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[[Berkas:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg|ka|jmpl|Sebuah Salib
'''Kekristenan Kelt''' (''Celtic Christianity'') atau '''Kekristenan Insuler''' (''Insular Christianity'') merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari [[Kekristenan|agama Kristen]] yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|bahasa Keltik]] pada masa [[Abad Pertengahan Awal
Istilah "Gereja Kelt" sudah jarang dipakai oleh banyak sejarawan karena menyiratkan suatu entitas kesatuan dan teridentifikasi yang sama sekali terpisah dari
Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh [[Patrick (santo)|St. Patrick]] yang berasal dari
== Definisi ==
"Kekristen Kelt" telah dipahami dengan cara yang berbeda pada waktu yang berbeda. Tulisan-tulisan pada topik ini sering mengatakan lebih lanjut tentang masa di saat mana mereka berasal daripada sejarah negara Kristen pada awal abad pertengahan di
Namun, para sarjana modern telah mengidentifikasi masalah dengan semua klaim ini, dan menemukan istilah "Kekristenan Kelt" bermasalah dalam dan dari dirinya sendiri.<ref name=Koch431/> Ide adanya "Gereja Kelt" ini ditolak mentah-mentah oleh para sarjana modern karena kurangnya bukti kuat.<ref name=Koch432434/> Memang, ada tradisi gereja yang berbeda di Irlandia dan Inggris, masing-masing dengan praktik mereka sendiri, dan ada variasi lokal signifikan bahkan dalam masing-masing lingkungan individu Irlandia dan Inggris.<ref>{{
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Corning notes that scholars have identified three major strands of thought that have influenced the popular conceptions of Celtic Christianity. The first arose in the [[English Reformation]], when the [[Church of England]] declared itself separate from papal authority. Protestant writers of this time popularised the idea of an indigenous British Christianity that opposed the foreign "Roman" church and was purer (and [[proto-Protestant]]) in thought. The English church, they claimed, was not forming a new institution, but casting off the shackles of Rome and returning to its true roots as the indigenous national church of Britain.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=2}}</ref>
Ideas of Celtic Christianity were further influenced by the [[Romanticism|Romantic movement]] of the 18th century, in particular Romantic notions of the [[noble savage]] and the intrinsic qualities of the "Celtic race". Romantics idealised the Celts as a primitive, bucolic people who were far more poetic, spiritual, and freer of rationalism than their neighbours. The Celts were seen as having an inner spiritual nature that shone through even after their form of Christianity had been destroyed by the authoritarian and rational Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|pp=2–3}}</ref> In the 20th and 21st centuries, these ideas were combined with appeals by certain modern churches, [[Modern Paganism|Modern Pagan]] and [[New Age]] groups seeking to recover something of ancient spirituality that is felt to be missing from the modern world. For these groups Celtic Christianity becomes a cipher for whatever is lost in the modern religious experience. Corning notes that these notions say more about modern desires than about the reality of Christianity in the Early Middle Ages, however.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=3}}</ref>
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== Sejarah ==
=== Britania Raya ===
Menurut tradisi Abad Pertengahan, Kekristenan tiba di Britania Raya dalam [[:en:Christianity in the 1st century|abad ke-1]] atau [[:en:Christianity in the 2nd century|ke-2]].<!-- [[Gildas]]'s 6th-century [[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae|account]] dated its arrival to the latter part of the reign of the [[Roman emperor]] [[Tiberius]]:<ref>[[Gildas]]. ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]''. 6th century. {{la icon}} Translated by [[Thomas Habington]]. ''The Epistle of Gildas the most ancient British Author: who flourished in the yeere of our Lord, 546. And who by his great erudition, sanctitie, and wisdome, acquired the name of ''Sapiens''. Faithfully translated out of the originall Latine'' (8 vols). T. Cotes for William Cooke (London), 1638. Edited and reprinted by [[John Allen Giles]]. [[s:The Ruin of Britain#8|"The Works of Gildas, Surnamed 'Sapiens,' or the Wise", §8]] in ''Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester''. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at [[s:Main Page|Wikisource]].</ref> an account of the [[seventy disciples]] discovered at [[Mount Athos]] in 1854 lists [[Aristobulus of Britannia|Aristobulus]] as "bishop of [[Roman Britain|Britain]]".<ref>{{cite book |author=Pseudo-Hippolytus |author-link=Pseudo-Hippolytus |chapter=On the Seventy Apostles of Christ |title=Ante-Nicean Fathers |volume=5 |pages=254-256 |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |location=Peabody, MA |date=1999 }}</ref> Medieval accounts of [[Lucius of Britain|King Lucius]], [[Fagan (saint)|Fagan]] and [[Deruvian]], and [[Joseph of Arimathea]], however, are now usually accounted as [[pious fraud]]s.
The earliest certain historical evidence of Christianity among the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as [[Tertullian]] and [[Origen]] in the first years of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]], although the first Christian communities probably were established at least some decades earlier.
Initially, Christianity was but one of a number of religions: in addition to the native and syncretic local forms of paganism, [[Roman legion]]aries and immigrants introduced other cults such as [[Mithraism]]. At various times, the Christians risked [[Roman persecutions|persecution]], although the earliest known [[Christian martyrs]] in Britain—[[Saint Alban]] and "[[Amphibalus]]"—probably lived in the early [[4th century]].{{efn|The date of Alban's execution has been a subject of discussion among historians with [[John Morris (historian)|John Morris]] proposing that it took place during the persecutions of Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] as early as 209.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.roca.org/OA/35/35e.htm | work = Orthodoxy's Western Heritage | title = St. Alban the Martyr}}</ref> The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' lists the year 283,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=James |editor1-last=Ingram |editor2-first=J.A. |editor2-last=Giles |orig-year=1847 | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt | title = Anglo-Saxon Chronicles | publisher = [[Project Gutenburg]] }}</ref> and [[Venerable Bede|Bede]] places it in 305. Still others argue that sometime during the persecutors [[Decius]] or [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (251-259) is more likely.}} [[Julius and Aaron]], citizens of [[Caerleon]], were said to have been martyred during the [[Diocletianic Persecution]], although there is no textual or archaeological evidence to support the [[folk etymology]] of [[Lichfield]] as deriving from another thousand martyrs during the same years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=42340|title=Explaining the origin of the 'field of the dead' legend |publisher= British History Online |accessdate=20 November 2008}}</ref>
[[Christianization]] intensified with the legalisation of the Christian religion under [[Constantine the Great]] in the early 4th century and its promotion by subsequent Christian emperors. Three [[Romano-British culture|Romano-British]] bishops, including [[metropolitan bishop|Archbishop]] [[Restitutus]] of [[Bishop of London|London]], are known to have been present at the [[Synod of Arles]] in 314.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rowanwilliams.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/1640/1400th-anniversary-of-the-re-organisation-of-the-diocese-of-london |last=Williams |first=Rowan |author-link=Rowan Williams |date=22 May 2004 |title=1400th anniversary of the re-organisation of the Diocese of London |website=Dr Rowan Williams: 104th Archbishop of Canterbury }}</ref> Others attended the [[Council of Serdica]] in 347 and that of [[Council of Ariminum]] in 360. A number of references to the church in [[Roman Britain]] are also found in the writings of [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th-century]] Christian fathers. Britain was the home of [[Pelagius (British monk)|Pelagius]], who opposed [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s doctrine of [[original sin]]; [[Germanus of Auxerre|St Germanus]] was said to have visited the island in part to oppose the bishops who advocated [[Pelagianism|his heresy]].
