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[[Berkas:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg|ka|jmpl|Sebuah Salib
'''Kekristenan Kelt''' (''Celtic Christianity'') atau '''Kekristenan Insuler''' (''Insular Christianity'') merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari [[Kekristenan|agama Kristen]] yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|bahasa Keltik]] pada masa [[Abad Pertengahan Awal
Istilah "Gereja Kelt" sudah jarang dipakai oleh banyak sejarawan karena menyiratkan suatu entitas kesatuan dan teridentifikasi yang sama sekali terpisah dari
Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh [[Patrick (santo)|St. Patrick]] yang berasal dari
== Definisi ==
"Kekristen Kelt" telah dipahami dengan cara yang berbeda pada waktu yang berbeda. Tulisan-tulisan pada topik ini sering mengatakan lebih lanjut tentang masa di saat mana mereka berasal daripada sejarah negara Kristen pada awal abad pertengahan di [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|wilayah yang berbahasa Keltik]], dan banyak pengertian itu sekarang didiskreditkan dalam wacana akademik modern.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=xii}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bradley|1999|pp=vii–ix}}</ref> Salah satu fitur yang sangat menonjol dari Kekristenan Kelt adalah perbedaan khas inheren – dan umumnya menentang – [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik]].<ref name="Corning1">{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=1}}</ref> Klaim umum lainnya adalah bahwa Kekristenan Kelt menolak [[Supremasi kepausan|otoritas Paus]], kurang otoriter daripada Gereja Katolik, lebih spiritual, lebih ramah untuk perempuan, lebih terhubung dengan alam, dan lebih nyaman berhadapan dengan politeisme Kelt.<ref name=Corning1/> Salah satu pandangan, yang memperoleh traksi ilmiah substansial pada abad ke-19, adalah bahwa ada suatu "Gereja Kelt", suatu tubuh Kristus atau denominasi yang diorganisir secara signifikan menyatukan orang Kelt dan memisahkan mereka dari gereja "Roma" di benua Eropa.<ref name="Koch432">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=432}}</ref> Contohnya ditemukan di "Study of History" karya [[Arnold Joseph Toynbee|Toynbee]], yang mengidentifikasi Kekristenan Kelt dengan sebuah "Peradaban Barat Jauh yang Digugurkan" – inti sebuah masyarakat baru, yang dicegah untuk berakar oleh Gereja Roma, bangsa Viking, dan Normandia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1-6|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold|last2=Somervell|first2=David|date=1987|publisher=Oxford U Press | isbn = 978-0195050806 | location = New York | pages=154-156}}</ref> Yang lain telah konten untuk berbicara tentang "Kekristenan Kelt" yang terdiri dari beberapa tradisi dan kepercayaan intrinsik untuk bangsa Kelt.<ref name="Koch432434">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=432–434}}</ref>
Namun, para sarjana modern telah mengidentifikasi masalah dengan semua klaim ini, dan menemukan istilah "Kekristenan Kelt" bermasalah dalam dan dari dirinya sendiri.<ref name=Koch431/> Ide adanya "Gereja Kelt" ini ditolak mentah-mentah oleh para sarjana modern karena kurangnya bukti kuat.<ref name=Koch432434/> Memang, ada tradisi gereja yang berbeda di Irlandia dan Inggris, masing-masing dengan praktik mereka sendiri, dan ada variasi lokal signifikan bahkan dalam masing-masing lingkungan individu Irlandia dan Inggris.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=4}}</ref> Sementara ada beberapa tradisi yang diketahui telah umum untuk gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Inggris, meskipun ini relatif sedikit. Bahkan kesamaan ini bukannya ada karena daerah itu bercorak "[[Kelt]]", melainkan karena sejarah dan faktor geografis lainnya. Selain itu, orang-orang Kristen dari Irlandia dan Inggris tidaklah "anti-Roma"; otoritas Roma dan kepausan juga dihormati kuat di daerah orang Kelt sebagaimana di wilayah lain di Eropa.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|pp=1, 4}}</ref> Caitlin Corning lebih lanjut mencatat bahwa "Irlandia dan Inggris tidak lebih pro-perempuan, pro-lingkungan, atau bahkan lebih rohani dari bagian Gereja lainnya."<ref name="Corning1"/>
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Corning notes that scholars have identified three major strands of thought that have influenced the popular conceptions of Celtic Christianity. The first arose in the [[English Reformation]], when the [[Church of England]] declared itself separate from papal authority. Protestant writers of this time popularised the idea of an indigenous British Christianity that opposed the foreign "Roman" church and was purer (and [[proto-Protestant]]) in thought. The English church, they claimed, was not forming a new institution, but casting off the shackles of Rome and returning to its true roots as the indigenous national church of Britain.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=2}}</ref>
