucchino|first=David|date=1 September 2021|title=Shifting to Governing, Taliban Will Name Supreme Afghan Leader|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-government-leader.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-government-leader.html |archive-date=2021-12-28 |url-access=limited|access-date=6 September 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and acting [[Prime Minister of Afganistan|Prime Minister]] [[Hasan Akhund]], who took office on 7 September 2021.<ref name="akhund1">{{Cite news|title=گروه طالبان حکومت جدید خود را با رهبری ملا حسن اخوند اعلام کرد|newspaper=BBC News فارسی|url=https://www.bbc.com/persian/afghanistan-58477769}}</ref><ref name="akhund2">{{Cite news|date=7 September 2021|title=Taliban announce new government for Afganistan|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750}}</ref> Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban<ref name=akhund_tribunepk>{{cite news|title=Profile: Who is Afganistan's new caretaker prime minister?|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2319144/profile-who-is-afghanistans-new-caretaker-prime-minister|newspaper=The Express Tribune |date=8 September 2021}}</ref> and was a deputy Prime Minister in their previous Emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners.<ref name="akhund3">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|title=Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=7 September 2021}}</ref> A [[Cabinet of Afganistan|new, all-male cabinet]] was formed including [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]] as Minister of Justice.<ref name="TOLOnews_Taliban_Cabinet_2.0rc1">{{cite news | title= Taliban Announces Head of State, Acting Ministers | date= 7 September 2021 |newspaper= [[TOLOnews]] | url= https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174556 |access-date= 7 September 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210907182414/https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174556 |archive-date= 7 September 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NPR_Taliban_Cabinet_2.0rc1">{{cite news | title= Taliban Name Their Deputy Ministers, Doubling Down On An All-Male Team | date= 21 September 2021 |website= [[NPR]] | url= https://www.npr.org/2021/09/21/1039232797/taliban-women-all-male-government-cabinet-ministers |access-date= 8 October 2021}}</ref> On 20 September 2021, [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations Secretary-General]] [[António Guterres]] received a letter from acting [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afganistan)|minister of Foreign Affairs]] [[Amir Khan Muttaqi]] to formally claim Afganistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman in [[Doha]], [[Suhail Shaheen]], and asked to address the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]]. During the previous Taliban rule from 1996 to 2001, the [[United Nations]] never recognized their representatives and chose to work with the then-government in exile instead.<ref name="taliban_un_2021_1">{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/9/24/who-will-speak-for-afghanistan-at-the-united-nations|title=Who will speak for Afganistan at the United Nations?|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=26 September 2021}}</ref>
 
Western nations have suspended most humanitarian aid to Afganistan following the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021 and the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] also halted payments.<ref>{{cite news |title=China urges World Bank, IMF to help Afganistan |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/world/news/china-urges-world-bank-imf-to-help-afghanistan-20211028 |work=News24 |date=28 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afganistan: Can the Taliban avert a food crisis without foreign aid? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-can-the-taliban-avert-a-food-crisis-without-foreign-aid/a-59790464 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=11 November 2021}}</ref> In October 2021, more than half of Afganistan's 39 million people faced an acute [[Food security|food shortage]].<ref>{{cite news |title='Countdown to catastrophe': half of Afghans face hunger this winter – UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/25/countdown-to-catastrophe-half-of-afghans-face-hunger-this-winter-un |work=The Guardian |date=25 October 2021}}</ref> On 11 November 2021, the ''Human Rights Watch'' reported that Afganistan was facing widespread [[famine]] due to an economic and banking crisis.<ref>{{cite news |title=Afganistan Facing Famine: UN, World Bank, US Should Adjust Sanctions, Economic Policies |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/11/afghanistan-facing-famine# |work=Human Rights Watch |date=11 November 2021}}</ref>
 
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Afganistan}}
{{Map of Afganistan}}
Afganistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.<ref name="South Asia">* {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=U.S. maps |publisher=Pubs.usgs.gov |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |archive-date=25 December 2013 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar |title=South Asia: Data, Projects, and Research |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301035209/http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar |archive-date=1 March 2015 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=MAPS SHOWING GEOLOGY, OIL AND GAS FIELDS AND GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES OF SOUTH ASIA (Includes Afganistan) |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |archive-date=25 December 2013 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |title=University of Washington Jackson School of International Studies: The South Asia Center |access-date=2 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100846/http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |title=Syracruse University: The South Asia Center |date=26 March 2013 |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326065054/http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |archive-date=26 March 2015 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ii.umich.edu/csas |title=Center for South Asian studies |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211204817/http://www.ii.umich.edu/csas/ |archive-date=11 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UNdata">{{cite web |url=http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia |title=Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings |publisher=[[UNdata]] | date=26 April 2011 |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713041240/http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm |archive-date=13 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afganistan |title=Afganistan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225235842/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afganistan |archive-date=25 February 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tan |first1=Anjelica |title=A new strategy for Central Asia |url=https://thehill.com/opinion/international/483511-a-new-strategy-for-central-asia |work=TheHill |date=18 February 2020 |quote=, as Afghan President Ashraf Ghani has noted, Afganistan is itself a Central Asian country.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Afganistan {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University |isbn=9781107619500 |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghanistan }}</ref> The region centered at Afganistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia",<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA257|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia|first=Jason|last=Neelis|date=19 November 2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004181595}}</ref> and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh01.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 June 2020 |archive-date=30 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830013605/https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh01.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The renowned [[Urdu]] poet [[Allama Iqbal]] once wrote about the country:<br />{{blockquote|Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its discord, the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.}}
 
At over {{convert|652864|km2|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Land area (sq. km) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |work=World Development Indicators |publisher=World Bank |access-date=13 October 2011 |year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185313/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref> Afganistan is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|41st largest country]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html#af |title=CIA Factbook&nbsp;– Area: 41 |publisher=CIA | date=26 November 1991 |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |archive-date=31 January 2014 }}</ref> slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afganistan is [[landlocked]]. Afganistan shares its longest land border (the [[Durand Line]]) with Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the north-east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the north-east; India recognizes a border with Afganistan through Pakistani-administered [[Kashmir]].<ref>[https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf "International Land Border."] India Ministry of Home Affairs. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</ref> Clockwise from south-west, Afganistan shares borders with the [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province]], [[South Khorasan Province]] and [[Razavi Khorasan Province]] of Iran; [[Ahal Region]], [[Mary Region]] and [[Lebap Region]] of Turkmenistan; [[Surxondaryo Region]] of Uzbekistan; [[Khatlon Region]] and [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]] of Tajikistan; [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] of China; and the [[Gilgit-Baltistan|Gilgit-Baltistan territory]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan province]] of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cary Gladstone|title=Afganistan Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA121|year=2001|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-421-8|page=121}}</ref>
 
The geography in Afganistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins.<ref name="auto7">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LclscNCTz9oC&pg=PA59|title=The Far East and Australasia 2003|date=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431339|chapter=Afganistan: Physical and Social Geography|last=Fisher|first=W. B.|pages=59–60}}</ref> It is dominated by the [[Hindu Kush]] range, the western extension of the [[Himalayas]] that stretches to eastern [[Tibet]] via the [[Pamir Mountains]] and [[Karakoram Mountains]] in Afganistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "[[Roof of the World]]". The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the [[Turkestan]] Plains and the [[Sistan Basin]]; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_AdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|title=Afganistan|first=Kim|last=Whitehead|date=21 October 2014|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781633559899}}</ref> Forests exist in the corridor between [[Nuristan]] and [[Paktika]] provinces (see [[East Afghan montane conifer forests]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cropwatch.unl.edu/documents/Forests%20of%20Afganistan.pdf |title=Forests of Afganistan |website=cropwatch.unl.edu |access-date=28 June 2021 }}</ref> and [[tundra]] in the north-east. The country's highest point is [[Noshaq]], at {{convert|7492|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="Factbook"/> The lowest point lies in [[Jowzjan Province]] along the Amu River bank, at {{convert|258|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.
 
[[File:Afghan topo en.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|The mountainous [[topography]] of Afganistan]]
Despite having numerous rivers and [[list of dams and reservoirs in Afganistan|reservoirs]], large parts of the country are dry. The [[endorheic]] Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |title=History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976–2005 |access-date=20 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807214557/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Amu Darya]] rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby [[Hari Rud]] flows west towards [[Herat]], and the [[Arghandab River]] from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the [[Indus River]],<ref name="auto7"/> such as the [[Helmand River]]. One exception is the [[Kabul River]] which flows in an easternly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/RiversLakes.htm|title=Afganistan Rivers Lakes – Afganistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815172309/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/RiversLakes.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Afganistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Pamir Mountains]], and the melting snow in the spring season enters the [[list of rivers of Afganistan|rivers, lakes, and streams]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |title=Snow in Afganistan: Natural Hazards |publisher=NASA | date=3 February 2006 |access-date=6 May 2012|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235107/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |archive-date=30 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |work=Reuters |title=Snow may end Afghan drought, but bitter winter looms | date=18 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233432/http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/01/18/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |archive-date=30 December 2013 }}</ref> However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of [[Iran]], Pakistan, and [[Turkmenistan]]. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2&nbsp;billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afganistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |title=Afganistan's woeful water management delights neighbors |work=The Christian Science Monitor | date=15 June 2010 |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114131338/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afganistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |archive-date=14 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 
The northeastern Hindu Kush [[mountain range]], in and around the [[Badakhshan Province]] of Afganistan, is in a [[natural environment#Geological activity|geologically active]] area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.<ref name="crone2007">{{cite techreport |last=Crone |first=Anthony J. |title=Earthquakes Pose a Serious Hazard in Afganistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |publisher=[[US Geological Survey]] |access-date=14 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet FS 2007–3027 | date=April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727072311/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> They can be deadly and destructive, causing [[landslide]]s in some parts or [[2009 Afghan avalanches|avalanches]] during the winter.<ref>{{cite web|title=Earthquake Hazards |url=http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004040745/http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 October 2011 |work=USGS Projects in Afganistan |publisher=US Geological Survey |access-date=13 October 2011 | date=1 August 2011 }}</ref> The last strong earthquakes were in [[February 1998 Afganistan earthquake|1998]], which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan.<ref name="bbcquake2010">{{cite news |title='Seven dead' as earthquake rocks Afganistan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8628901.stm |access-date=13 October 2011 |newspaper=BBC News | date=19 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000835/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8628901.stm |archive-date=31 December 2013 }}</ref> This was followed by the [[2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes]] in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A [[2010 Afganistan earthquake|2010 earthquake]] left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed.
 
===Climate===
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map AFG present.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate map]] of Afganistan<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F.|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |pages=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>]]
Afganistan has a [[continental climate]] with harsh winters in the [[Hazarajat|central highlands]], the glaciated northeast (around [[Nuristan]]), and the [[Wakhan Corridor]], where the average temperature in January is below {{convert|-15|C}} and can reach {{convert|-26|C}},<ref name="auto7"/> and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the [[Sistan Basin]] of the southwest, the [[Jalalabad]] basin in the east, and the [[Afghan Turkestan|Turkestan]] plains along the [[Amu River]] in the north, where temperatures average over {{convert|35|C}} in July<ref name="Factbook"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Afganistan {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Capital, Population, & Languages|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Afganistan|access-date=23 March 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> and can go over {{convert|43|C}}.<ref name="auto7"/> The country is generally [[arid]] in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afganistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afganistan is mostly outside the [[monsoon]] zone,<ref name="auto7"/> except the [[Nuristan Province]] which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69V7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31|title=Terraced Landscapes|first=Drago|last=Kladnik|date=1 September 2017|publisher=Založba ZRC|isbn=9789610500193}}</ref>
 
===Biodiversity===
{{main|Wildlife of Afganistan}}
[[File:Schneeleopard- P1020498.jpg|thumb|The [[snow leopard]] was the official national animal of the [[Islamic Republic of Afganistan]]]]
Several types of [[mammal]]s exist throughout Afganistan. [[Snow leopard]]s, [[Siberian tiger]]s and [[brown bear]]s live in the high elevation [[alpine tundra]] regions. The [[Marco Polo sheep]] exclusively live in the [[Wakhan Corridor]] region of north-east Afganistan. [[Fox]]es, [[wolves]], [[otter]]s, [[deer]], [[wild sheep]], [[lynx]] and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, [[hedgehog]]s, [[gopher]]s, and large carnivores such as [[Golden jackal|jackal]]s and [[Striped hyena|hyena]]s.<ref name="auto8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5QY3vCg338C&pg=PA22|title=Afganistan, Second Edition|first1=Jeffrey A.|last1=Gritzner|first2=John F.|last2=Shroder|date=14 June 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438104805}}</ref>
 