Around 367, the [[Great Conspiracy]] saw the troops along [[Hadrian's Wall]] mutiny, allowing and even joining the [[Picts]] in overrunning the northern areas of Roman Britain in concert with [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] attacks on the coast. The Roman provinces seem to have been retaken by [[Theodosius the Elder]] the next year, but many [[Romano-Britons]] had already been killed or taken as slaves. In 407, [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]] declared himself "emperor of the West" and [[Roman withdrawal from Britain|withdrew his legions]] to [[Gaul]]. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] historian [[Zosimus]] ({{circa|lk=no|500}}) stated that Constantine's neglect of the area's defense against [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Saxon invasion of Britain|Saxon raids and invasions]] caused the Britons and [[Gauls]] to fully revolt from the [[Roman Empire]], rejecting [[Roman law]] and reverting to [[Celtic law|their native customs]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Snyder|first=Christopher A.|author-link=Christopher Snyder|year=1998|title=An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600|url=https://archive.org/details/ageoftyrantsbrit0000snyd|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|publication-date=1998|publication-place=University Park|page=[https://archive.org/details/ageoftyrantsbrit0000snyd/page/22 22]|isbn=0-271-01780-5}}</ref> In any case, Roman authority was greatly weakened following the [[Visigoths]]' [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of the capital]] in 410. Medieval legend attributed widespread [[Saxon invasions of Britain|Saxon immigration]] to [[Hengist and Horsa|mercenaries]] hired by the British king [[Vortigern]]. The Saxon communities followed [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|a form of Germanic paganism]], driving Christian Britons back to [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], and [[Brittany]] or subjugating them under kingdoms with no formal church presence.
[[Sub-Roman Britain|5th and 6th-century Britain]], although poorly attested, saw the "Age of [[list of Welsh saints|Saints]]" among the Welsh.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thomas |first=Jeffrey L. |url=http://www.castlewales.com/saints.html |title=The Age of Saints |website=The Castles of Wales |date=2009 |access-date=6 February 2015 }}</ref> [[Saint Dubric]], [[Saint Illtud]], and others first completed the [[Christianity in Wales|Christianization of Wales]]. Unwilling or unable to [[mission (Christianity)|missionize]] among the Saxons in England, Briton refugees and missionaries such as [[Saint Patrick]]{{efn|Note, however, that many events of Patrick's hagiographies may have originally intended the earlier [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|St Palladius]], a Gaul dispatched to Ireland by [[Pope Celestine I]].}} and [[Finnian of Clonard]] were then responsible for the [[Christianity in Ireland|Christianization of Ireland]]<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=41}}</ref> and made up the [[seven founder saints of Brittany|Seven Founder Saints]] of [[History of Christianity in Brittany|Brittany]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=26}}</ref> The Irish in turn made Christians of the Picts and English. [[Saint Columba|St Columba]]—then began the conversion of the [[Dál Riata#Religion and art|Dál Riata]] and the other peoples of [[History of Christianity in Scotland|Scotland]], although native saints such as [[Saint Mungo|Mungo]] also arose. The history of [[Christianity in Cornwall]] is more obscure, but the native church seems to have been greatly strengthened by Welsh and Irish missionaries such as SS [[Saint Petroc|Petroc]], [[Saint Piran|Piran]], and [[Saint Breaca|Breaca]]. Extreme weather (as [[extreme weather events of 535–536|around 535]]) and the attendant famines and disease, particularly the arrival of the [[Plague of Justinian]] in Wales around 547 and Ireland around 548, may have contributed to these missionary efforts.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=310–311}}</ref>
The title of "[[Christian Saint|Saint]]" was used quite broadly by British, Irish, and English Christians. Extreme cases are Irish accounts of Gerald of Mayo's presiding over 3300 "Saints" and Welsh claims that [[Bardsey Island]] held the remains of {{nowrap|20 000}}.{{efn|The [[Bollandists]] compiling the ''[[Acta Sanctorum]]'' were even driven to complain of the Irish "canonising dead men in troops whenever they seemed to be somewhat better than usual".<ref>Quoted translated from the Latin in {{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=39}}</ref>}} More often, the title was given to the founder of any ecclesiastical settlement, which would thenceforth be known as their ''[[llan (placename)|llan]]''. Such communities were organized on tribal models: founding saints were almost invariably lesser members of local dynasties, they were not infrequently married, and their successors were often chosen from among their kin.<ref name=sabi/> In the [[6th century]], the "[[Welsh Triads|Three Saintly Families of Wales]]"—those of the invading [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] Brychan and [[Hen Ogledd]]'s [[Cunedda Wledig]] and [[Caw of Strathclyde]]—displaced many of the local [[Siluria]]n rulers in favor of their own families and clans.<ref name=sabi>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|pp=30-40}}</ref> By some estimates,<ref>{{cite web |first=Rowan |last=Williams |url=http://www.walesbooks.com/reviews1.php |title=Reviews and comments on ''The Book of Welsh Saints'' }}</ref> these traditions produced over 800 [[pre-congregational saint]]s that were venerated locally in Wales, but invasions by [[Saxon invasions of Wales|Saxons]], [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irishmen]], [[Viking invasions of Wales|Vikings]], [[Norman invasion of Wales|Normans]], and others destroyed many ecclesiastical records. Similarly, the distance from Rome, hostility to native practices and cults, and relative unimportance of the local sees has left only two local Welsh saints in the [[General Roman Calendar]]: Saints [[Saint David|David]] and [[Saint Winifred|Winifred]].