Ideas of Celtic Christianity were further influenced by the [[Romanticism|Romantic movement]] of the 18th century, in particular Romantic notions of the [[noble savage]] and the intrinsic qualities of the "Celtic race". Romantics idealised the Celts as a primitive, bucolic people who were far more poetic, spiritual, and freer of rationalism than their neighbours. The Celts were seen as having an inner spiritual nature that shone through even after their form of Christianity had been destroyed by the authoritarian and rational Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|pp=2–3}}</ref> In the 20th and 21st centuries, these ideas were combined with appeals by certain modern churches, [[Modern Paganism|Modern Pagan]] and [[New Age]] groups seeking to recover something of ancient spirituality that is felt to be missing from the modern world. For these groups Celtic Christianity becomes a cipher for whatever is lost in the modern religious experience. Corning notes that these notions say more about modern desires than about the reality of Christianity in the Early Middle Ages, however.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=3}}</ref>
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== Sejarah ==
=== Britania Raya ===
▲According to medieval traditions, Christianity arrived in Britain in the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st]] or [[Christianity in the 2nd century|2nd century]]. [[Gildas]]'s 6th-century [[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae|account]] dated its arrival to the latter part of the reign of the [[Roman emperor]] [[Tiberius]]:<ref>[[Gildas]]. ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]''. 6th century. {{la icon}} Translated by [[Thomas Habington]]. ''The Epistle of Gildas the most ancient British Author: who flourished in the yeere of our Lord, 546. And who by his great erudition, sanctitie, and wisdome, acquired the name of ''Sapiens''. Faithfully translated out of the originall Latine'' (8 vols). T. Cotes for William Cooke (London), 1638. Edited and reprinted by [[John Allen Giles]]. [[s:The Ruin of Britain#8|"The Works of Gildas, Surnamed 'Sapiens,' or the Wise", §8]] in ''Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester''. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at [[s:Main Page|Wikisource]].</ref> an account of the [[seventy disciples]] discovered at [[Mount Athos]] in 1854 lists [[Aristobulus of Britannia|Aristobulus]] as "bishop of [[Roman Britain|Britain]]".<ref>{{cite book |author=Pseudo-Hippolytus |author-link=Pseudo-Hippolytus |chapter=On the Seventy Apostles of Christ |title=Ante-Nicean Fathers |volume=5 |pages=254-256 |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |location=Peabody, MA |date=1999 }}</ref> Medieval accounts of [[Lucius of Britain|King Lucius]], [[Fagan (saint)|Fagan]] and [[Deruvian]], and [[Joseph of Arimathea]], however, are now usually accounted as [[pious fraud]]s.
The earliest certain historical evidence of Christianity among the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as [[Tertullian]] and [[Origen]] in the first years of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]], although the first Christian communities probably were established at least some decades earlier.
Initially, Christianity was but one of a number of religions: in addition to the native and syncretic local forms of paganism, [[Roman legion]]aries and immigrants introduced other cults such as [[Mithraism]]. At various times, the Christians risked [[Roman persecutions|persecution]], although the earliest known [[Christian martyrs]] in
[[Christianization]] intensified with the legalisation of the Christian religion under [[Constantine the Great]] in the early 4th century and its promotion by subsequent Christian emperors. Three [[Romano-British culture|Romano-British]] bishops, including [[metropolitan bishop|Archbishop]] [[Restitutus]] of [[Bishop of London|London]], are known to have been present at the [[Synod of Arles]] in 314.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rowanwilliams.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/1640/1400th-anniversary-of-the-re-organisation-of-the-diocese-of-london |last=Williams |first=Rowan |author-link=Rowan Williams |date=22 May 2004 |title=1400th anniversary of the re-organisation of the Diocese of London |website=Dr Rowan Williams: 104th Archbishop of Canterbury }}</ref> Others attended the [[Council of Serdica]] in 347 and that of [[Council of Ariminum]] in 360. A number of references to the church in [[Roman Britain]] are also found in the writings of [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th-century]] Christian fathers. Britain was the home of [[Pelagius (British monk)|Pelagius]], who opposed [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s doctrine of [[original sin]]; [[Germanus of Auxerre|St Germanus]] was said to have visited the island in part to oppose the bishops who advocated [[Pelagianism|his heresy]].