[[Gazelle]]s, [[wild boar|wild pigs]] and jackals populate the [[steppe]] plains of the south and west, while [[mongoose]] and [[cheetah]]s exist in the semi-desert south.<ref name="auto8"/> [[Marmot]]s and [[ibex]] also live in the high mountains of Afganistan, and [[pheasant]]s exist in some parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/PlantAnimal.htm|title=Afganistan Plant and Animal Life – Afganistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711065504/http://www.afghanistans.com/information/PlantAnimal.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Afghan hound]] is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west.<ref name="auto9">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y20MTE0C9kwC&pg=PA10|title=A Brief History of Afganistan|first1=Shaista|last1=Wahab|first2=Barry|last2=Youngerman|date=14 June 2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438108193}}</ref>
 
[[Endemic]] fauna of Afganistan includes the [[Afghan flying squirrel]], [[Afghan snowfinch]], [[Afghanodon]] (or the "[[Paghman]] mountain salamander"), ''[[Stigmella kasyi]]'', ''[[Vulcaniella kabulensis]]'', [[Afghan leopard gecko]], ''[[Wheeleria parviflorellus]]'', amongst others. Endemic flora include ''[[Iris afghanica]]''. Afganistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within.<ref name="auto9"/>
 
The forest region of Afganistan has vegetation such as [[pine tree]]s, [[spruce tree]]s, [[fir tree]]s and [[larch]]es, whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of [[broadleaf tree]]s, short grass, [[perennial plant]]s and [[shrubland]]s. The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants.<ref name="auto8"/> Several regions are designated [[List of protected areas of Afganistan|protected areas]]; there are three [[national parks]]: [[Band-e Amir]], [[Wakhan National Park|Wakhan]] and [[Nuristan National Park|Nuristan]]. Afganistan had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Afghans|Demographics of Afganistan|Afghan diaspora}}
[[File:Afganistan ethnic groups 2005.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A 2005 CIA map showing traditional Afghan tribal territories. [[Pashtun tribes]] form the world's largest tribal society.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ag-afghanistan.de/files/glatzer/tribal_system.pdf |title=The Pashtun Tribal System |last1=Glatzer |first1=Bernt |date=2002 |publisher=Concept Publishers |location=New Delhi }}</ref>]]
The population of Afganistan was estimated at 32.9&nbsp;million as of 2019 by the Afganistan Statistics and Information Authority,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/nsia-estimates-afghanistan-population-329m|title=NSIA Estimates Afganistan Population at 32.9M|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> whereas the UN estimates over 38.0&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web | title=Afganistan Population 2020 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs) | website=2020 World Population by Country | date=26 April 2020 | url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/afghanistan-population/ | access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref> In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5 million.<ref>"[https://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml United Nations and Afganistan]". UN News Centre. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031084259/https://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> About 23.9% of them are [[urban area|urbanite]], 71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.<ref name= "https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/afghanistan-population/">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info|title=Afghan Population Estimates 2020|publisher=Worldmeters|year=2020|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/afghanistan-population/|archive-date=26 November 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> An additional 3&nbsp;million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]], most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afganistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years.
 
The current population growth rate is 2.37%,<ref name="Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ |title=Afganistan |work=The World Factbook |publisher=cia.gov |access-date=22 August 2018 }}</ref> one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82&nbsp;million by 2050 if current population trends continue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afganistan.aspx |title=Afganistan&nbsp;– Population Reference Bureau |publisher=[[Population Reference Bureau]] |access-date=29 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202224051/http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afganistan.aspx|archive-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> The population of Afganistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan Households in Iran: Profile and Impact |url=http://www.unhcr.org/455835d92.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223013910/https://www.unhcr.org/455835d92.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2018|first1=Piyasiri |last1=Wickramasekara |first2=Jag |last2=Sehgal |first3=Farhad |last3=Mehran |first4=Ladan |last4=Noroozi |first5=Saeid |last5=Eisazadeh |website=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]}}</ref> Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Is recent Afganistan survey data suitable for fertility analysis? A regional investigation based on fertility inhibiting determinants|first1=Jamal Abdul|last1=Nasir|first2=Sohail|last2=Akhtar|first3=Syed Arif Ahmed|last3=Zaidi|first4=Andleeb|last4=Rani|first5=Hina|last5=Bano|first6=Andrew|last6=Hinde|date=16 October 2019|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=10|pages=e0223111|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0223111|pmid=31618275|pmc=6795489|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1423111N|doi-access=free}}</ref> Afganistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} The [[Gini coefficient]] in 2008 was 27.8.<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511044958/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI|archive-date=11 May 2014}}</ref>
 
=== Ethnicity and languages ===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Afganistan|Languages of Afganistan}}
{{see also|Afghans}}
[[File:US Army ethnolinguistic map of Afganistan -- circa 2001-09.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Ethnolinguistic map of Afganistan (2001)]]
[[Afghans]] are divided into several [[ethnolinguistic]] groups. The [[Pashtuns]] are the largest ethnic group, comprising 39% (2019 sociological research data by [[The Asia Foundation]]), followed by Tajiks (or [[Farsiwan]]s), comprising 37%.<ref name="AsiaFoundation">See:
*2019: {{cite web
|url = https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2019_Afghan_Survey_Full-Report_.pdf
|title = Afganistan in 2019 – A survey of the Afghan people
|pages = 277
|quote = ''D-14. Which ethnic group do you belong to?''
|publisher = [[The Asia Foundation]]
|location = Kabul, Afganistan
|access-date = 15 September 2021
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20210915152910/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2019_Afghan_Survey_Full-Report_.pdf
|archive-date = 15 September 2021
}}
*2018: {{cite book |year=2018 |publisher=[[The Asia Foundation]] |title=Afganistan in 2018. A Survey of the Afghan People |url=https://www.asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/Surveybook2012web1.pdf |page=283}}</ref> of the country's population. Generally the other three major ethnic groups are the [[Tajiks]], [[Hazaras]] and [[Uzbeks]]. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the [[Afghan National Anthem]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/08/31/the-roots-of-afghanistans-tribal-tensions|title=The roots of Afganistan's tribal tensions|newspaper=The Economist|date=31 August 2017}}</ref>
 
[[Dari]] and [[Pashto]] are the [[official language]]s of Afganistan; [[bilingualism]] is very common.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of Afganistan|url=https://www.mfa.gov.af/constitution/chapter-one-state.html|access-date=2 September 2020|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Afganistan|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829115048/https://www.mfa.gov.af/constitution/chapter-one-state.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dari, which is a variety of and mutually intelligible with [[Persian language|Persian]] (and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like in Iran) functions as the [[lingua franca]] in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country.<ref name="AO">{{cite web|year=2004|title=Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afganistan|url=http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html#preamble|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028065437/http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html|archive-date=28 October 2013|access-date=13 June 2012|quote=Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state. Uzbek, Turkmen, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani and Pamiri are – in addition to Pashto and Dari – the third official language in areas where the majority speaks them}}</ref> Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes called [[Farsiwan]]s.<ref name="Iranica">The ''Encyc. Iranica'' makes clear in the article on Afganistan&nbsp;— Ethnography that "The term Farsiwan also has the regional forms Parsiwan and Parsiban. In religion they are Imami Shia. In the literature they are often mistakenly referred to as Tajik." [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/afghanistan-COM_4803 Dupree, Louis (1982) "Afganistan: (iv.) Ethnography", in ''Encyclopædia Iranica''] Online Edition 2006.</ref> Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/indepth/2019/7/11/what-will-happen-to-afghanistans-national-languages|title=What will happen to Afganistan's national languages?|first=Austin|last=Bodetti|website=alaraby|date=11 July 2019}}</ref>
According to [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]], Dari Persian is spoken by 78% ([[First language|L1]] + [[Second language|L2]]) and functions as the lingua franca, while Pashto is spoken by 50%, Uzbek 10%, English 5%, Turkmen 2%, Urdu 2%, Pashayi 1%, Nuristani 1%, Arabic 1%, and Balochi 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language.There are a number of smaller regional languages, including [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Pashayi language|Pashayi]], and [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/|title=Afganistan – The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov|date=29 September 2021}}</ref>
 
When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Urdu]]-[[Hindi]]), partly due to returning Afghan refugees from Pakistan and the popularity of [[Bollywood]] films respectively.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjYUAgAAQBAJ|title=Afganistan – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture|first1=Nazes|last1=Afroz|first2=Moska|last2=Najib|first3=Culture|last3=Smart!|date=1 December 2013|publisher=Kuperard|isbn=9781857336801}}</ref> English is also understood by some of the population,<ref name="Afghan2018">The Asia Foundation. [https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018_Afghan-Survey_fullReport-12.4.18.pdf ''Afganistan in 2018: A Survey of the Afghan People''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807211241/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018_Afghan-Survey_fullReport-12.4.18.pdf |date=7 August 2019 }}</ref> and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34215293|title=Pakistan's confusing move to Urdu|first=M. Ilyas|last=Khan|work=BBC News|date=12 September 2015}}</ref> Some Afghans retain some ability in Russian, which was taught in public schools during the 1980s.<ref name="auto3"/>
 
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Afganistan}}
[[File:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|[[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]] in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] is the largest [[mosque]] in Afganistan]]
The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim<ref name="Factbook"/> and most are thought to adhere to the [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] school.<ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://swedishcommittee.org/afghanistan/religion|title=Religion in Afganistan|website=The Swedish Committee for Afganistan (SCA)}}</ref> According to [[Pew Research Center]], as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% [[Shia]] and 3% [[non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]].<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|date=9 August 2012|work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|archive-date=26 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[CIA]] Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia.<ref name="Factbook"/> [[Michael Izady]] estimated 70% of the population to be followers of Sunni Islam, 25% [[Imamiyyah|Imami Shia Islam]], 4.5% [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili Shia Islam]], and 0.5% [[Religion in Afganistan#Minority religious groups|other religions]].<ref name="Izady">{{cite web|url=http://gulf2000.columbia.edu/images/maps/Afganistan_Religion_lg.png|first1=Michael|last1=Izady|title=Chapter 1: Religious Composition of Afganistan|date=2002{{ndash}}2017|work=Gulf2000.columbia.edu|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222202424/http://gulf2000.columbia.edu/images/maps/Afganistan_Religion_lg.png|archive-date=22 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Afghan [[Sikhism in Afganistan|Sikhs]] and [[Hinduism in Afganistan|Hindus]] are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar)<ref>{{cite news |last=Majumder |first=Sanjoy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |title=Sikhs struggle in Afganistan |work=BBC News | date=25 September 2003 |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222132753/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |archive-date=22 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Lavina Melwani |url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml |title=Hindus Abandon Afganistan |work=Hinduism Today |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111080626/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml |archive-date=11 January 2007}}</ref> accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.religion.info/2005/08/25/afghanistan-sikhs-rebuilding-gurdwaras/|title=Afganistan: Sikhs rebuilding gurdwaras|date=25 August 2005|website=Religioscope}}</ref> According to [[Deutsche Welle]] in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chabba |first1=Seerat |title=Afganistan: What does Taliban rule mean for Sikhs and Hindus? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-what-does-taliban-rule-mean-for-sikhs-and-hindus/a-59122249 |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=8 September 2021}}</ref>
 
There was a small [[History of the Jews in Afganistan|Jewish community in Afganistan]], living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with the exception of one person, Herat-born [[Zablon Simintov]]. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html |title=Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only |author=N.C. Aizenman |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=27 January 2005 |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516090806/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html |archive-date=16 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the second Taliban takeover, he left Afganistan for the United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/last-jew-afghanistan-en-route-us-report |title=Last Jew in Afganistan en route to US: report |author=The New Arab Staff |work=The New Arab |date=7 September 2021 |access-date=17 September 2021 }}</ref>
 
[[Afghan Christians]], who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches.<ref>{{cite web |author=USSD Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor| year=2009 |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2009 |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031916/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 November 2009 |access-date=6 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,408781,00.html |title=Christians in Afganistan: A Community of Faith and Fear |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=20 March 2006 |access-date=25 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127030841/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,408781,00.html |archive-date=27 January 2012 |url-status=live |last1=Gebauer |first1=Matthias }}</ref>
 