Insular Christianity developed distinct traditions and practices, most pointedly concerning the ''[[computus]]'' of [[Easter controversy|Easter]], as it produced the most obvious signs of disunity:<ref name=Lloyd175176>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=175–177}}</ref> the old and new methods did not usually agree, causing Christians following one system to begin celebrating the feast of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] while others continued to solemnly observe [[Lent]].{{efn|Indeed, this is noted as occurring in the household of King [[Oswiu of Northumbria]], whose kingdom had been evangelised by both Irish and Roman missionaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=176}} and note.</ref>}} [[Christian monasticism|Monasticism]] spread widely; the [[Llandaff Charters]] record over fifty religious foundations in southeast Wales alone. Although the ''[[clasau]]'' were rather modest affairs, great [[monasteries]] and [[monastic schools]] also developed at [[Llantwit Major]] (''{{lang|cy|Llanilltud Fawr}}''), [[Bangor Cathedral#History|Bangor]], and [[Iona#History|Iona]]. The [[tonsure]] differed from that elsewhere and also became a point of contention. A distinction that became increasingly important was the nature of church organisation: some monasteries were led by married clergy, inheritance of religious offices was common (in Wales, as late as the 12th century),<ref name=powys>{{cite web |url=http://history.powys.org.uk/history/common/early1.html |title=Early Christianity in Wales |website=Powys Digital History Project }}</ref> and illegitimacy was treated much more leniently with fathers simply needing to acknowledge the child for him to inherit an equal share with his brothers. Prior to their conquest by England, most churches have records of bishops and priest but not an established [[parish]] system. Pre-conquest, most Christians would not attend regular services but relied on members of the monastic communities who would occasionally make preaching tours through the area.<ref name=powys/>
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====Wales====
<!--{{see also|List of Welsh saints}}
At the end of the 6th century, [[Pope Gregory I]] dispatched a [[Gregorian mission|mission]] under [[Augustine of Canterbury]] to convert the [[Anglo-Saxons]], establish new sees and churches throughout their territories, and reassert papal authority over the native church. Gregory intended for Augustine to become the [[metropolitan bishop]] over all of southern Britain, including the existing dioceses under Welsh and Cornish control. Augustine met with British bishops in a series of conferences—known as the [[Synod of Chester]]—that attempted to assert his authority and to compel them to abandon aspects of their service that had fallen out of line with Roman practice. The [[Northumbria]]n cleric [[Bede]]'s ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'' is the only surviving account of these meetings: according to it, some of the clerics of the nearest British province met Augustine at a site on the border of the [[Kingdom of Kent]] that was known thereafter as Augustine's Oak. Augustine focused on seeking assistance for his work among the Saxons and reforming the Britons' [[Easter controversy|obsolete method for calculating Easter]]; the clerics responded that they would need to confer with their people and await a larger assembly.<ref name=Lloyd174175>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=174–175}}</ref> Bede relates that the bishops particularly consulted a hermit on how to respond. He told them to respond based on Augustine's conduct: were he to rise to greet them, they would know him for a humble servant of Christ and should submit to his authority but, were he to remain seated, they would know him to be arrogant and prideful and should reject him. As it happened, Augustine did keep his seat, provoking outrage. In the negotiations that followed, he offered to allow the Britons to maintain all their native customs but three: they should adopt Rome's more advanced method of calculating the date of Easter, reform their baptismal ritual, and join the missionary efforts among the Saxons. The British clerics rejected all of these, as well as Augustine's authority over them.<ref name=Lloyd174175/> [[John Edward Lloyd]] argues that the primary reason for the British bishops' rejection of Augustine – and especially his call for them to join his missionary effort – was his claim to sovereignty over them, given that his see would be so deeply entwined with Anglo-Saxon Kent.<ref name=Lloyd177>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=177}}</ref>
The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king [[Æthelfrith]] of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] around 616 at the [[Battle of Chester]] was taken by [[Bede]] as fulfillment of a prophecy allegedly made by [[Augustine of Hippo]] that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons they refused to proselytise.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=180}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|2006|pp=118-119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bede |title=Ecclesiastical History of England |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |date=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/forestculturean01coopgoog |via=Internet Archive }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2017}}{{efn|Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.}} Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt the Roman and Saxon ''[[computus]]'' until induced to do so around 768 by "[[Bishop of Bangor|Archbishop]]" [[Elfodd]] of "Gwynedd". The [[Norman invasion of Wales]] finally brought Welsh dioceses under [[Kingdom of England|England]]'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and [[Philip the Apostle]]'s dispatch of [[Yusuf Arimatea]] in part aimed to preserve the priority and authority of the native establishments at [[Diocese of St David's|St David's]], [[Diocese of Llandaff|Llandaff]], and [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]]. It was not until the death of [[Bishop of St Davids|Bishop]] [[Bernard (bishop of St Davids)|Bernard]] ({{circa|lk=no|1147}}) that St Davids finally abandoned its claims to metropolitan status and submitted to the [[Province of Canterbury]], by which point the popularity of [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s pseudohistorical ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' had begun spreading these inventions further afield. Such ideas were used by mediaeval anti-Roman movements such as the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] and followers of [[John Wycliffe]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuchman |first=B. |date=1978 |title=A Distant Mirror |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=0-345-34957-1 }}</ref> as well as by English Catholics during the [[English Reformation]]. The legend that Jesus himself visited Britain is referred to in [[William Blake]]'s 1804 poem "[[And did those feet in ancient time]]". The words of Blake's poem were set to music in 1916 by [[Hubert Parry]] as the well-known hymn or anthem "Jerusalem".
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==== Skotlandia ====
[[Image:Columba at Bridei's fort.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Columba]] pada gerbang benteng [[Bridei I]].]]
<!--{{see also|Hiberno-Scottish mission}}
According to Bede, [[Saint Ninian]] was born about 360, in what is present day Galloway, the son of a chief of the Novantae, apparently a Christian. He studied under [[Martin of Tours]] before returning to his own land about 397. He established himself at [[Whithorn]] where he built a church of stone, "Candida Casa". Tradition holds that Ninian established an episcopal see at the Candida Casa in Whithorn, and named the see for Saint Martin of Tours. He converted the southern Picts to Christianity,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whithorn.com/saint-ninian.htm |title=Saint Ninian |website=The Whithorn Trust }}</ref> and died around 432. Many Irish saints trained at the "Candida Casa", such as [[Tigernach of Clones]], [[Ciarán of Clonmacnoise]], and [[Finnian of Movilla]]. Ninian's work was carried on by Palladius, who left Ireland to work among the Picts.The mission to the southern Picts apparently met with some setbacks, as Patrick charged Coroticus and the "apostate Picts" with conducting raids on the Irish coast and seizing Christians as slaves. [[Ternan]] and [[Saint Serf]] followed Palladius. Serf was the teacher of [[Saint Mungo]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/210/7/061.html |title=Butler, Alban. "The Lives of the Saints", Vol. VII, 1866 |website=Bartleby }}</ref> the apostle of Strathclyde, and patron saint of Glasgow.
==== Cornwall ====
{{see also|List of Cornish saints}}
A Welshman of noble birth, [[Saint Petroc]] was educated in Ireland. He set out in a small boat with a few followers. In a type of ''peregrinatio'', they let God determine their course. The winds and tides brought them to the Padstow estuary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm |title=The Story of St. Petroc |website=St. Petroc's, Padstow |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820051815/http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm |archive-date=20 August 2013 }}</ref> [[Kevin of Glendalough]] was a student of Petroc. [[Saint Endelienta]] was the daughter of the Welsh king [[Brychan]]. She also travelled to [[Cornwall]] to evangelize the locals. Her brother [[Nectan of Hartland]] worked in Devon. [[Saint Piran]] is the patron saint of tin miners. An Irishman, he is said to have floated across to Cornwall after being thrown into the sea tied to a millstone. He has been identified on occasion with [[Ciarán of Saigir]].<ref name=schaff>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03/Page_117.html |title=Saint Ciaran of Saigir |encyclopedia=New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge |page=117 }}</ref>
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=== Irlandia ===
[[File:Stpatrick hilloftara.jpg|thumb|right|St. Patrick]]
<!--{{see also|List of Irish saints}}
By the early fifth century the religion had spread to Ireland, which had never been part of the [[Roman Empire]]. There were Christians in Ireland before [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|Palladius]] arrived in 431 as the first missionary bishop sent by Rome. His mission does not seem to have been entirely successful. The subsequent mission of [[Saint Patrick]] established churches in conjunction with ''civitates'' like his own in [[Armagh]]; small enclosures in which groups of Christians, often of both sexes and including the married, lived together, served in various roles and ministered to the local population.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=306 & 310}}</ref><ref>Riley, 82–93, 95–96</ref>{{full citation needed|date=May 2017}} Patrick set up diocesan structures with a hierarchy of bishops, priests, and deacons. During the late 5th and 6th centuries true monasteries became the most important centres: in Patrick's own see of Armagh the change seems to have happened before the end of the 5th century, thereafter the bishop was the abbot also.<ref>{{harvnb|Ryan|1931|pp=100–102}}</ref> Within a few generations of the arrival of the first missionaries the monastic and clerical class of the isle had become fully integrated with the culture of Latin letters. Besides Latin, Irish ecclesiastics developed a written form of [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]. Others who influenced the development of [[Christianity in Ireland]] include [[Saint Brigid|Brigid]], [[Saint Moluag|Moluag]] and [[Caillín]].
==Universal practice==
Connections with the greater [[Greek East and Latin West|Latin West]] brought the nations of Britain and Ireland into closer contact with the orthodoxy of the councils. The customs and traditions particular to Insular Christianity became a matter of dispute, especially the matter of the proper calculation of Easter. In addition to Easter dating, Irish scholars and cleric-scholars in continental Europe found themselves implicated in theological controversies but it is not always possible to distinguish when a controversy was based on matters of substance or on political grounds or xenophobic sentiments.<ref name="flech">{{harvnb|Flechner|Meeder|2016|pp=231-41}}</ref> Synods were held in Ireland, Gaul, and England (e.g. the [[Synod of Whitby]]) at which Irish and British religious rites were rejected but a degree of variation continued in Britain after the Ionan church accepted the Roman date.
The Easter question was settled at various times in different places. The following dates are derived from Haddan and Stubbs: southern Ireland, 626-8; northern Ireland, 692; Northumbria (converted by Irish missions), 664; East Devon and Somerset, the Britons under Wessex, 705; the Picts, 710; Iona, 716-8; Strathclyde, 721; North Wales, 768; South Wales, 777. Cornwall held out the longest of any, perhaps even, in parts, to the time of Bishop Aedwulf of Crediton (909).<ref>A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (ed.), ''Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland'', 3 vols (Oxford, 1869–78), I, 112-3, Quoted in "The Catholic Encyclopedia".</ref>
A uniquely Irish [[penance|penitential system]] was eventually adopted as a universal practice of the Church by the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] of 1215.
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== Tradisi Pan-Keltik ==
Caitlin Corning mengidentifikasi empat kebiasaan umum yang terdapat pada gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Britania tetapi dijalankan di tempat lain dalam dunia Kristen.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|pp=1–19}}</ref>
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=== Perhitungan Paskah ===
<!--{{main article|Easter controversy|computus}}--><!--
[[Easter]] was originally dated according to [[Hebrew calendar]], which [[Hebrew calendar#New year|tried to place Passover]] on the first full moon following the [[Spring equinox]] but did not always succeed. In his ''[[Life of Constantine]]'', [[Eusebius]] records that the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) decided that all Christians should observe a common date for Easter separate from the Jewish calculations, according to the practice of the [[bishops of Rome]] and [[bishop of Alexandria|Alexandria]].<ref name=conlet>{{Citation| author = Constantine| author-link = Constantine the Great| chapter = Letter on the Keeping of Easter to those not present at Nicaea| date = 325| editor = Eusebius of Caesaria| editor-link = Eusebius of Caesaria| title = The Life of Constantine| volume = III| at = §18–20| publication-date = 1996| isbn = 1-56085-072-8|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.x.html}}</ref> Calculating the proper date of Easter (''[[computus]]'') then became a complicated process involving a [[lunisolar calendar]], finding the first Sunday after an idealized Passover on the first full moon after the equinox.
Various tables were drawn up, aiming to produce the necessary alignment between the [[solar year]] and the [[moon phases|phases]] of the [[ecclesiastical full moon|calendrical moon]]. The less exact [[octaeteris|8-year cycle]] was replaced by (or by the time of) [[Augustalis (bishop)|Augustalis]]'s treatise "[[De ratione Paschae|On the measurement of Easter]]", which includes an 84-year cycle based on [[Metonic cycle|Meton]]. This was introduced to Britain, whose clerics at some point modified it to use the [[Julian calendar]]'s original equinox on 25 March instead of the Nicaean equinox, which had already drifted to 21 March. This calendar was conserved by the Britons and Irish<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|p=224 n. 1}}</ref> while the Romans and French began to use the [[Victorius of Aquitaine|Victorian]] cycle of 532 years. The Romans (but not the French) then adopted the still-better work of [[Dionysius Exiguus|Dionysius]] in 525, which brought them into harmony with the [[Church of Alexandria]].
In the early 600s Christians in Ireland and Britain became aware of the divergence in dating between them and those in Europe. The first clash came in 602 when a synod of French bishops opposed the practices of the monasteries established by [[Columbanus|St Columbanus]]; he appealed to [[Pope Gregory I|the pope]] but received no answer and finally moved from their jurisdiction. It was a primary concern for [[Augustine of Canterbury|St Augustine]] and [[Gregorian mission|his mission]], although [[Oswald of Northumbria|Oswald]]'s flight to [[Dál Riata]] and eventual restoration to his throne meant that Celtic practice was introduced to [[Northumbria]] until the 664 [[Synod of Whitby|synod in Whitby]]. The groups furthest away from the [[Gregorian mission]] were generally the readiest to acknowledge the superiority of the new tables: the bishops of southern Ireland adopted the continental system at the [[Synod of Mag Léne]] ({{circa|lk=no|630}}); the {{circa|lk=no|697}} [[Council of Birr]] saw the northern Irish bishops follow suit. The [[Iona Abbey|abbey at Iona]] and its satellites held out until 716,<ref>{{harvnb|John|2000|p=34}}</ref> while the Welsh did not adopt the Roman and Saxon ''[[computus]]'' until induced to do so around 768 by [[Elfodd]], [[bishop of Bangor|"archbishop" of Bangor]].
===Monastic tonsure===
[[File:Fra Angelico 052.jpg|left|thumb|The "Roman" [[tonsure]], in the shape of a crown, differing from the Irish tradition, which is unclear but involved shaving the hair from ear to ear in some fashion]]
All monks of the period, and apparently most or all clergy, kept a distinct [[tonsure]], or method of cutting one's hair, to distinguish their social identity as men of the cloth. In Ireland men otherwise wore longish hair, and a shaved head was worn by [[Slavery in the Early Middle Ages|slave]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Ryan|1931|p=217}}</ref>
The prevailing "Roman" custom was to shave a circle at the top of the head, leaving a halo of hair or ''corona''; this was eventually associated with the imagery of Christ's [[Crown of Thorns]].<ref>{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|p=146}}</ref> The early material referring to the Celtic tonsure emphasises its distinctiveness from the Roman alternative and invariably connects its use to the Celtic dating of Easter.<ref>{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|p=140}}</ref> Those preferring the Roman tonsure considered the Celtic custom extremely unorthodox, and associated it with the form of tonsure worn by the heresiarch [[Simon Magus]].<ref>{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|pp=141–143}}</ref> This association appears in a 672 letter from Saint [[Aldhelm]] to King [[Geraint of Dumnonia]], but it may have been circulating since the Synod of Whitby.<ref name=McCarthy141>{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|p=141}}</ref> The tonsure is also mentioned in a passage, probably of the 7th century but attributed wrongly to Gildas: "''Britones toti mundo contrarii, moribus Romanis inimici, non solum in missa sed in tonsura etiam''" ("Britons are contrary to the whole world, enemies of Roman customs, not only in the Mass but also in regard to the tonsure").<ref>A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (ed.), ''Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland'', 3 vols (Oxford, 1869–78), I, 112-3</ref>
The exact shape of the Irish tonsure is unclear from the early sources, although they agree that the hair was in some way shorn over the head from ear to ear.<ref name="McCarthy">{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|pp=140-167}}</ref> In 1639 [[James Ussher]] suggested a semi-circular shape, rounded in the front and culminating at a line between the ears.<ref>{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|pp=147–148}}</ref> This suggestion was accepted by many subsequent writers, but in 1703, [[Jean Mabillon]] put forth a new hypothesis, claiming that the entire forehead was shaven back to the ears. Mabillon's version was widely accepted, but contradicts the early sources.<ref name="McCarthy149">{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|p=149}}</ref> In 2003 Daniel McCarthy suggested a triangular shape, with one side between the ears and a vertex towards the front of the head.<ref name="McCarthy"/> The ''[[Collectio canonum Hibernensis]]'' cites the authority of [[Saint Patrick]] as indicating that the custom originated with the swineherd of [[Lóegaire mac Néill]], the king who opposed Patrick.<ref>{{harvnb|McCarthy|2003|pp=142–143}}</ref>
===Penitentials===
{{main article|Penitential}}
In Christian Ireland – as well as Pictish and English peoples they Christianised – a distinctive form of [[Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)|penance]] developed, where confession was made privately to a priest, under the seal of secrecy, and where penance was given privately and ordinarily performed privately as well.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Gamer|1938|p=28}}</ref> Certain handbooks were made, called "penitentials", designed as a guide for confessors and as a means of regularising the penance given for each particular sin.