===Urbanization===
As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than [[Cambodia]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital [[Kabul]], due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/20/can-cities-save-afghanistan/|title=Can Cities Save Afganistan?|first=Ali|last=Karimi}}</ref> Urbanization in Afganistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.<ref name="auto5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/10/unraveling-afghan-art-carpet-weaving-201410917826901821.html|title=Unravelling the Afghan art of carpet weaving|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref>
 
The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namely [[Kandahar]] in the south, [[Herat]] in the west, [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] and [[Kunduz]] in the north, and [[Jalalabad]] in the east.<ref name="https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/afghanistan-population/" />
{{Largest cities of Afganistan}}
 
== Governance ==
{{Main|Politics of Afganistan}}
[[File:200229-D-AP390-1529 (49603221753).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|[[Arg, Kabul|The Arg]] (the Presidential palace) in Kabul]]
Following the effective collapse of the [[Islamic Republic of Afganistan]] during the [[2021 Taliban offensive]], the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September.<ref name="BBCHardliners"/> As of 8 September 2021, no other country had formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan as the ''de jure'' government of Afganistan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afganistan: Taliban increasingly violent against protesters – UN|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-58279900|access-date=25 November 2021|website=BBC News}}</ref>
 
A traditional instrument of governance in Afganistan is the ''[[loya jirga]]'' (grand assembly), a [[Pashtun]] consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a new [[head of state]], adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1782079.stm | work=BBC News | title=Q&A: What is a loya jirga? | date=1 July 2002 | access-date=2 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523165931/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1782079.stm | archive-date=23 May 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref> Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747,{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=295}} with the most recent one occurring in August 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan/politicians-express-mixed-reactions-loya-jirga|title=Politicians Express Mixed Reactions to Loya Jirga|publisher=TOLO News|date=7 August 2020|access-date=10 August 2020|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810023639/https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan/politicians-express-mixed-reactions-loya-jirga|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/loya-jirga-approves-release-400-taliban-prisoners|title=Loya Jirga Approves Release of 400 Taliban Prisoners|date=9 August 2020|access-date=10 August 2020|publisher=TOLO News}}</ref>
 
=== Development of Taliban government ===
{{main|Government of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan}}
{{see also|Cabinet of Afganistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Abdul_Ghani_Baradar.jpg
| caption1 = [[Abdul Ghani Baradar]]<br /><small>Acting [[Prime Minister of Afganistan|First Deputy Prime Minister]]</small>
| width1 = 125
| image2 = Sirajuddin Haqqani (cropped).png
| caption2 = [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]]<br /><small>Acting [[Interior Minister of Afganistan]]</small>
| width2 = 125
| total_width =
}}
On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin|Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin]] party, [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], met with both [[Hamid Karzai]], the former [[President of Afganistan]], and [[Abdullah Abdullah]], the chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former [[Chief Executive (Afganistan)|Chief Executive]], in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]], with the aim of forming a government (though it is unclear whether either Karzai or Abdullah will be directly involved in any such government).<ref>{{cite web|date=16 August 2021|title=Afganistan's Hekmatyar says heading for Doha with Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah to meet Taliban – Al Jazeera|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-hekmatyar-says-heading-doha-with-karzai-abdullah-abdullah-meet-2021-08-16/|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=AFP|date=18 August 2021|title=Taliban met ex-Afghan leader Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah|url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40114270|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Brecorder}}</ref> President [[Ashraf Ghani]], having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either [[Tajikistan]] or [[Uzbekistan]], emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afganistan.<ref>{{cite web|last=Macias|first=Natasha Turak,Amanda|date=18 August 2021|title=Ousted Afghan President Ashraf Ghani resurfaces in UAE after fleeing Kabul, Emirati government says|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/18/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-is-in-uae-after-fleeing-afghanistan.html|access-date=19 August 2021|website=CNBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ghani says he backs talks as Taliban meet with Karzai, Abdullah|url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/146741/ghani-says-he-backs-talks-as-taliban-meet-with-karzai-abdullah|access-date=18 August 2021|website=New Age}}</ref>
 
{{As of|2021|08}}, the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period with an unofficial [[Coordination Council (Afganistan)|Coordination Council]] led by senior statesmen in the process of coordinating the transfer of the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of Afganistan to the Taliban. Taliban forces, meanwhile, exercise effective police authority in the country.<ref name="trib2">{{cite news|date=15 August 2021|title='Coordination council' to oversee peaceful transfer of power in Afganistan: Karzai|work=[[The Express Tribune]]|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2315763/coordination-council-to-oversee-peaceful-transfer-of-power-in-afghanistan-karzai|access-date=16 August 2021}}</ref> The Kabul meetings on government formation are men-only meetings according to [[Fawzia Koofi]], former member of the [[National Assembly (Afganistan)|Afghan National Assembly]], who stated that a men-only government would "not be complete". Many figures within the Taliban generally agree that continuation of the [[Constitution of Afganistan]] may, potentially, be workable as the basis for the new state as their objections to the former government were religious, and not political, in nature.<ref name="osman">{{cite book|last1=Osman|first1=Borhan|url=https://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/taliban_future_state_final.pdf|title=Taliban Views on a Future State|date=July 2016|publisher=[[New York University]]|page=7}}</ref> On 20 August, [[Abdul Ghani Baradar]] arrived in Kabul from Kandahar to begin formal negotiations with the Coordination Council on the composition and structure of the new government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Taliban co-founder Mullah Baradar in Kabul for government talks|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/21/taliban-co-founder-baradar-in-kabul-for-talks-over-new-government|access-date=2 September 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref>
 
Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after [[Jumu'ah]]. It was added that [[Hibatullah Akhundzada]] would be officially named [[Head of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan|Emir]], with cabinet ministers being revealed at the [[Arg (Kabul)|Arg]] in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named [[head of government]] as [[Prime Minister of Afganistan|Prime Minister]], while other important positions would go to [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]] and [[Mohammad Yaqoob]]. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the [[Cabinet of Afganistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)|cabinet]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2 September 2021|title=Afganistan: Taliban expected to announce new government|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/02/afghanistan-taliban-expected-to-announce-new-government|access-date=2 September 2021|website=The Guardian}}</ref>
[[File:Secretary Pompeo Meets with the Taliban Negotiation Team (50632321483).jpg|thumb|260px|U.S. representative [[Zalmay Khalilzad]] (left) meeting with Taliban leaders, [[Abdul Ghani Baradar]], [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]], [[Sher Mohammad Abbas Stanikzai]], [[Suhail Shaheen]], unidentified. [[Doha]], [[Qatar]] on 21 November 2020.]]
According to CNN, the new government is likely to be a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Deobandi]]st [[Islamic republic]]. In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of [[Ali Khamenei|Saayid Ali Khamenei]], and would be based out of [[Kandahar]]. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as [[Prime minister|Prime Minister]]. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an [[Executive (government)|executive body]] known Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]] is likely to be promoted to [[Chief justice|Chief Justice]]. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended [[1964 Constitution of Afganistan]].<ref>{{cite web|date=31 August 2021|title=Taliban to Follow Iran Model in Afganistan; Reclusive Hibatullah Akhundzada to be Supreme Leader|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/talibans-govt-in-afghanistan-on-iran-model-reclusive-hibatullah-akhundzada-to-be-supreme-leader-4149431.html|access-date=3 September 2021|website=News18}}</ref>
 
However, later interviews disclosed to News18 that negotiations were not yet completed and that representatives were still in Kandahar, and that the announcement of the new government would not take place until 4 September or later.<ref>{{cite web|date=3 September 2021|title=Are Taliban Forming New Govt in Afganistan Today? Here's the Latest Update on Negotiation Talks|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/are-taliban-forming-new-govt-in-afghanistan-today-heres-the-latest-update-on-negotiation-talks-4160183.html|access-date=3 September 2021|website=News18}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Taliban close to forming new government in Afganistan|work=Bangkok Post|publisher=Bangkok Post Public Company|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/2175995/taliban-close-to-forming-new-government-in-afghanistan|access-date=3 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=AFP|date=3 September 2021|title=Taliban close to forming new government in Afganistan|url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40117744|access-date=3 September 2021|website=Brecorder}}</ref> Government formation was further delayed with the announcement postponed to some time during the week of 6 September, due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taliban again postpone Afghan govt formation announcement|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/taliban-again-postpone-afghan-govt-formation-announcement/articleshow/85923976.cms?from=mdr|access-date=4 September 2021}}</ref> It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. This culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|date=5 September 2021|title=New 'inclusive' Afganistan government to be announced soon: Taliban|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/world/new-inclusive-afghanistan-government-to-be-announced-soon-taliban-11630841282911.html|access-date=5 September 2021|website=mint}}</ref> It was speculated that the government would be announced on 11 September 2021, the 20th anniversary of the [[9/11 attacks]], with invitations possibly being extended to the governments of Turkey, China, Iran, Pakistan, and Qatar.<ref>{{cite web|last=Khan|first=Omer Farooq|date=7 September 2021|title=Taliban News: Taliban capture Panjshir, soon to announce future government|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/taliban-claim-panjshir-valley-has-fallen-massoud-vows-to-fight-on/articleshow/85988654.cms|access-date=7 September 2021|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
 
As of early September, the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to be men-only, stating that women would not be allowed to "work in high-ranking posts" in the government and that women were "ruled out" from the Cabinet. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women, [[2021 Afghan protests|protested]] in [[Herat]] and Kabul, calling for women to be included in the Cabinet.<ref>{{cite news|date=8 September 2021|title=Afganistan: Women protest against all-male Taliban government|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58490819|access-date=9 September 2021}}</ref> The [[Cabinet of Afganistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)|acting Cabinet]] announced on 7 September was men-only, and the [[Ministry of Women's Affairs (Afganistan)|Ministry of Women's Affairs]] appeared to have been abolished.<ref name="BBCHardliners">{{cite news|date=7 September 2021|title=Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|access-date=9 September 2021}}</ref>
 
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Provinces of Afganistan|Districts of Afganistan}}
Afganistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (''[[wilayat]]'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ariananews.co/en/afghanistan-provinces/|title=Afganistan Provinces|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Ariana News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704210454/https://ariananews.co/en/afghanistan-provinces/|archive-date=4 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial [[Districts of Afganistan|districts]], each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.
 
The [[list of current governors of Afganistan|provincial governors]] are now appointed by the [[Prime Minister of Afganistan]], and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/world/asia/for-afghan-officials-prospect-of-death-comes-with-territory.html|title=For Afghan Officials, Prospect of Death Comes With Territory|last=Ahmed|first=Azam|date=8 December 2012|work=The New York Times|access-date=7 April 2017|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103603/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/world/asia/for-afghan-officials-prospect-of-death-comes-with-territory.html|archive-date=19 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827204439/http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archive-date=27 August 2010 |title=Explaining Elections, Independent Election Commission of Afganistan |publisher=Iec.org.af | date=9 October 2004 |access-date=4 February 2012}}</ref> The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.
 
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government.<ref>{{cite web|title=An Assessment of Afganistan's Municipal Governance Framework|url=http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412448-An-Assessment-of-Afganistans-Municipal-Governance-Framework.pdf|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Urban Institute Center on International Development and Governance|author1=Jamie Boex|author2=Grace Buencamino|author3=Deborah Kimble|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704193403/http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412448-An-Assessment-of-Afganistans-Municipal-Governance-Framework.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order:
 
[[File:Afganistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Afganistan is divided into [[provinces of Afganistan|34 provinces]], which are further divided into a [[Districts of Afganistan|number of districts]]]]
 
{{colbegin|colwidth=15em}}
# [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]]
# [[Badghis Province|Badghis]]
# [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]]
# [[Balkh Province|Balkh]]
# [[Bamyan Province|Bamyan]]
# [[Daykundi Province|Daykundi]]
# [[Farah Province|Farah]]
# [[Faryab Province|Faryab]]
# [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]]
# [[Ghor Province|Ghor]]
# [[Helmand Province|Helmand]]
# [[Herat Province|Herat]]
# [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]]
# [[Kabul Province|Kabul]]
# [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]]
# [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]]
# [[Khost Province|Khost]]
# [[Kunar Province|Kunar]]
# [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]]
# [[Laghman Province|Laghman]]
# [[Logar Province|Logar]]
# [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]]
# [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]]
# [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]]
# [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]]
# [[Paktia Province|Paktia]]
# [[Paktika Province|Paktika]]
# [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]]
# [[Parwan Province|Parwan]]
# [[Samangan Province|Samangan]]
# [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]]
# [[Takhar Province|Takhar]]
# [[Wardak Province|Wardak]]
# [[Zabul Province|Zabul]]
{{colend}}
 
=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Afganistan}}
{{See also|Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afganistan)}}
Afganistan became a member of the [[United Nations]] in 1946.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=642}} Historically, Afganistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afganistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afganistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and [[Afganistan–India relations|India]], with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Treaty of Friendship|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/6584/Treaty+of+Friendship|access-date=31 December 2020|website=www.mea.gov.in}}</ref> Relations with [[Afganistan–Pakistan relations|Pakistan]] have often been tense for various reasons such as the [[Durand Line]] border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.
 