In antiquity, penance had been a public ritual. Penitents were divided into a separate part of the church during liturgical worship, and they came to mass wearing [[sackcloth]] and ashes in a process known as ''exomologesis'' that often involved some form of general confession.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Gamer|1938|pp=7–9}}</ref> There is evidence that this public penance was preceded by a private confession to a bishop or priest (''sacerdos''), and it seems that, for some sins, private penance was allowed instead.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Gamer|1938|pp=9–12}}</ref> Nonetheless, penance and reconciliation was prevailingly a public rite (sometimes unrepeatable), which included [[absolution]] at its conclusion.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Gamer|1938|pp=13–17}}</ref>
The Irish penitential practice spread throughout the continent, where the form of public penance had fallen into disuse. Saint [[Columbanus]] was credited with introducing the ''medicamenta paentitentiae'', the "medicines of penance", to Gaul at a time when they had come to be neglected.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2003|p=252}}</ref> Though the process met some resistance, by 1215 the practice had become established as the norm, with the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] establishing a canonical statute requiring confession at a minimum of once per year.
===Peregrinatio===
{{main article|Peregrinatio pro Christo}}
A final distinctive tradition common across Britain and Ireland was the popularity of ''peregrinatio pro Christo'' ("exile for Christ"). The term ''peregrinatio'' is [[Latin]], and referred to the state of living or sojourning away from one's homeland in [[Roman law]]. It was later used by the [[Church Fathers]], in particular Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]], who wrote that Christians should live a life of ''peregrinatio'' in the present world while awaiting the [[Kingdom of God]]. Augustine's version of ''peregrinatio'' spread widely throughout the Christian church, but it took two additional unique meanings in Celtic countries.<ref name=Corningperegrinatio>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=17}}</ref>
In the first sense, the penitentials prescribed permanent or temporary ''peregrinatio'' as penance for certain infractions. Additionally, there was a tradition of undertaking a voluntary ''peregrinatio pro Christo'', in which individuals permanently left their homes and put themselves entirely in God's hands. In the Irish tradition there were two types of such ''peregrinatio'', the "lesser" peregrinatio, involving leaving one's home area but not the island, and the "superior" peregrinatio, which meant leaving Ireland for good. This voluntary exile to spend one's life in a foreign land far from friends and family came to be termed the "white martyrdom".<ref name=woods>{{cite journal |url=http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/853735woods.html#3 |last=Woods |first=Richard |title=The Spirituality of the Celtic Church |journal=Spirituality Today |date=Fall 1985 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=243-255 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103040938/http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/853735woods.html#3 |archive-date=3 November 2013 }}</ref>
Most ''peregrini'' or exiles of this type were seeking personal spiritual fulfilment, but many became involved in missionary endeavours. The Briton [[Saint Patrick]] became the evangelist of Ireland during what he called his ''peregrinatio'' there, while [[Samson of Dol|Saint Samson]] left his home to ultimately become Bishop in [[Brittany]]. The Irishmen [[Columba]] and [[Columbanus]] similarly founded highly important religious communities after leaving their homes.<ref name=Corningperegrinatio/> Irish-educated English Christians such as [[Gerald of Mayo]], the [[Two Ewalds]], [[Willehad]], [[Willibrord]], [[Wilfrid]], [[Ceolfrith]], and other English all followed these Irish traditions.
==Other British and Irish traditions==
A number of other distinctive traditions and practices existed (or are taken to have existed) in Britain or Ireland, but are not known to have been in use across the entire region. Different writers and commenters have identified different traditions as representative of so-called Celtic Christianity.<ref>This list includes information from {{cite book |first=Charles |last=Plummer |chapter=Excursus on the Paschal Controversy and Tonsure |title=Venerablilis Baedae, Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=Plummer |orig-year=1892 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1975 |pages=348-354 }}</ref>
===Monastikisme===
[[Image:National Library of Ireland MS G10 p24.jpg|thumb|right|Excerpt from the [[Martyrology of Oengus]]]]
Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers. According to Richard Woods, the familial, democratic, and decentralized aspects of Egyptian Christianity were better suited to structures and values of Celtic culture than was a legalistic diocesan form.<ref name=woods/> Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom".<ref name=woods/> An example of this would be [[Kevin of Glendalough]] and [[Cuthbert]] of [[Lindisfarne]].