The present Islamic Emirate of Afganistan is currently internationally [[Recognition of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan|unrecognized]], but has had notable unofficial ties with [[Afganistan–China relations|China]], Pakistan, and Qatar.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-08-16/china-enters-high-stakes-relationship-with-post-u-s-afghanistan|title=China Embraces High-Stakes Taliban Relationship as U.S. Exits|date=16 August 2021|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/7/taliban-afghanistan-international-recognition|title = Taliban still struggling for international recognition|work=Al Jazeera|first=Ali M|last=Latifi|date=7 October 2021}}</ref> Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afganistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of [[NATO]] and allied nations, particularly the [[Afganistan–United States relations|United States]], [[Afganistan–Canada relations|Canada]], [[Afganistan–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]], [[Afganistan–Germany relations|Germany]], Australia, and [[Afganistan–Turkey relations|Turkey]]. In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afganistan signed their [[US–Afganistan Strategic Partnership Agreement|Strategic Partnership Agreement]] in which Afganistan became a [[major non-NATO ally]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hillary Clinton says Afganistan 'major non-Nato ally'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18750732|date=7 July 2012|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|access-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705181134/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18750732|archive-date=5 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
===Military===
{{Broader|Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan}}
The [[Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afganistan]] captured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the [[Afghan Armed Forces]] following the [[2021 Taliban offensive]] and the [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|Fall of Kabul]]. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 October 2021|title=White House defends letting billions in military equipment fall into Taliban hands|url=https://news.yahoo.com/white-house-defends-letting-billions-192700107.html|access-date=12 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012095525/https://news.yahoo.com/white-house-defends-letting-billions-192700107.html|archive-date=12 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Andrzejewski|first=Adam|title=Staggering Costs – U.S. Military Equipment Left Behind In Afganistan|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamandrzejewski/2021/08/23/staggering-costs--us-military-equipment-left-behind-in-afghanistan/|access-date=12 October 2021|website=Forbes}}</ref>
 
=== Human rights ===
{{See also|Human rights in Afganistan|Women in Afganistan|LGBT rights in Afganistan|Afghan refugees}}
{{empty section|date=September 2021}}
 
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Afganistan}}
[[File:Afghan pomegranate processing.jpg|thumb|left|Workers processing [[pomegranate production in Afganistan|pomegranates]] (''anaar''), which Afganistan is famous for in Asia]]
Afganistan's nominal GDP was $21.7&nbsp;billion in 2018, or $72.9&nbsp;billion by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name="imf2"/> Its [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] is $2,024 (PPP).<ref name="imf2"/> Despite having $1&nbsp;trillion or more in mineral deposits,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-15/karzai-tells-investors-u-s-will-meet-his-security-pact-demands|title=Karzai Woos India Inc. as Delay on U.S. Pact Deters Billions|first=Kartikay|last=Mehrotra|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=16 December 2013|access-date=23 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011222703/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-15/karzai-tells-investors-u-s-will-meet-his-security-pact-demands|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> it remains one of the world's [[least developed countries]]. Afganistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability.<ref name="auto7"/> The country imports over $7&nbsp;billion worth of goods but exports only $784&nbsp;million, mainly fruits and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]]. It has $2.8&nbsp;billion in [[external debt]].<ref name="Factbook"/> The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/214.html|title=Field Listing :: GDP – composition, by sector of origin – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214540/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/214.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-10-20/taliban-winning-race-to-capture-1-trillion-afghan-mining-riches |title=The Taliban Is Capturing Afganistan's $1 Trillion in Mining Wealth |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=20 October 2015 |access-date=23 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517034344/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-10-20/taliban-winning-race-to-capture-1-trillion-afghan-mining-riches |archive-date=17 May 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
[[Da Afganistan Bank]] serves as the central bank of the nation<ref>{{Cite web| title = Interest Rate Cut in Place, Says Central Bank| work = TOLOnews| access-date = 28 May 2019| url = https://www.tolonews.com/business/interest-rate-cut-place-says-central-bank| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190704193402/https://www.tolonews.com/business/interest-rate-cut-place-says-central-bank| archive-date = 4 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> and the [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar.<ref>{{cite news|title=Afghani Falls Against Dollar By 3% In A Month|url=https://www.tolonews.com/business/afghani-falls-against-dollar-3-month|publisher=TOLOnews|date=18 April 2019|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419141610/https://www.tolonews.com/business/afghani-falls-against-dollar-3-month|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the [[Afganistan International Bank]], [[New Kabul Bank]], [[Azizi Bank]], [[Pashtany Bank]], [[Standard Chartered Bank]], and the [[First MicroFinance Bank-Afganistan|First Micro Finance Bank]].
 
[[File:Afghan carpets being sold.jpg|thumb|[[Afghan rugs]] are one of Afganistan's main exports]]
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5&nbsp;million [[Afghan diaspora|expatriates]], who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |title=Afghan Companies Say U.S. Did Not Pay Them |work=The New York Times |first=Carlotta |last=Gall | date=7 July 2010 |access-date=30 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402005151/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |archive-date=2 April 2013 }}</ref> Some of the major national construction projects include the $35&nbsp;billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town]] near Jalalabad.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dcda.gov.af/ |title=the Kabul New City Official Website |publisher=DCDA |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233634/http://www.dcda.gov.af/|archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |title=Ghazi Amanullah Khan City |year=2009 |publisher=najeebzarab.af |access-date=15 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429180506/http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |archive-date=29 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina |title=Case study: Aino Mina |publisher=Designmena.com |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106003655/http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina|archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Similar development projects have also begun in [[Herat]], [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], and other cities.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html A Humane Afghan City?] by Ann Marlowe in [[Forbes]] 2 September 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001216/http://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html | date=31 December 2013 }}</ref> An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Michael Sprague |title=AFGHANISTAN COUNTRY PROFILE |url=https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/01%20Country%20Profile%20FINAL%20July%202016.pdf |website=usaid.gov |access-date=23 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501062352/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/01%20Country%20Profile%20FINAL%20July%202016.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5&nbsp;billion in [[Telecommunication|telecom]] investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth#Tab=Description |title=Economic Growth |publisher=USAID |access-date=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082351/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}</ref> [[Afghan rug]]s are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-carpets-idUKKBN1HI2VL|title=Sales of Afganistan's renowned carpets unravel as war intensifies|newspaper=Reuters|date=12 April 2018|via=uk.reuters.com|last1=Nickel|first1=Rod}}</ref>
 
Afganistan is a member of [[WTO]], [[SAARC]], [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]], and [[OIC]]. It holds an observer status in [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]]. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/AFG/Year/LTST/TradeFlow/EXPIMP/Partner/by-country |title=Access to energy graph |website= wits.worldbank.org/|access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref>
 
Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States has [[Afghan frozen assets|frozen about $9 billion]] in assets belonging to the [[Da Afganistan Bank|Afghan central bank]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban blames U.S. as 1 million Afghan kids face death by starvation |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/afghanistan-taliban-blames-us-as-1-million-kids-face-starvation/ |work=CBS News |date=20 October 2021}}</ref> blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in U.S. bank accounts.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is the United States Driving Afganistan Toward Famine? |url=https://messaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com/template/oakv2?campaign_id=30&emc=edit_int_20211029&instance_id=44044&nl=the-interpreter&productCode=INT&regi_id=57806557&segment_id=72971&te=1&uri=nyt%3A%2F%2Fnewsletter%2Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70&user_id=9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b |work=The New York Times |date=29 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afganistan's hunger crisis is a problem the U.S. can fix |url=https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/afghanistan-s-hunger-crisis-problem-u-s-can-fix-n1283618 |work=MSNBC |date=10 November 2021}}</ref>
 
===Agriculture===
 
[[File:Afghan Saffron.jpg|thumb|Afghan [[saffron]] has been recognized as the world's best]]
Agricultural production is the backbone of Afganistan's economy<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture |title=Agriculture |publisher=USAID |access-date=23 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082220/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}</ref> and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/afghanistan/publication/unlocking-potential-of-agriculture-for-afghanistan-growth|title=Unlocking the Potential of Agriculture for Afganistan's Growth|website=World Bank}}</ref> The country is known for producing [[pomegranate production in Afganistan|pomegranates]], grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as the world's largest producer of [[Opium production in Afganistan|opium]] – as much as 16% or more of the nation's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of opium.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/aan-qa-an-established-industry-basic-facts-about-afghanistans-opium-driven-economy/|title=AAN Q&A: An established industry – Basic facts about Afganistan's opium-driven economy|publisher=Afganistan Analysts Network|date=11 July 2017|access-date=10 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807204235/https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/aan-qa-an-established-industry-basic-facts-about-afghanistans-opium-driven-economy/|archive-date=7 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also one of the world's top producers of [[cannabis]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-cannabis-idUSTRE62U0IC20100331|title=Afganistan now world's top cannabis source: U.N.|newspaper=Reuters|date=31 March 2010|via=www.reuters.com|last1=Burch|first1=Jonathon}}</ref>
 
[[Saffron]], the most expensive spice, grows in Afganistan, particularly [[Herat Province]]. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afganistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1602281/world|title=Afganistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best|date=22 December 2019|website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/28053-afghan-saffron-worlds-best|title=Afghan Saffron, World's Best|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469&nbsp;kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-12/25/c_138657013.htm|title=Saffron production hits record high in Afganistan|website=Xinhua}}</ref>
 
=== Mining ===
{{Main|Mining in Afganistan}}
[[File:Lapis Lazuli from Afganistan.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Lapis lazuli]] stones]]
The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, [[lithium]], [[uranium]], [[rare earth element]]s, [[chromite]], gold, [[zinc]], [[talc]], [[barite]], [[sulfur]], lead, [[marble]], precious and [[semi-precious stones]], natural gas, and petroleum.<ref name="peters2007">{{cite techreport |last=Peters |first=Steven G. |title=Preliminary Assessment of Non-Fuel Mineral Resources of Afganistan, 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |publisher=USGS Afganistan Project/[[US Geological Survey]]/Afganistan Geological Survey |access-date=13 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet 2007–3063 | date=October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727053445/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="bgs" /> In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the [[US Geological Survey]] are worth at least {{nowrap|$1 trillion}}.<ref name="bbcminerals">{{cite news |title=Afghans say US team found huge potential mineral wealth |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |access-date=13 October 2011 |newspaper=BBC News | date=14 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809125352/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |archive-date=9 August 2013}}</ref>
 
[[Michael E. O'Hanlon]] of the [[Brookings Institution]] estimated that if Afganistan generates about $10&nbsp;billion per year from its [[mining in Afganistan|mineral deposits]], its [[gross national product]] would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs.<ref>O'Hanlon, Michael E. [http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx "Deposits Could Aid Ailing Afganistan"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923172142/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx |date=23 September 2011 }}, [http://www.brookings.edu/ The Brookings Institution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126030757/https://www.brookings.edu/ |date=26 January 2018 }}, 16 June 2010.</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afganistan has an average {{convert|2.9|e9oilbbl|e6m3|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of [[crude oil]], {{convert|15.7|e12cuft|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of natural gas, and {{convert|562|e6USbbl|e9L|0|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of [[natural gas liquids]].<ref name="klett2006">{{cite techreport|last=Klett |first=T.R. |title=Assessment of Undiscovered Petroleum Resources of Northern Afganistan, 2006 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |publisher=USGS-Afganistan Ministry of Mines & Industry Joint Oil & Gas Resource Assessment Team |access-date=13 October 2011 | date=March 2006 |id=Fact Sheet 2006–3031|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727060903/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> In 2011, Afganistan signed an oil exploration contract with [[China National Petroleum Corporation]] (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |title=Afganistan signs '$7 bn' oil deal with China | date=28 December 2011 |access-date=29 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233953/http://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |archive-date=30 December 2013 }}</ref>
 
The country has significant amounts of [[lithium]], copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other [[minerals]].<ref name=peters2007 /><ref name="bgs">{{cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf#search='gold%20and%20copper%20discovered%20in%20afghanistan'|title=Minerals in Afganistan |publisher=[[British Geological Survey]] |access-date=4 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726155518/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Afganistan's Mineral Fortune">{{cite web |url=http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568/ |title=Afganistan's Mineral Fortune |publisher=Institute for Environmental Diplomacy and Security Report |year=2011 |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212153853/http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568 |archive-date=12 December 2013 }}</ref> The [[Khanashin]] [[carbonatite]] in Helmand Province contains {{convert|1000000|t|lk=out}} of [[rare earth element]]s.<ref name="tucker2011">{{cite techreport|last=Tucker |first=Ronald D. |title=Rare Earth Element Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Preliminary Resource Assessment of the Khanneshin Carbonatite Complex, Helmand Province, Afganistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |publisher=USGS |access-date=13 October 2011 |year=2011 |id=Open-File Report 2011–1207|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727062511/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the [[Mes Aynak#Copper Mine|Aynak]] copper mine to the [[China Metallurgical Group]] for $3&nbsp;billion,<ref>"[http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/ China, Not U.S., Likely to Benefit from Afganistan's Mineral Riches]". ''Daily Finance''. 14 June 2010 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001630/http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/ | date=31 December 2013 }}</ref> making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afganistan's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html |title=China Willing to Spend Big on Afghan Commerce |work=The New York Times | date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110731145815/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html |archive-date=31 July 2011}}</ref> The state-run [[Steel Authority of India]] won the mining rights to develop the huge [[Hajigak Pass|Hajigak]] iron ore deposit in central Afganistan.<ref>"[http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html Indian Group Wins Rights to Mine in Afganistan's Hajigak] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010060446/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html | date=10 October 2013 }}". ''Businessweek''. 6 December 2011</ref> Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least {{nowrap|$1 trillion}}.<ref name=bbcminerals /> One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afganistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".<ref name="risen2010">{{cite news|last=Risen|first=James|author-link=James Risen|date=17 June 2010|title=U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afganistan|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617204149/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html|archive-date=17 June 2010}}</ref> The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of [[Bolivia]], which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Hosp|first=Gerald|date=31 August 2021|title=Afganistan: die konfliktreichen Bodenschätze|url=https://www.nzz.ch/wirtschaft/afghanistan-die-konfliktreichen-bodenschaetze-ld.1642056|access-date=1 September 2021|website=[[Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]|language=de}}</ref> Other larger deposits are the ones of [[Bauxite|Bauxit]] and [[Cobalt]].<ref name=":1" /> In a 2011 news story, the ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]'' reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afganistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers."<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2011/1228/China-wins-700-million-Afghan-oil-and-gas-deal.-Why-didn-t-the-US-bid China wins $700 million Afghan oil and gas deal. Why didn't the US bid?]". ''The Christian Science Monitor''. 28 December 2011 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001743/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2011/1228/China-wins-700-million-Afghan-oil-and-gas-deal.-Why-didn-t-the-US-bid | date=31 December 2013 }}</ref>
 
Access to [[biocapacity]] in Afganistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afganistan had 0.43 global hectares<ref name=footprintdata>{{cite web|url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=2&type=BCpc,EFCpc|title=Country Trends|publisher=Global Footprint Network|access-date= 23 June 2020}}</ref> of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=David|last2=Hanscom|first2=Laurel|last3=Murthy|first3=Adeline|last4=Galli|first4=Alessandro|last5=Evans|first5=Mikel|last6=Neill|first6=Evan|last7=Mancini|first7=MariaSerena|last8=Martindill|first8=Jon|last9=Medouar|first9=FatimeZahra|last10=Huang|first10=Shiyu|last11=Wackernagel
|first11=Mathis|date=2018|title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018|journal=Resources|volume=7|issue=3|pages=58|doi=10.3390/resources7030058|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2016 Afganistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afganistan contains. As a result, Afganistan is running a biocapacity deficit.<ref name=footprintdata/>
 
==Infrastructure==
===Energy===
{{main|Energy in Afganistan|Renewable energy in Afganistan}}
[[File:Afganistan electricity production.svg|thumb|Afganistan electricity supply 1980–2019]]
According to the [[World Bank]], 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Access to electricity, rural (% of rural population) – Afganistan {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.RU.ZS?end=2018&locations=AF&start=2005&view=chart|access-date=28 March 2021|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Overall the figure stands at 98.7%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?end=2018&locations=AF&start=2005&view=chart|title=Access to electricity (% of population) – Afganistan|website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> As of 2016, Afganistan produces 1,400 [[megawatt]]s of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/business/afghanistan-has-capacity-produce-310000mw-power|title=Afganistan Has Capacity To Produce 310,000MW Power|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> The majority of electricity production is via [[hydropower]], helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/05/14/largest-plant-restarts-operations-in-first-step-developing-afghanistan-hydropower|title=Afganistan Resurrects its Largest Hydropower Plant Toward a Brighter Future|website=World Bank}}</ref> However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/power-to-the-people-how-to-extend-afghans-access-to-electricity/|title=Power to the People: How to extend Afghans' access to electricity|date=3 February 2015|website=Afganistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> In recent years an increasing number of [[Solar power|solar]], [[biomass]] and wind power plants have been constructed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html|title=The Power of Nature: How Renewable Energy is Changing Lives in Afganistan|website=UNDP in Afganistan|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230313/https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Currently under development are the [[CASA-1000]] project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the [[Turkmenistan-Afganistan-Pakistan-India pipeline|Turkmenistan-Afganistan-Pakistan-India]] (TAPI) gas pipeline.<ref name="auto1"/> Power is managed by the [[Da Afganistan Breshna Sherkat]] (DABS, Afganistan Electricity Company).
 
Important dams include the [[Kajaki Dam]], [[Dahla Dam]], and the [[Sardeh Band Dam]].<ref name="auto2"/>
 
=== Tourism ===
{{main|Tourism in Afganistan}}
[[File:Contrasts (4292970991).jpg|thumb|left|[[Band-e Amir National Park]]]]
Tourism is a small industry in Afganistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/09/27/20000-foreign-tourists-visit-afghanistan-annually |title=20,000 foreign tourists visit Afganistan annually |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News (PAN) |editor=Navid Ahmad Barakzai |date=27 September 2016 |access-date=15 May 2017 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123022923/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/09/27/20000-foreign-tourists-visit-afghanistan-annually |url-status=dead }}</ref> In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque [[Bamyan]] Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/coronavirus-shatters-tourism-hopes-in-afghanistan-s-bamyan-province-1.1011018|title=Coronavirus shatters tourism hopes in Afganistan's Bamyan province|website=The National|date=26 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2017/09/03/more-200000-tourists-visit-bamyan-year|title=More than 200,000 tourists visit Bamyan this year|website=www.pajhwok.com|date=3 September 2017|last1=Basharat|first1=Hakim}}</ref> Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the [[Wakhan]] Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/society/article/2154951/where-instagramers-and-taliban-play-afghanistan|title=Where Instagramers and Taliban play|date=14 July 2018|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> From the late 1960s onwards, Afganistan was a popular stop on the famous [[hippie trail]], attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and [[Nepal]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm|title= Origins of the hippie trail|website= www.richardgregory.org.uk|access-date= 13 June 2020|archive-date= 11 November 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215149/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail-03.htm |title=The hippie trail |website=www.richardgregory.org.uk |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308185419/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail-03.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/middle-east/afghanistan/articles/when-afghanistan-was-just-the-laid-back-highlight-on-the-hippie-/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/middle-east/afghanistan/articles/when-afghanistan-was-just-the-laid-back-highlight-on-the-hippie-/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=When Afganistan was just a laid-back highlight on the hippie trail|first=Digital Travel Editor|last=Oliver Smith|website=The Telegraph|date=20 April 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
 
[[File:Jam afghanistan ghorprovince islamic architecture.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Minaret of Jam]] is a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]], currently under threat by erosion and flooding]]
The city of [[Ghazni]] has significant history and historical sites, and together with [[Bamyan]] city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/bamyan-first-ever-cultural-capital-of-south-asia-a-big-party-but-what-else/|title=Bamyan, First Ever Cultural Capital of South Asia: A big party, but what else?|date=8 June 2015|website=Afganistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> The cities of [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]], [[Balkh]], and [[Zaranj]] are also very historic. The [[Minaret of Jam]] in the [[Hari River, Afganistan|Hari River]] valley is a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]] is kept inside the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar, a city founded by [[Alexander the Great]] and the first capital of Afganistan. The [[citadel of Alexander]] in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the [[Shrine of Ali]], believed by many to be the location where [[Ali]] was buried.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=115}} The [[National Museum of Afganistan]] is located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist, [[Bactria]]n Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200203-the-afghan-artefacts-that-survived-taliban-destruction|title=The Afghan artefacts that survived Taliban destruction|first=Ruchi|last=Kumar|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref>
 
=== Communication ===
{{Main|Communications in Afganistan}}
Telecommunication services in Afganistan are provided by [[Afghan Telecom]], [[Afghan Wireless]], [[Etisalat]], [[MTN Group]], and [[Roshan (telco)|Roshan]]. The country uses its own space [[satellite]] called [[Afghansat 1]], which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2&nbsp;billion industry, with 22&nbsp;million mobile phone subscribers and 5&nbsp;million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afghanistanembassy.org.uk/english/3155/|title=Connecting Afganistan: The rise of technology in governance and society – The Embassy of Afganistan in London|website=afghanistanembassy.org.uk|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121125742/http://afghanistanembassy.org.uk/english/3155/|archive-date=21 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
=== Transportation ===
{{Main|Transport in Afganistan}}
{{See also|List of airports in Afganistan|Rail transport in Afganistan}}
[[File:Françoise Foliot - Afganistan 043.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Salang Tunnel]], once the highest tunnel in the world, provides a key connection between the north and south of the country]]
Due to Afganistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of Afganistan's road network is [[Highway 1 (Afganistan)|Highway 1]], often called the "Ring Road", which extends for {{convert|2210|km|sp=us}} and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|title=Going in Circles: The never-ending story of Afganistan's unfinished Ring Road|publisher=Afganistan Analysts Network|author=Qayoom Suroush|date=16 January 2015|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707120451/https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|archive-date=7 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29bg7g1U6coC&pg=PA118|title=The Geography and Politics of Afganistan|first=Ramamoorthy|last=Gopalakrishnan|date=13 June 1982|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref>
 
The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|title=Going in Circles: The never-ending story of Afganistan's unfinished Ring Road|date=16 January 2015|website=Afganistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> A key portion of the Ring Road is the [[Salang Tunnel]], completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afganistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cary Gladstone|title=Afganistan Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA122|year=2001|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-421-8|page=122}}</ref> It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-46016020100209|title=Afghan avalanches kill dozens, trap hundreds|newspaper=Reuters|date=9 February 2010|via=www.reuters.com|last1=Azimy|first1=Yousuf}}</ref> Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the [[Kabul–Kandahar Highway|Kabul–Kandahar]] and the [[Kabul–Jalalabad Road]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/26/afghan-bus-crash |title=Afghan bus crash kills 45 |work=The Guardian |date=26 April 2013 |access-date=4 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105002154/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/26/afghan-bus-crash |archive-date=5 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Traveling by bus in Afganistan remains dangerous due to militant activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Driving in Afganistan|url=http://caravanistan.com/transport/driving/afghanistan/|website=Caravanistan|publisher=Caravanistan|access-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904001045/http://caravanistan.com/transport/driving/afghanistan/|archive-date=4 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
[[File:Ariana Afghan A310-300 F-GEMO.jpg|thumb|An [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] [[Airbus A310]] in 2006]]
Air transport in Afganistan is provided by the national carrier, [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]],<ref name="EU To Impose Ban on Afghan Planes">{{cite news |title=EU To Impose Ban on Afghan Planes |url=http://news.airwise.com/story/view/1290466447.html |publisher=Airwise News |date=22 November 2010 |quote=Kabul-based [[Safi Airways|Safi]] is the country's No. 2 airline after national carrier Ariana Afghan Airlines |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524011714/http://news.airwise.com/story/view/1290466447.html |archive-date=24 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by the private company [[Kam Air]]. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include [[Air India]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Iran Aseman Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]], and [[Turkish Airlines]]. The country has four international airports: [[Hamid Karzai International Airport]] (formerly Kabul International Airport), [[Kandahar International Airport]], [[Herat International Airport]], and [[Mazar-e Sharif International Airport]]. Including domestic airports, there are 43.<ref name="Factbook"/> [[Bagram Air Base]] is a major military airfield.
 