The claim is made that the true Ecclesiastical power in the Celtic world lay in the hands of [[abbots]] of [[monasteries]], rather than the Bishop of [[Dioceses]]s.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=433}}</ref> It is certain that the ideal of monasticism was universally esteemed in Celtic Christianity.<ref name=Herren13>{{harvnb|Herren|Brown|2002|p=13}}</ref> This was especially true in Ireland and areas evangelised by Irish missionaries, where monasteries and their abbots came to be vested with a great deal of ecclesiastical and secular power. Following the growth of the monastic movement in the 6th century, Abbots controlled not only individual monasteries, but also expansive estates and the secular communities that tended them.<ref name=Hughes311312>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=311–312}}</ref> As monastics, abbots were not necessarily [[Holy Orders (Catholic Church)|ordained]] (i.e. they were not necessarily [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priests]] or bishops). They were usually descended from one of the many Irish royal families, and the founding regulations of the Abbey sometimes specified that the Abbotcy should if possible be kept within one family lineage.<ref>[[Dáibhí Ó Cróinín|Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí]] in {{harvnb|Youngs|1989|pp=13–14}}</ref>
This focus on the monastery has led some scholars, most notably [[Kathleen Hughes (historian)|Kathleen Hughes]], to argue that the monastic system came to be the dominant ecclesiastical structure in the Irish church, essentially replacing the earlier [[Episcopal polity|episcopal structure]] of the type found in most of the rest of the Christian world.<ref name=Hughes311>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|p=311 and note }}</ref> Hughes argued that the ''paruchia'', or network of monasteries attached to an [[abbey]], replaced the [[diocese]] as the chief administrative unit of the church, and the position of Abbot largely replaced that of Bishop in authority and prominence.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|p=312}}</ref> According to this model, Bishops were still needed, since certain [[Sacraments (Catholic Church)|sacramental]] functions were reserved only for the ordained, but they had little authority in the ecclesiastical structure.<ref>{{harvnb|John|2000|pp=32–34}}</ref>
However, more recent scholarship, particularly the work of [[Donnchadh Ó Corráin]] and [[Richard Sharpe (historian)|Richard Sharpe]], has offered a more nuanced view of the interrelationships between the monastic system and the traditional Church structures.<ref name=Hughes311/> Sharpe argues that there is no evidence that the ''paruchia'' overrode the diocese, or that the abbot replaced the Bishop;<ref name=Herren13/> Bishops still exercised ultimate spiritual authority and remained in charge of the diocesan clergy.<ref name=Hughes311/> But either way, the monastic ideal was regarded as the utmost expression of the Christian life.<ref name=Herren13/>
The focus on powerful abbots and monasteries was limited to the Irish Church, however, and not in Britain. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433/>
Irish monasticism was notable for its permeability. In permeable monasticism, people were able to move freely in and out of the monastic system at different points of life. Young boys and girls would enter the system to pursue Latin scholarship. Students would sometimes travel from faraway lands to enter the Irish monasteries. When these students became adults, they would leave the monastery to live out their lives. Eventually, these people would retire back to secure community provided by the monastery and stay until their death. However, some would stay within the monastery and become leaders. Since most of the clergy were Irish, native traditions were well-respected. Permeable monasticism popularised the use of vernacular and helped mesh the norms of secular and monastic element in Ireland, unlike other parts of Europe where monasteries were more isolated. Examples of these intertwining motifs can be seen in the hagiographies of [[St. Brigid]] and [[St. Columba]].<ref name="de Paor 1958">{{cite book|last1=de Paor|first1=Máire|last2=de Paor|first2=Liam|title=Early Christian Ireland: Ancient Peoples and Places|url=https://archive.org/details/earlychristianir00depa|year=1958|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}
This willingness to learn, and also to teach, was a hallmark of the "permeable monasticism" that so characterised the Irish monastery. While a hermitage was still the highest form of dedication, the monasteries were very open to allowing students and children within the walls for an education, without requiring them to become monks. These students were then allowed to leave and live within the community, and were welcomed back in their old age to retire in peace. This style of monasticism allowed for the monastery to connect with, and become a part of, the community at large. The availability of the monks to the people was instrumental in converting Ireland from paganism to Christianity, allowing a blend of the two cultures.<ref name="de Paor 1958"/>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}
====Wales====
<!--{{main article|Clas (ecclesiastical settlement)}}--><!--
According to [[hagiography|hagiographies]] written some centuries later, [[Illtud]] and his pupils [[Saint David|David]], Gildas, and [[Deiniol]] were leading figures in 6th-century Britain.
Not far Llantwit Fawr stood [[Cadoc]]'s foundation of [[Llancarfan]], founded in the latter part of the fifth century. The son of [[Gwynllyw]], a prince of South Wales, who before his death renounced the world to lead an eremitical life. Cadoc followed his father's example and received the religious habit from St. Tathai, an Irish monk, superior of a small community at Swent near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags". Here he established a monastery, college and hospital. The spot at first seemed an impossible one, and an almost inaccessible marsh, but he and his monks drained and cultivated it, transforming it into one of the most famous religious houses in South Wales.<ref name=Chandlery>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15585a.htm |last=Chandlery, |first=Peter |title=Welsh Monastic Foundations |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=15 |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |date=1912 |access-date=18 December 2015 }}</ref> His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common.<ref name=newell>{{cite book |last=Newell |first=E.J. |title=A History of the Welsh Church to the Dissolution of the Monasteries |chapter=Chapter III |publisher=Elliot Stock |location=London |date=1895 |url=https://archive.org/details/historywelsh00neweuoft |via=Internet Archive }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2017}}
Illtud, said to have been an [[Armorica]]n by descent, spent the first period of his religious life as a disciple of St. Cadoc at Llancarvan. He founded the monastery at [[Llantwit Major]]. The monastery stressed learning as well as devotion. One of his fellow students was [[Paul Aurelian]], a key figure in Cornish monasticism.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15582b.htm |last=Thurston |first=Herbert |title=Welsh Church |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=15 |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |date=1912 |access-date=19 November 2013 }}</ref> [[Gildas]] the Wise was invited by Cadoc to deliver lectures in the monastery and spent a year there, during which he made a copy of a book of the Gospels, long treasured in the church of St. Cadoc.<ref name=Chandlery/> One of the most notable pupils of Illtyd was St. [[Samson of Dol]], who lived for a time the life of a hermit in a cave near the river Severn before founding a monastery in [[Brittany#Religion|Brittany]].
St David established [[St David's Cathedral|his monastery]] on a promontory on the western sea. It was well placed to be a centre of Insular Christianity. When [[Alfred the Great]] sought a scholar for his court, he summoned [[Asser]] of Saint David's. Contemporary with David were [[Saint Teilo]], Cadoc, [[Padarn]], [[Beuno]] and [[Tysilio]] among them. It was from Illtud and his successors that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline. [[Finnian of Clonard]] studied under Cadoc at [[Llancarfan]] in [[Glamorgan]].
====Ireland====
[[Finnian of Clonard]] is said to have trained the [[List of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland|Twelve Apostles of Ireland]] at [[Clonard Abbey]].
[[File:BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg|thumb|[[John the Evangelist|Saint John]], [[evangelist portrait]] from the [[Book of Mulling]], Irish, late 8th century]]
The achievements of [[insular art]], in [[illuminated manuscript]]s like the [[Book of Kells]], [[high cross]]es, and metalwork like the [[Ardagh Chalice]] remain very well known, and in the case of manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art.<ref>{{harvnb|Nordenfalk|1977}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}; {{harvnb|Pächt|1986}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> The manuscripts were certainly produced by and for monasteries, and the evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops, perhaps as well as secular commercial ones.<ref>{{harvnb|Youngs|1989|pp=15–16, 125}}</ref>
In the 6th and 7th centuries, Irish monks established monastic institutions in parts of modern-day Scotland (especially [[Columba]], also known as ''Colmcille'' or, in [[Old Irish]], ''Colum Cille''), and on the [[Continental Europe|continent]], particularly in Gaul (especially [[Columbanus]]). Monks from [[Iona Abbey|Iona]] under [[Aidan of Lindisfarne|St. Aidan]] founded the See of [[Lindisfarne]] in [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] [[Northumbria]] in 635, whence Gaelic-Irish practice heavily influenced northern England.
Irish monks also founded monasteries across the continent, exerting influence greater than many more ancient continental centres.<ref>{{harvnb|John|2000|p=36}}</ref> The first issuance of a Papal privilege granting a monastery freedom from episcopal oversight was that of Pope Honorius I to [[Bobbio Abbey]], one of Columbanus's institutions.<ref>{{harvnb|John|2000|p=37}}</ref>
At least in Ireland, the monastic system became increasingly secularised from the 8th century, as close ties between ruling families and monasteries became apparent. The major monasteries were now wealthy in land and had political importance. On occasion they made war either upon each other or took part in secular wars – a battle in 764 is supposed to have killed 200 from [[Durrow Abbey]] when they were defeated by [[Clonmacnoise]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|p=317}}</ref> From early periods the kin nature of many monasteries had meant that some married men were part of the community, supplying labour and with some rights, including in the election of Abbots (but obliged to abstain from sex during fasting periods). Some abbacies passed from father to son, and then even grandsons.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=313, 316, 319}}</ref> A revival of the [[ascetic]] tradition came in the second half of the century, with the [[culdee]] or "clients ([[vassal]]s) of God" movement founding new monasteries detached from family groupings.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=319–320}}</ref>
===Rule of Columbanus===
The monasteries of the Irish missions, and many at home, adopted the Rule of Saint [[Columbanus]], which was stricter than the [[Rule of Saint Benedict]], the main alternative in the West. In particular there was more [[fasting]] and an emphasis on [[corporal punishment]]. For some generations monks trained by Irish missionaries continued to use the Rule and to found new monasteries using it, but most converted to the Benedictine Rule over the 8th and 9th centuries.{{efn|The main source for Columbanus's life or vita is recorded by [[Jonas of Bobbio]], an Italian monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in 618, three years after the Saint's death; Jonas wrote the life c. 643. This author lived during the abbacy of Attala, Columbanus's immediate successor, and his informants had been companions of the saint. Mabillon in the second volume of his "Acta Sanctorum O.S.B." gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community.}}
Again, however, the Rule of Columbanus was used exclusively in monasteries in the Irish sphere of influence; it was not followed in British monasteries.