The country has three rail links: one, a {{convert|75|km|adj=on|sp=us}} line from [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] to the [[Afganistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge|Uzbekistan border]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/|title=Hairatan to Mazar-i-Sharif railway – Railways of Afganistan|website=andrewgrantham.co.uk|access-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224182253/http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/|archive-date=24 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> a {{convert|10|km|adj=on|sp=us}} long line from [[Toraghundi]] to the [[Turkmenistan]] border (where it continues as part of [[Turkmen Railways]]); and a short link from [[Aqina]] across the Turkmen border to [[Kerki]], which is planned to be extended further across Afganistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/11/28/afghan-turkmenistan-railroad-inaugurated|title=Afghan-Turkmenistan railroad inaugurated|website=pajhwok.com|date=28 November 2016|access-date=6 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512234058/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/11/28/afghan-turkmenistan-railroad-inaugurated|archive-date=12 May 2017|url-status=live|last1=Salehai|first1=Zarghona}}</ref> These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], Iran and [[Herat]], western Afganistan, intended for both freight and passengers, is under construction as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.azernews.az/region/135859.html |title=Khaf-Herat railroad to be launched in Iran soon |date=7 August 2018 |quote="Iran-Afganistan railway networks through Khaf-Herat Railroad will be completed in the next few months," Yazdani said, according to Mehr news agency on 3 August |access-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928003514/https://www.azernews.az/region/135859.html |archive-date=28 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ifpnews.com/exclusive/iran-strongly-condemns-herat-railway-mine-blast/|title=Iran Strongly Condemns Herat Railway Mine Blast|date=20 May 2019|access-date=7 July 2019|publisher=Iran Front Page|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521080709/https://ifpnews.com/exclusive/iran-strongly-condemns-herat-railway-mine-blast/|archive-date=21 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> About {{convert|125|km|sp=us}} of the line will lie on the Afghan side.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-domestic-economy/60378/rail-linkup-with-afghanistan-by-march-2018|title=Rail Linkup With Afganistan by March 2018|date=25 February 2017|access-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922112855/https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-domestic-economy/60378/rail-linkup-with-afghanistan-by-march-2018|archive-date=22 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Khaf-Herat railway |url=http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/ |website=RaillyNews {{!}} Dailly Railway News in English |date=10 December 2013 |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220114246/http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/ |archive-date=20 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Railways of Afganistan -Afghan railroads, past, present and future |url=http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/tag/map/ |website=andrewgrantham.co.uk |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208185852/http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/tag/map/ |archive-date=8 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow in color and consist of both cars and [[auto rickshaw]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/eastsats/5/2/5_292/_pdf/-char/en |title=The Possibility of Introducing a Regular Bus System in Kandahar |last1=Rahmat |first1=Mohibullah |last2=Mizokami |first2=Shoshi |last3=Fujiwara |first3=Akimasa |journal=Asian Transport Studies |volume=5 |issue=2 |date=2018 |pages=292–309}}</ref> In rural Afganistan, villagers often use [[donkey]]s, [[mule]]s or [[horse]]s to transport or carry goods. [[Camel]]s are primarily used by the Kochi nomads.<ref name="auto9"/> Bicycles are popular throughout Afganistan.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UEJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 | title=Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding, 2 Volume Pack| isbn=9781845934668| last1=Porter| first1=Valerie| last2=Alderson| first2=Lawrence| last3=Hall| first3=Stephen J. G.| last4=Phillip Sponenberg| first4=D.| date=9 March 2016}}</ref>
 
=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Afganistan}}
[[File:UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afganistan Literacy Rate population plus15 1980-2018.png|thumb|upright=1.15|UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afganistan Literacy Rate population plus15 1980–2018]]
 
[[Education in Afganistan]] includes [[K–12]] and higher education, which is overseen by the [[Ministry of Education (Afganistan)|Ministry of Education]] and the [[Ministry of Higher Education (Afganistan)|Ministry of Higher Education]]. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9&nbsp;million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden girls and female teachers from returning to secondary schools.<ref>{{cite news|date=18 September 2021|title=Afganistan: Girls excluded as Afghan secondary schools reopen|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58607816|access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Blue|first1=Victor J.|last2=Zucchino|first2=David|date=20 September 2021|title=A Harsh New Reality for Afghan Women and Girls in Taliban-Run Schools|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/20/world/asia/afghan-girls-schools-taliban.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/20/world/asia/afghan-girls-schools-taliban.html |archive-date=2021-12-28 |url-access=limited|access-date=20 September 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different [[List of universities in Afganistan|universities around the country]]. About 21% of these are females.<ref name="USAID-Education">{{cite web |url=https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education |title=Education |publisher=[[USAID]] |access-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110231403/https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education |archive-date=10 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Former Education Minister [[Ghulam Farooq Wardak]] had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of [[formal learning]].<ref name="Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings">{{cite news |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |title=Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News | date=18 May 2013 |access-date=13 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234222/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |archive-date=30 December 2013|last1=Adina |first1=Mohammad Sabir }}</ref>
 
The top universities in Afganistan are the [[American University of Afganistan]] (AUAF) followed by [[Kabul University]] (KU), both of which are located in Kabul. The [[National Military Academy of Afganistan]], modeled after the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point, is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the [[Afghan Armed Forces]]. The [[Afghan Defense University]] was constructed near [[Qargha]] in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include [[Kandahar University]] in the south, [[Herat University]] in the northwest, [[Balkh University]] and [[Kunduz University]] in the north, [[Nangarhar University]] and [[Khost University]] in the east. The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul, and one school in Jalalabad.<ref name="USAID-Education" /> Kabul University was founded in 1932 and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the country's education;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/Education.htm|title=Afganistan Education &#124; Afganistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308065842/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/Education.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical political ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in society, politics and the war that began in 1978.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQeRuzzwuCIC&pg=PA38|title=Apocalyptic Realm: Jihadists in South Asia|first=Dilip|last=Hiro|date=17 April 2012|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300183665}}</ref>
 
As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%).<ref name="UNESCO UIS Afganistan">{{Cite web|url=http://uis.unesco.org/|title=UNESCO UIS: Afganistan|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> The Afghan National Security Forces are provided with mandatory literacy courses.<ref name="autogeneratedmil">{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/article/59541/Rising_literacy_in_Afganistan_ensures_transition/ |title=Rising literacy in Afganistan ensures transition |publisher=Army.mil |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209021825/http://www.army.mil/article/59541/Rising_literacy_in_Afganistan_ensures_transition/|archive-date=9 December 2013}}</ref>
 
=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Afganistan}}
[[File:Kabul Military Hospital - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Daoud Khan Military Hospital]] in Kabul is one of the largest [[list of hospitals in Afganistan|hospitals]] in Afganistan]]
According to the [[Human Development Index]], Afganistan is the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|15th least developed country in the world]]. The average [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] is estimated to be around 60 years.<ref name="WHO">{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/136852/1/ccsbrief_afg_en.pdf |title=Afganistan |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |access-date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722191648/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/136852/1/ccsbrief_afg_en.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="uis.unesco.org">{{cite web |publisher=UNESCO |title=Afganistan |url=https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/af |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623093810/http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/af |archive-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> The country's [[maternal mortality]] rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its [[infant mortality]] rate is 66<ref name="uis.unesco.org"/> to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births.<ref name="Factbook"/> The [[Ministry of Public Health (Afganistan)|Ministry of Public Health]] plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 [[midwifery|midwives]], with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.<ref name="csm">{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |title=Childbirth and maternal health improve in Afganistan |first=Tom A. |last=Peter |newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor | date=17 December 2011 |access-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002243/http://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |archive-date=31 December 2013 }}</ref>
 
There are over 100 [[hospitals in Afganistan]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea825.pdf|title=Afganistan National Hospital Survey|date=August 2004|publisher=Afghan Ministry of Health|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807231748/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea825.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The [[French Medical Institute for Children]] and [[Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital]] in Kabul are the leading [[children's hospital]]s in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the [[Jamhuriat Hospital]] and [[Jinnah Hospital (Kabul)|Jinnah Hospital]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-funded-afghan-hospital-begins-operations/4884454.html|title=Pakistan-funded Afghan Hospital Begins Operations|work=VOA News|first=Ayaz|last=Gul|date=20 April 2019|access-date=28 May 2019|quote=It opens a new chapter in the friendship of the two countries... This is the second-largest hospital [in Afganistan] built with your support that will serve the needy," Feroz told the gathering.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423111329/https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-funded-afghan-hospital-begins-operations/4884454.html|archive-date=23 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment.
 
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility.<ref name="USAID-Health">{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health |title=Health |publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) |access-date=20 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082306/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health|archive-date=29 September 2013}}</ref> [[Disability]] rate is also high in Afganistan due to the decades of war.<ref>{{cite web |author =Anne-Marie DiNardo, LPA/PIPOS |url=http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040508140406/http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archive-date=8 May 2004|title=Empowering Afganistan's Disabled Population&nbsp;– 31 March 2006 |publisher=Usaid.gov | date=31 March 2006 |access-date=19 May 2012}}</ref> It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs.<ref>{{cite news |first =Richard |last=Norton-Taylor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |title=Afganistan's refugee crisis 'ignored' |work=The Guardian | date=13 February 2008 |access-date=19 May 2012 |location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215150225/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |archive-date=15 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520 |title=Afganistan: People living with disabilities call for integration |work=The New Humanitarian |url-status=live |date=2 December 2004 |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920142752/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520 |archive-date=20 September 2011}}</ref> Non-governmental charities such as [[Save the Children]] and [[Mahboba's Promise]] assist orphans in association with governmental structures.<ref>{{cite web |first=Virginia |last=Haussegger |title=Mahboba's Promise |date=2 July 2009 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm |website=ABC News (Australia) |access-date=15 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726123857/http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref> [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is working with the [[Indian Institute of Health Management Research]] and others to conduct a survey in Afganistan focusing on [[maternal death]], among other things.<ref name="MEASUREDHS">{{cite web |url=http://www.measuredhs.com/Where-We-Work/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=71 |title=Afganistan |publisher=Measuredhs.com |access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233502/http://www.measuredhs.com/Where-We-Work/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=71 |archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>
 
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Afganistan}}
[[File:CH-NB - Afganistan, Kulm (Khulm, Kholm)- Menschen - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-21-110.jpg|thumb|An Afghan family near [[Kholm, Afganistan|Kholm]], 1939 – most Afghans are tribal]]
 
[[Afghans]] have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afganistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country.<ref name="auto7"/> Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by a [[patriarch]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/WayofLife.htm|title=Afganistan Way of Life &#124; Afganistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308140824/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/WayofLife.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the [[Pashtun culture]] by following [[Pashtunwali]] (the Pashtun way).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html|title=Afganistan: a country study|date=1998|publisher=[[Library of Congress]], [[Federal Research Division]]|editor-last=Blood|editor-first=Peter R.|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=904447770|postscript=. {{PD-notice}}|entry=Pashtun|entry-url=https://webharvest.gov/peth04/20041031011222/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0037)|access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> Key tenets of Pashtunwali include [[melmastia|hospitality]], the provision of [[nanawatai|sanctuary]] to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=126}} The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of [[Central Asia]] and the [[Iranian Plateau]]. The remaining Afghans are culturally [[Persianization|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called [[Pashtunization]], while some Pashtuns have been [[Persianized]]. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious.<ref name="auto6"/>
 
Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor.{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=59}} One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst.</ref> There are various [[ethnic groups in Afganistan|Afghan tribes]], and an estimated 2–3&nbsp;million [[Kochi people|nomads]].<ref>"[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794 Afganistan: Kuchi nomads seek a better deal]". [[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] Asia. 18 February 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910205256/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794 | date=10 September 2011 }}</ref> Afghan culture is deeply [[Islamic culture|Islamic]],{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=40–41}} but pre-Islamic practices persist.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=104}} One example is ''[[bacha bazi]]'', a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys.<ref name="BBC Rustam Qobil">{{cite news| last= Qobil| first= Rustam| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11217772| title= The sexually abused dancing boys of Afganistan| work= [[BBC News]]| date= 7 September 2010| access-date= 20 September 2019| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190818070104/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11217772| archive-date= 18 August 2019| url-status= live}}</ref> [[Child marriage in Afganistan|Child marriage]] is prevalent in Afganistan;<ref name="Medica Mondiale">{{cite journal|last=Bahgam|first=S|author2=Mukhatari|title=Study on Child Marriage in Afganistan|journal=Medica Mondiale|year=2004|pages=1–20|url=http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afganistan/Afganistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf|access-date=15 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506222217/http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afganistan/Afganistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf|archive-date=6 May 2012}}</ref> the legal age for marriage is 16.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afganistan Has a Tougher Law on Child Marriage than Florida|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/20/afghanistan-has-tougher-law-child-marriage-florida|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=20 October 2017|quote=In Afganistan girls can marry at 16, or at 15 with permission from their father or a judge.|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725072232/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/20/afghanistan-has-tougher-law-child-marriage-florida|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's [[parallel cousin]], and the groom is often expected to pay a [[bride price]].{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=122, 198}}
 