===Baptism===
Bede implies that in the time of Augustine of Canterbury, British churches used a baptismal rite that was in some way at variance with the Roman practice. According to Bede, the British Christians' failure to "complete" the Sacrament of Baptism was one of the three specific issues with British practice that Augustine could not overlook.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=175}}</ref> There is no indication as to how the baptism was "incomplete" according to the Roman custom. It may be that there was some difference in the [[confirmation]] rite, or that there was no confirmation at all.<ref name=Lloyd177/> At any rate, it is unlikely to have caused as much discord as the Easter controversy or the tonsure, as no other source mentions it.<ref name=Lloyd177/> As such there is no evidence that heterodox baptism figured into the practice of the Irish church.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433/>
==Accusations of Judaizing==
A recurrent accusation levelled against the Irish throughout the Middle Ages is that they were [[Judaizers]], which is to say that they observed certain religious rites after the manner of the Jews.<ref name="flech"/> The belief that Irish Christians were Judaizers can be observed in three main areas: the Easter Controversy, the notion that the Irish practiced obsolete laws from the [[Old Testament]] and (not unrelated to this) the view that they adhered too closely to the [[Old Testament]]. Quite apart from the intricate theological concerns that underpinned the debate over Easter in early 7th-century Gaul, Columbanus also found himself accused of [[Quartodecimanism]], a heresy whose central tenet was observing Easter on the same date as the eve of the Jewish [[Passover]], namely the fourteenth day of the Jewish lunar month of [[Nisan]]. Although this false accusation was raised at a time of heightened political tensions between Columbanus and the Gallic bishops, some historians have cautioned that it ought not be dismissed as a mere ruse because the Gauls may have been genuinely worried about blurring the boundaries between Gallic Christians and their Jewish neighbours.<ref>{{harvnb|Stancliffe|1992|pp=211-12}}</ref> That the Irish practiced obsolete Old Testament laws is another accusation that repeats itself a number of times in the early Middle Ages, most famously in the case of the 8th-century Irish charismatic preacher, [[Clement Scotus I]] (fl. 745), who was condemned as a heretic, in part for urging followers to follow Old Testament law in such controversial matters as obliging a man to marry his widowed sister-in-law upon his brother’s death.<ref name="Meeder">{{harvnb|Meeder|2011|pp=251-80}}</ref> And finally, a good example for the Irish tendency to adhere closely to the Old Testament is the [[Collectio canonum Hibernensis|''Hibernensis'']], a late 7th- or early 8th-century Irish canon law collection which was the first text of church law to draw heavily on the bible, and in particular the Old Testament, at a time when Christians were meant to be "dead to the old law" ([https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans+7%3A4&version=NIV Romans 7:4]). In Scotland similar accusations surround the supposed [[Scottish_pork_taboo|cultural taboo concerning pork]].
==Celtic Christian revivalism==
[[Ian Bradley]] notes that the recurrent interest in medieval Insular Christianity has led to successive [[revival movement]]s he terms "Celtic Christian revivalism". According to Bradley, most, though not all, revivalists are non-Celts for whom Celtic Christianity has an "exotic and peripheral" appeal.<ref>{{harvnb|Bradley|1999|pp=viii–ix}}</ref> Adherents typically claim their revivals restore authentic practices and traits, though Bradley notes they reflect contemporary concerns and prejudices much more closely, and most are "at least partially inspired and driven by denominational and national rivalries, ecclesiastical and secular power politics, and an anti-Roman Catholic agenda." Though often inaccurate or distorted, the beliefs of these movements have greatly influenced popular conceptions of historical Celtic Christianity.<ref>{{harvnb|Bradley|1999|p=ix}}</ref>
Bradley traces the origins of Celtic Christian revivalism to the Middle Ages. In the 8th and 9th century, authors wrote idealised [[hagiography|hagiographies]] of earlier saints, whose "golden age" of extraordinary holiness contrasted with the perceived corruption of later times. Similarly, the 12th- and 13th-century [[Renaissance of the 12th century|literary revival]] popularised and romanticised older Celtic traditions such as the [[Arthurian legend]]. These ideas were expanded during the [[English Reformation]], as Protestant authors appropriated the concept of a "Celtic Church" as a native, anti-Roman predecessor to their own movement.<ref name=Bradleyviii>{{harvnb|Bradley|1999|p=viii}}</ref>
In the 18th and 19th centuries, [[antiquarian]]ism, the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement, and growing nationalism influenced ideas about what was becoming known as "Celtic Christianity". Beginning in the early 20th century, a full-fledged revival movement began, centred on the island of [[Iona]] and influenced by the [[Irish literary revival]] and more general Christian revivals. By the end of the 20th century, another wave of enthusiasm began, this time influenced by [[New Age]] ideals.<ref name=Bradleyviii/> Today, a self-identification with and use of "Celtic Christianity" is common in countries such as [[Religion in the Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], both among participants in established churches and independent groups.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gierek |first=Bozena |chapter=Celtic spirituality in contemporary Ireland |pages=300-317 |editor1-first=Olivia |editor1-last=Cosgrove |editor2-first=Laurence |editor2-last=Cox |editor3-first=Carmen |editor3-last=Kuhling |editor4-first=Peter |editor4-last=Mulholland |title=Ireland's new religious movements: Alternative Spiritualities, Migrant Religions, the New Age and New Religious Movements |location=Newcastle upon Tyne |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |date=2011 |oclc=758707463 |isbn=978-1-4438-2588-7 }}</ref>
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== Lihat pula ==
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<!--* [[Anglo-Saxon Christianity]]
* [[History of Ireland (400–800)]]
* [[History of Christianity in Ireland]]
* [[Ancient British Church]] (part of the "neo-Celtic Christian" restoration movement of 19th century origin)
* [[Celtic Orthodox Church]]
* [[Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages#Celtic Christian traditions|Celtic Christian traditions in Gwynedd until 1100]]--><!--
* [[Kekristenan di Irlandia]]
<!--* [[David Adam (minister)]]
* [[Gallican Rite]]
* [[Gregorian Reform]]
* [[Neo-Celtic Christianity]] (a restoration movement of 19th century origin)-->
* [[Papar (Kristen)]]
<!--* [[Quartodecimanism]]
* [[Richard Williams Morgan]]-->
{{colend}}
== Catatan ==
Baris 20 ⟶ 180:
== Daftar pustaka ==
=== Sumber primer ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author=Adomnan |title=Life of Columba |editor1-first=A.O. |editor1-last=Anderson |editor2-first=M.O. |editor2-last=Anderson |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford Medieval Texts |date=1991 }}
* {{cite book |title=Annales Cambriae |editor-first=John |editor-last=Williams |location=London |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts |date=1860 |url=https://archive.org/details/annalescambriae00willgoog |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author=Bede |title=Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum |series=Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=Plummer |location=Oxonii |publisher=E Typographeo Clarendoniano |date=1896 |url=https://archive.org/details/historiamecclesi02bedeuoft |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author=Cummian |title=De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi |editor1-first=Maura |editor1-last=Walsh |editor2-first=Dáibhí |editor2-last=Ó Cróinín |<!--editor2-link=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín -->|location=Toronto |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |date=1988 |pages=93-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Gildas |title=De Excidio Brittaniae |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |<!--editor-link=J. A. Giles--> |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |title=Historia Brittonum |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |title=Medieval Handbooks of Penance |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalhandbook0000mcne_b0u4 |editor1-first=John T. |editor1-last=McNeill |editor2-first=Helena M. |editor2-last=Gamer |location=New York |publisher=Columba University Press |date=1938 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |author=Patrick (Saint) |title=Confessio |editor-first=John |editor-last=Skinner |translator=John Skinner |publisher=Image |date=1998 }}
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |title=The Lives of the British Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/b3136035x_0001 |date=1907 }} Scanned by Google; [http://www.celticchristianity.infinitesoulutions.com/saints_alpha.html menurut abjad].