[[File:Kuchi Village.jpg|thumb|A house occupied by nomadic ''kochi'' people in [[Nangarhar Province]]]]
In the villages, families typically occupy [[mudbrick]] houses, or compounds with mudbrick or [[stone wall]]ed houses. Villages typically have a headman (''malik''), a master for water distribution (''mirab'') and a religious teacher (''mullah''). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest.<ref name="auto"/> About 15% of the population are [[nomadic]], locally called ''[[Kochi people|kochis]]''.<ref name="auto7"/> When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat and [[kerosene]] from the villagers; villagers buy [[wool]] and milk from the nomads.<ref name="auto"/>
 
[[Afghan clothing]] for both men and women typically consists of various forms of [[shalwar kameez]], especially ''[[perahan tunban]]'' and ''[[khet partug]]''. Women would normally wear a ''[[chador]]'' for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the ''[[burqa]]'', a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but the [[Taliban]] enforced this dress on women when they were in power.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7ATBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|title=What Is Veiling?|first=Sahar|last=Amer|date=2 September 2014|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=9781469617763}}</ref> Another popular dress is the ''[[chapan]]'' which acts as a coat. The ''[[Karakul (hat)|karakul]]'' is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afganistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President [[Hamid Karzai]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1956862.stm|title=Karzai heads for hat trouble|date=28 April 2002|via=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> The ''[[pakol]]'' is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghan-web.com/culture/clothes/|title=Traditional Afghan Clothes|date=12 March 2018}}</ref> The ''[[Mazari hat]]'' originates from northern Afganistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/hats-proliferate-symbol-pashtun-protest-movement|title=Hats Proliferate as Symbol of Pashtun Protest Movement &#124; Voice of America – English|website=www.voanews.com}}</ref>
 
===Architecture===
{{main|Architecture of Afganistan}}
[[File:Kabul Skyline.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Kabul skyline, displaying both historical and contemporary buildings]]
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afganistan contains many remnants from all ages, including [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Buddhist]] stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the [[Great Mosque of Herat]], the [[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]], the [[Minaret of Jam]], the [[Chil Zena]], the Qala-i Bost in [[Lashkargah]], the ancient Greek city of [[Ai-Khanoum]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/ArtArchitecture.htm|title=Afganistan Art and Architecture &#124; Afganistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307212319/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/ArtArchitecture.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars.<ref>G.V. Brandolini. ''Afganistan [[cultural heritage]]''. Orizzonte terra, [[Bergamo]]. 2007. p. 64.</ref> The two famous [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[idolatrous]]. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics/ |title=Afghan archaeologists find Buddhist site as war rages |access-date=16 August 2010 |work=Sayed Salahuddin | date=17 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818151642/http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics/ |archive-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afganistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch at [[Paghman]] and the [[Darul Aman Palace]] in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans themselves.
 
===Art and ceramics===
{{see also|Afghan art}}
[[File:Traditional Afghan Embroidery Style.jpg|thumb|left|A traditional Afghan [[embroidery]] pattern]]
Carpet [[weaving]] is an ancient practice in Afganistan, and many of these are still [[Handicraft|handmade]] by tribal and nomadic people today.<ref name="auto5"/> Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://khorasanrugs.com/post/1033364869875/in-afghanistan-weaving-ancient-industry|title=In Afganistan, weaving ancient industry back into global market|date=21 August 2019|journal=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref> Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], "[[war rugs]]", a variant of [[Afghan rug]]s, were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/2020/01/15/selling-war-commodifying-the-insecurity-of-afghan-women/|title=Selling war: commodifying the (in)security of Afghan women|date=15 January 2020|website=SPERI}}</ref> Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gounesco.com/weaving-culture-through-the-afghan-rug/|title=Weaving Culture through the Afghan rug|date=7 December 2017}}</ref> In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/rug-weavers-and-bride-prices-in-the-northwest-still-expensive-in-spite-of-government-and-taleban-rules/|title=Rug Weavers and Bride Prices in the Northwest: Still expensive in spite of government and Taleban rules|date=12 May 2019|website=Afganistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref>
 
[[Pottery]] has been crafted in Afganistan for millennia. The village of [[Istalif]], north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://seretandsons.org/giving-back|title=Giving Back – Seret and Sons}}</ref> and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.khaama.com/the-potter-crafting-afghanistans-future-9899/|title=The Potter: Crafting Afganistan's future|date=27 January 2015|website=The Khaama Press News Agency}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/19/world/asia/afghanistan-istalif-pottery.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/19/world/asia/afghanistan-istalif-pottery.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited|title=War and Pillaging Couldn't Break an Afghan Village, but a Tumbling Economy May|first=Kareem|last=Fahim|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 August 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Much of ''[[lapis lazuli]]'' stones were earthed in modern-day Afganistan which were used in [[Chinese porcelain]] as [[cobalt blue]], later used in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/how-the-color-blue-changed-art-forever/index.html|title=How the quest for the 'perfect blue' changed art forever|first=Isambard |last=Wilkinson|website=CNN}}</ref>
 
The lands of Afganistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of [[oil painting]] found in cave murals in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=First-ever oil paintings found in Afganistan |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/24/afghanistan.painting/ |date=24 April 2008 |access-date=3 December 2012 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's Oldest Oil Paintings Found in Afganistan |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,352342,00.html |date=24 April 2008 |access-date=3 December 2012 |publisher=Fox News}}</ref> A notable art style that developed in Afganistan and eastern Pakistan is [[Gandhara Art]], produced by a fusion of [[Greco-Roman]] art and [[Buddhist art]] between the 1st and 7th centuries CE.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Gandhara-art |title=Gandhara art |publisher=Britannica |access-date=22 August 2018}}</ref> Later eras saw increased use of the [[Persian miniature]] style, with [[Kamaleddin Behzad]] of [[Herat]] being one of the most notable miniature artists of the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] and early [[Safavid]] periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. [[Abdul Ghafoor Breshna]] was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.
 
=== Media and entertainment ===
{{Main|Media of Afganistan}}
Afganistan has around 350 [[List of radio stations in Afganistan|radio stations]] and over 200 television stations.<ref name=TOLO-2019>{{cite news|title=Suspects Sentenced To Death For Killing Journalist in Kandahar|url=https://www.tolonews.com/afghanistan/suspects-sentenced-death-killing-journalist-kandahar|publisher=[[TOLOnews]]|date=16 April 2019|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417161248/https://www.tolonews.com/afghanistan/suspects-sentenced-death-killing-journalist-kandahar|archive-date=17 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Radio Television Afganistan]], originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as [[TOLO (TV channel)|TOLO]] and [[Shamshad TV]]. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873,{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=405}} and there are hundreds of print outlets today.<ref name="TOLO-2019"/> By the 1920s, [[Radio Kabul]] was broadcasting local radio services.<ref name="Whitlock2003">{{cite book|author=Monica Whitlock|title=Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OW1tAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127|date=24 October 2003|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-27727-7|page=127}}</ref> [[Voice of America]], [[BBC World Service|BBC]], and [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afganistan's official languages on radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/afghanistan|title=Freedom of the Press 2016: Afganistan|publisher=Freedom House|year=2016|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205122939/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/afghanistan|archive-date=5 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls.
 
Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian [[Bollywood]] films and listening to its [[filmi]] songs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/encounters-bollywood-kabul/|title=Encounters with Bollywood in Kabul|date=14 September 2013|website=Himal Southasian}}</ref> It has been claimed that Afganistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/panipat-irks-afghans-founding-father-portrayal-191210053601818.html|title=Bollywood's Panipat irks Afghans over founding father's portrayal|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> The stereotypes of [[Afghans in India]] (''Kabuliwala'' or ''Pathani'') have also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/period-films-like-padmaavat-kesari-and-now-panipat-have-crassly-stereotyped-and-vilified-afghans/cid/1717346|title=Vilifying Afghans in Bollywood|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref> Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afganistan, including [[Salman Khan]], [[Saif Ali Khan]], [[Aamir Khan]], [[Feroz Khan (Indian actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Zarine Khan]], [[Celina Jaitly]], and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afganistan, including ''[[Dharmatma]]'', ''[[Khuda Gawah]]'', ''[[Escape from Taliban]]'', and ''[[Kabul Express]]''.
 
===Music===
{{main|Music of Afganistan}}
[[File:Afghan rubab.jpg|thumb|The Afghan [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]]]]
Afghan classical music has close historical links with [[Indian classical music]] and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like [[raga]]. Genres of this style of music include [[ghazal]] (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian [[tabla]], [[sitar]] and [[harmonium]], and local instruments like [[zerbaghali]], as well as [[dayereh]] and [[tanbur]] which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucusus and the Middle East. The [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]] is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian [[sarod]] instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include [[Ustad Sarahang]] and [[Abdul Rahim Sarban|Sarban]].<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.songlines.co.uk/explore/guides-and-lists/the-rough-guide-to-world-music-afghanistan|title=Afganistan – The Rough Guide to World Music|website=Songlines}}</ref>
 
Pop music developed in the 1950s through [[Radio Kabul]] and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first [[Mermon Parwin]].<ref name="auto4"/> Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was [[Ahmad Zahir]], who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2016/06/ahmad-zahir-the-afghan-elvis|title=Ahmad Zahir: The Voice of Afganistan|website=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com}}</ref><ref name="auto4"/> Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music include [[Nashenas]], [[Ubaidullah Jan]], [[Mahwash]], [[Ahmad Wali]], [[Farhad Darya]], and [[Naghma]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |title=Artist Biographies |publisher=Afghanland.com |access-date=17 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809214750/http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |archive-date=9 August 2013 }}</ref>
 
[[Attan]] is the national dance of Afganistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wadsam.com/arts-culture/afghanistans-traditional-dance-attan-3090/|title=Afganistan's Traditional Dance-Attan|date=7 July 2012}}</ref> The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanzariza.com/article/articledetail/attan--the-fascinating-national-dance-of-afghanistan|title=Attan – the fascinating national dance of Afganistan|website=Afghan Zariza|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040731/https://www.afghanzariza.com/article/articledetail/attan--the-fascinating-national-dance-of-afghanistan|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
=== Cuisine ===
{{main|Afghan cuisine}}
[[File: Bread of Afganistan in 2010.jpg|thumb|[[Naan|Non]] (bread) from a local baker, the most widely consumed bread in Afganistan]]
Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize, [[barley]] and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk, [[yogurt]] and [[whey]]. [[Kabuli palaw]] is the [[national dish]] of Afganistan.<ref name="foodrepublic">{{cite web|url=http://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/07/31/everything-you-need-know-about-afghan-food|title=Everything You Need To Know About Afghan Food |date=31 July 2012 |publisher=foodrepublic |first=Tanveer |last=Ali|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213232915/https://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/07/31/everything-you-need-know-about-afghan-food|archive-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity.<ref name="Brittin">{{cite book|last=Brittin|first=Helen|title=The Food and Culture Around the World Handbook|year=2011|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Boston|pages=20–21}}</ref> Afganistan is known for its high quality [[Pomegranate production in Afganistan|pomegranates]], grapes, and sweet melons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rareseeds.com/afghan-honeydew-melon/|title=Rare Heirloom Seeds – Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds|website=Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds|access-date=28 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063844/http://www.rareseeds.com/afghan-honeydew-melon/|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans, and a typical diet consists of [[naan]], yoghurts, rice and meat.<ref name="auto"/>
 
=== Literature ===
{{main|Poetry of Afganistan}}
 
Classic [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Pashto poetry]] are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/10/567862-feature-western-afghanistan-ancient-love-poetry-thrives-again|title=FEATURE: In Western Afganistan, an ancient love of poetry thrives again|date=5 October 2017|website=UN News}}</ref> One of the poetic styles is called [[Landay (poetry)|landay]]. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are [[Dev (mythology)|Divs]], monstrous creatures.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXnEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|title=American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore (3 Volumes)|first1=Christopher R.|last1=Fee|first2=Jeffrey B.|last2=Webb|date=29 August 2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695688}}</ref> Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of [[Herat]] when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13931608|title=Afganistan: 10 facts you may not know|work=BBC News|date=6 July 2011|via=BBC|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304072803/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13931608|archive-date=4 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from the Middle Ages to the present day, among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely: [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]] of Herat, a great mystic and [[Sufi]] saint in the 11th century, [[Sanai]] of [[Ghazni]], author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, [[Rumi]] of [[Balkh]], in the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout the world as the greatest mystical poet of the entire Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres (novel, theater), movements and stylistic features imported from Europe.
 