{{refend}}
=== Sumber
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofsaints16bari |title=The Lives of the Saints |volume=16 |chapter=The Celtic Church and its Saints |publisher=Longmans, Green, & Co. |location=New York |date=1898 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last= Bradley |first= Ian |3= |title= Celtic Christianity: Making Myths and Chasing Dreams |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x9pjqsKAG4AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate= 9 May 2013 |year= 1999 |publisher= Edinburgh University Press |location= |isbn= 0-7486-1047-2 |page= |ref= harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofwesternchr0002brow |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2003 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Charles-Edwards |first=T.M. |title=Early Christian Ireland |publisher=Cambridge |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Caitlin Corning |last=Corning |first=Caitlin |title= The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year= 2006 |isbn=1-4039-7299-0 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Ó Cróinín |first=Dáibhí |authorlink=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |title=Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200 |location=London |date=1995 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Wendy |chapter=The Myth of the Celtic Church |title=The Early Church in Wales and the West |series=Oxbow Monograph |volume=16 |editor1-first=Nancy |editor1-last=Edwards |editor2-first=Alan |editor2-last=Lane |pages=12-21 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxbow |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Flechner |editor-first=Roy |editor2-last=Meeder |editor2-first=Sven |title=The Irish in Early Medieval Europe: Identity, Culture and Religion |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U5wmDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |year=2016 |location=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137430595 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Herren|first1=Michael W.|last2=Brown|first2= Shirley Ann|authorlink= |title=Christ in Celtic Christianity |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |year=2002 |isbn=0-85115-889-7 |url={{google books|ZFqNUMa8bfYC|plainurl=yes}} |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Kathleen Hughes (historian) |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Celtic Church: Is This a Valid Concept? O'Donnell lectures in Celtic Studies, University of Oxford 1975 |journal=[[Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies]] |volume=1 |year=1981 |pages=1–20 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Church in Early Irish Society |location=London |publisher=Methuen |year=1966|isbn=1-59740-067-X |oclc=711797907 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |editor-last=Ó Cróinín |editor-first=Dáibhí |editor-link=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |year=2005 |title=The Church in Early Irish Society: 400–800 |encyclopedia=A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume= |isbn=978-0-19-922665-8 |issue= |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgqOOkVrofcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |doi= |ref=harv }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=SJSDj1dDvNUC&pg=PA301&dq=The+Church+in+Early+Irish+Society+Hughes&ei=JDdIStbSDImSyASz0Mld Google Books link 2]
* {{cite book |last=John |first=Eric |authorlink=Eric John |chapter=The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church |title=Anglo-Saxon History: Basic Readings |editor-first=David A. E. |editor-last=Pelteret |location=New York |publisher=Garland Publishing |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last= Koch|first= John T.|coauthors= |title= Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia| publisher= ABC-CLIO|year=2006 |isbn= |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|title= A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest|last= Lloyd|first= John Edward|authorlink= John Edward Lloyd|coauthors= |year= 1912|publisher= Longmans, Green, and Co.|location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= https://books.google.com/?id=NYwNAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lloyd+history+of+Wales#v=onepage&q=|accessdate= 17 May 2010|ref= harv}}
* {{Cite journal|last= McCarthy|first= Daniel|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2003|month= |title= On the Shape of the Insular Tonsure|journal= Celtica|volume= 24|issue= |pages= 140–167|id= |url= http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c24/c24-140-167.pdf|accessdate= 18 June 2009|quote= |ref= harv|archive-date= 2009-03-26|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090326224341/http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c24/c24-140-167.pdf|dead-url= yes}}
* {{Cite journal|last= Meeder|first= Sven|authorlink= |year= 2011|month= |title= Boniface and the Irish Heresy of Clemens|journal= Church History|volume= 80|issue= |pages= 251–80|id= |url= http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8274031&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0009640711000035|accessdate= 1 August 2016|quote= |ref= harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Nordenfalk |first=Carl |title=Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/celticanglosaxon00nord |location=New York |publisher=George Braziller |date=1977 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pächt |first=Otto |title=Book Illumination in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/bookillumination0000pcht |date=1986 |publisher=Harvey Miller Publishers |location=London |isbn=0-19-921060-8 |ref=harv }} (trans fr German)
* {{cite book |last=Ryan |first=John |title=Irish Monasticism, Origins and Early Development |url=https://archive.org/details/irishmonasticism0000unse_q5d2 |publisher=Talbot Press |location=Dublin |date=1931 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sharpe |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Sharpe (historian) |title=Some problems concerning the organisation of the Church in early medieval Ireland |journal=[[Peritia]] |volume=3 |pages=230-70 |date=1984 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Stancliffe |first=Clare |chapter=Columbanus and the Gallic Bishops |title=Mélanges offerts au Professeur Oliver Guillot |editor1-first=G. |editor1-last=Constable |editor2-first=M. |editor2-last=Rouche |pages=205-14 |location=Paris |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |authorlink=Patrick Wormald |last=Wormald |first=Patrick |chapter=Bede and the 'Church of the English' |title=The Times of Bede: Studies in Early English Christian Society and its Historian |editor-first=Stephen |editor-last=Baxter |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2006 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last=Yorke |first=Barbara|authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/conversionofbrit0000york |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=0-582-77292-3 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|editor1-first=Susan |editor1-last=Youngs |title='The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD |url=https://archive.org/details/workofangelsmast0000unse |year=1989 |publisher=British Museum Press |location=London |isbn=0-7141-0554-6 |ref=harv }}
{{refend}}
== Pustaka tambahan ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|year=1996 |last=Cahill |first=Thomas |title=How the Irish Saved Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/howirishsavedciv0000cahi |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=0-385-41849-3 }}
* {{cite book |authorlink=Henry Mayr-Harting |last=Mayr-Harting |first=Henry |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofchristia0000mayr |edition=3rd |location=London |publisher=B.T. Batsford Ltd |date=1991 }}
{{refend}}
[[Kategori:Kristen di Eropa]]
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