[[Khushal Khan Khattak]] of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include [[Rabi'a Balkhi]], [[Jami]], [[Rahman Baba]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]], and [[Parween Pazhwak]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html |title=Classical Dari and Pashto Poets |publisher=Afghan-web.com |access-date=4 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412113451/http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html|archive-date=12 April 2014}}</ref>
 
===Holidays and festivals===
[[File:هفت میوه.jpg|thumb|Haft Mewa (Seven Fruit Syrup) is popularly consumed during Nowruz in Afganistan]]
Afganistan's official New Year starts with [[Nowruz]], an ancient tradition that started as a [[Zoroastrian]] celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]]. [[Nauruz in Afganistan|In Afganistan]], Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holding [[buzkashi]] tournaments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/middle-east/afghanistan/festivals-and-events|title=Afganistan Holidays and Festivals|website=www.iexplore.com}}</ref>
 
[[Yaldā]], another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://en.mehrnews.com/news/112907/Yalda-Iranian-celebration-of-winter-solstice |author=Rezaian, Lachin |publisher=[[Mehr News Agency]] |date=20 December 2015 |title=Yalda: Iranian celebration of winter solstice}}</ref> commemorates the ancient goddess [[Mithra]] and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the [[winter solstice]] ({{transl|fa|čelle ye zemestān}}; usually falling on 20 or 21 December),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yonOicJi5BEC |title=No More "us" and "them": Classroom Lessons and Activities to Promote Peer Respect |author=Roessing, Lesley |date=2012 |page=89|isbn=978-1-61048-812-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/dec/20/local/la-me-adv-persian-winter-solstice-20131221 |title=In ancient tradition, Iranians celebrate winter solstice |author=Hamedy, Saba |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=20 December 2013}}</ref> during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and [[pomegranate]], as well as [[mixed nuts]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti24AwAAQBAJ |title=Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present |author=Foltz, Richard |publisher=Oneworld Publications |date=2013 |page=29|isbn=978-1-78074-307-3 |author-link=Foltz, Richard }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OUtoJovyjMI| title=We Are Iran: The Persian Blogs |author=Alavi, Nasrin |date=8 November 2015 |publisher=Soft Skull Press |page=135}}</ref>
 
Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as [[Ramadan]], [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Ashura]] are widely celebrated annually in Afganistan. The Sikh festival of [[Vaisakhi]] is celebrated by the Sikh community<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/04/11/sikhs-throng-temples-celebrate-vaisakhi|title=Sikhs throng temples to celebrate Vaisakhi|website=www.pajhwok.com|date=11 April 2013|last1=Mahbob|first1=Mahbob Shah}}</ref> and the Hindu festival [[Diwali]] by the Hindu community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/afghan-hindus-and-sikhs-celebrate-diwali-without-pomp-and-splendour-amid-fear-1.668735|title=Afghan Hindus and Sikhs celebrate Diwali without 'pomp and splendour' amid fear|website=The National|date=19 October 2017}}</ref>
 
[[Afghan Independence Day|National Independence Day]] is celebrated on 19 August to mark the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919]] under King [[Amanullah Khan]] and the country's full independence.<ref>{{cite web |title=The World Factbook: Afganistan |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=7 September 2009 |access-date=18 August 2009}}</ref> Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afganistan, such as [[International Workers' Day]] and [[International Women's Day]]. Some regional festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of the [[Wakhi people|Wakhi]] and [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] peoples, the Red Flower Festival (during Nowruz) in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] and the Damboora Festival in [[Bamyan Province]].
 
=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Afganistan}}
[[File:Buzkashi game in Afganistan.jpg|thumb|The ancient national sport of Afganistan, [[Buzkashi]]]]
Sport in Afganistan is managed by the [[Afghan Sports Federation]]. [[Cricket]] and [[Association football]] are the two most popular sports in the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/%E2%80%98Cricket-is-now-the-biggest-sport-in-Afganistan%E2%80%99/article13994180.ece|title=Cricket is now the biggest sport in Afganistan|work=The Hindu|access-date=4 July 2019|date=11 January 2016|author=Uthra Ganesan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/afghanistan.htm|title=Sport in Afganistan|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Top End Sports|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711025603/https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/afghanistan.htm|archive-date=11 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, [[basketball]], [[volleyball]], [[golf]], [[team handball|handball]], [[boxing]], [[taekwondo]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[bodybuilding]], [[track and field]], [[ice skating|skating]], [[bowling]], [[snooker]], [[chess]], and other sports.
 
Afganistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles at international events. [[Afganistan national basketball team|basketball team]] won the first team sports title at the [[2010 South Asian Games]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/South-Asian-Games-Shooters-swimmers-shine-as-India-consolidate-dominance/articleshow/5540143.cms|title=South Asian Games: Shooters, swimmers shine as India consolidate dominance|newspaper=The Times of India|date=5 February 2010|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613093112/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/South-Asian-Games-Shooters-swimmers-shine-as-India-consolidate-dominance/articleshow/5540143.cms|archive-date=13 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that year, the country's [[Afganistan national cricket team|cricket team]] followed it with the winning of [[2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup]].<ref name="ICUP2009-10">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |title=2009–10 Intercontinental Cup |website=CricketEurope |access-date=28 May 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224153614/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |archive-date=24 February 2013}}</ref> In 2012, the country's [[Afganistan national 3x3 team|3x3 basketball team]] won the gold medal at the [[3-on-3 basketball at the 2012 Asian Beach Games|2012 Asian Beach Games]]. In 2013, Afganistan's [[Afganistan national football team|football team]] followed as it won the [[SAFF Championship]].<ref name="SAFF2013">{{cite news |last=Lyse |first=Doucet |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24074786 |title=Precious moments of unity touch Afghans after football triumph |work=BBC News |date=12 September 2013 |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925172338/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24074786 |archive-date=25 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
The [[Afghan national cricket team]], which was formed in 2001, participated in the [[2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier]], [[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One]] and the [[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]. It won the [[ACC Twenty20 Cup]] in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the [[2015 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalvoices.org/2015/02/20/afghanistan-makes-history-in-cricket-world-cup-despite-debut-loss-to-bangladesh/|title=Afganistan Makes History in Cricket World Cup, Despite Debut Loss to Bangladesh|date=20 February 2015|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528232428/https://globalvoices.org/2015/02/20/afghanistan-makes-history-in-cricket-world-cup-despite-debut-loss-to-bangladesh/|archive-date=28 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Afganistan Cricket Board]] (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The [[Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground]] serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium]] near [[Jalalabad]]. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces.
 
The [[Afganistan national football team]] has been competing in international [[Association football|football]] since 1941.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=53|title=Statistics: Iran|access-date=28 May 2019|publisher=Team Melli|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103153545/http://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=53|archive-date=3 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The national team plays its home games at the [[Ghazi Stadium]] in Kabul, while [[football in Afganistan]] is governed by the [[Afganistan Football Federation]]. The national team has never competed or qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]] but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013.<ref name="SAFF2013"/> The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football.
 
The traditional and the national sport of Afganistan is [[buzkashi]], mainly popular in the north, but also having a following in other parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/afghanistans-buzkashi-horses-prepare-for-the-game-of-courage/article22457652.ece|title=Afganistan's buzkashi horses prepare for the game of courage|newspaper=The Hindu|date=17 January 2018|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> It is similar to [[polo]], played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass.<ref name=twsj>{{cite news|last1=Abi-Habib|first1=Maria|last2=Fazly|first2=Walid|title=In Afganistan's National Pastime, It's Better to Be a Hero Than a Goat|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703841904576256632384932122|access-date=13 April 2011|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=13 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526095017/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703841904576256632384932122|archive-date=26 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Afghan Hound]] (a type of running dog) originated in Afganistan and was formerly used in [[wolf hunting with dogs|wolf hunting]]. In 2002, traveler [[Rory Stewart]] reported that dogs were still used for wolf hunting in remote areas.<ref>{{cite book|first=Rory|last=Stewart|author-link=Rory Stewart|title=The Places in Between|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz_2AwAAQBAJ|date=2007|publisher=HMH Books|isbn=978-0-15-603593-4|page=100}}</ref>
 
== See also ==
{{Portal|Afganistan|Asia}}
* [[Outline of Afganistan]]{{-}}
 
==Notes==
{{notelist|refs=
<!--
{{efn|name=fn1|The phoneme {{IPA|/f/}} ف occurs only in loanwords in Pashto, it tends to be replaced with {{IPA|/p/}} پ. {{IPA|[b]}} is also an allophone of {{IPA|/p/}} before voiced consonants; {{IPA|[v]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/f/}} before voiced consonants in loanwords.}}-->
}}
{{reflist|group=Note}}
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
== Bibliography ==
{{Main|Bibliography of Afganistan}}
{{refbegin}}
{{div col|content=
* {{cite book|last=Barfield|first=Thomas|title=Afganistan: A Cultural and Political History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tg45ygAACAAJ|date=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15441-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bleaney |first1=C. H |last2=Gallego |first2=María Ángeles |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=qCh41lAvg8oC }} |title=Afganistan: a bibliography |publisher=BRILL |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-04-14532-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Clements |first=Frank |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=bv4hzxpo424C }} |title=Conflict in Afganistan: a Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85109-402-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Dupree|first=Louis|author-link=Louis Dupree (professor)|title=Afganistan|publisher=Oxford Pakistan Paperbacks|edition=2nd|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-577634-8}}
* {{cite book|title=Afganistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics|last=Ewans|first=Martin|publisher=Curzon Press|date=2002|isbn=0060505087}}
* {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Corinne |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=o4IrhX7n66YC }} |title=Chasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British Ideas About Afganistan |publisher=Rodopi |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-420-2262-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=John C |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=M7nMtaXdAS8C }} |title=Afganistan: a History of Conflict |publisher=Carlton Books |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84222-597-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Habibi |first=Abdul Hai |author-link=Abdul Hai Habibi |year=2003 |title=Afganistan: an Abridged History |publisher=Fenestra Books |isbn=978-1-58736-169-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=B.D. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=FOMUAQAAIAAJ }} |title=The Making of Modern Afganistan |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-230-55421-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Robert |title=The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight |year=2011 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=lNuH5YQJr6UC }} |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979856-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Levi |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KakcAAAAMAAJ |title=The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afganistan |publisher=Collins |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-00-211042-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Malleson |first=George Bruce |author-link=George Bruce Malleson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C |title=History of Afganistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 |edition=Elibron Classic Replica |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4021-7278-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Olson |first=Gillia M |url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistan0000olso |url-access=registration |title=Afganistan |publisher=Capstone Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7368-2685-3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Omrani |first1=Bijan |last2=Leeming |first2=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ|title=Afganistan: A Companion and Guide |publisher=Odyssey Publications |edition=2nd |year=2011 |isbn=978-962-217-816-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Reddy |first=L.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NubtDf2T3cAC |title=Inside Afganistan: End of the Taliban Era? |publisher=APH Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7648-319-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Runion |first=Meredith L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC |title=The History of Afganistan |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33798-7}}
}}
{{refend}}
 
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Afghanistan|Afghanistan|s=Portal:Afghanistan|collapsible=collapsed}}
{{EB1911 poster|Afghanistan}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ Afghanistan]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* {{GovPubs|Afghanistan}}
* {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/Afghanistan}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Afghanistan}}
*[http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide Research Guide to Afghanistan]
 
{{Afghanistan topics}}
{{Navboxes
|list=Related articles
{{Provinces of Afghanistan}}
{{Economic Cooperation Organization}}
{{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|state=collapsed}}
{{Cold War}}
{{US War on Terror}}
{{Afghanistan War}}
}}
{{Authority control}}
 
[[:Kategori:Aksara Sunda| ]]
[[Category:Afghanistan| ]]
[[:Kategori:Aksara Nusantara|Sunda]]
[[:Kategori:Rumpun aksara Brahmi|Sunda]]
[[:Kategori:Bahasa Sunda]]
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Pengguna:Natsukusha/bak_pasir"