Around 367, the [[Great Conspiracy]] saw the troops along [[Hadrian's Wall]] mutiny, allowing and even joining the [[Picts]] in overrunning the northern areas of Roman Britain in concert with [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] attacks on the coast. The Roman provinces seem to have been retaken by [[Theodosius the Elder]] the next year, but many [[Romano-Britons]] had already been killed or taken as slaves. In 407, [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]] declared himself "emperor of the West" and [[Roman withdrawal from Britain|withdrew his legions]] to [[Gaul]]. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] historian [[Zosimus]] ({{circa|lk=no|500}}) stated that Constantine's neglect of the area's defense against [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Saxon invasion of Britain|Saxon raids and invasions]] caused the Britons and [[Gauls]] to fully revolt from the [[Roman Empire]], rejecting [[Roman law]] and reverting to [[Celtic law|their native customs]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Snyder|first=Christopher A.|author-link=Christopher Snyder|year=1998|title=An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600|url=https://archive.org/details/ageoftyrantsbrit0000snyd|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|publication-date=1998|publication-place=University Park|page=[https://archive.org/details/ageoftyrantsbrit0000snyd/page/22 22]|isbn=0-271-01780-5}}</ref> In any case, Roman authority was greatly weakened following the [[Visigoths]]' [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of the capital]] in 410. Medieval legend attributed widespread [[Saxon invasions of Britain|Saxon immigration]] to [[Hengist and Horsa|mercenaries]] hired by the British king [[Vortigern]]. The Saxon communities followed [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|a form of Germanic paganism]], driving Christian Britons back to [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], and [[Brittany]] or subjugating them under kingdoms with no formal church presence.
[[Sub-Roman Britain|5th and 6th-century Britain]], although poorly attested, saw the "Age of [[list of Welsh saints|Saints]]" among the Welsh.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thomas |first=Jeffrey L. |url=http://www.castlewales.com/saints.html |title=The Age of Saints |website=The Castles of Wales |date=2009 |access-date=6 February 2015 }}</ref> [[Saint Dubric]], [[Saint Illtud]], and others first completed the [[Christianity in Wales|Christianization of Wales]]. Unwilling or unable to [[mission (Christianity)|missionize]] among the Saxons in England, Briton refugees and missionaries such as [[Saint Patrick]]{{efn|Note, however, that many events of Patrick's hagiographies may have originally intended the earlier [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|St Palladius]], a Gaul dispatched to Ireland by [[Pope Celestine I]].}} and [[Finnian of Clonard]] were then responsible for the [[Christianity in Ireland|Christianization of Ireland]]<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=41}}</ref> and made up the [[seven founder saints of Brittany|Seven Founder Saints]] of [[History of Christianity in Brittany|Brittany]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=26}}</ref> The Irish in turn made Christians of the Picts and English. [[Saint Columba|St Columba]]
The title of "[[Christian Saint|Saint]]" was used quite broadly by British, Irish, and English Christians. Extreme cases are Irish accounts of Gerald of Mayo's presiding over 3300 "Saints" and Welsh claims that [[Bardsey Island]] held the remains of {{nowrap|
Insular Christianity developed distinct traditions and practices, most pointedly concerning the ''[[computus]]'' of [[Easter controversy|Easter]], as it produced the most obvious signs of disunity:<ref name=Lloyd175176>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=175–177}}</ref> the old and new methods did not usually agree, causing Christians following one system to begin celebrating the feast of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] while others continued to solemnly observe [[Lent]].{{efn|Indeed, this is noted as occurring in the household of King [[Oswiu of Northumbria]], whose kingdom had been evangelised by both Irish and Roman missionaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=176}} and note.</ref>}} [[Christian monasticism|Monasticism]] spread widely; the [[Llandaff Charters]] record over fifty religious foundations in southeast Wales alone. Although the ''[[clasau]]'' were rather modest affairs, great [[monasteries]] and [[monastic schools]] also developed at [[Llantwit Major]] (''{{lang|cy|Llanilltud Fawr}}''), [[Bangor Cathedral#History|Bangor]], and [[Iona#History|Iona]]. The [[tonsure]] differed from that elsewhere and also became a point of contention. A distinction that became increasingly important was the nature of church organisation: some monasteries were led by married clergy, inheritance of religious offices was common (in Wales, as late as the 12th century),<ref name=powys>{{cite web |url=http://history.powys.org.uk/history/common/early1.html |title=Early Christianity in Wales |website=Powys Digital History Project }}</ref> and illegitimacy was treated much more leniently with fathers simply needing to acknowledge the child for him to inherit an equal share with his brothers. Prior to their conquest by England, most churches have records of bishops and priest but not an established [[parish]] system. Pre-conquest, most Christians would not attend regular services but relied on members of the monastic communities who would occasionally make preaching tours through the area.<ref name=powys/>
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====Wales====
<!--{{see also|List of Welsh saints}}
At the end of the 6th century, [[Pope Gregory I]] dispatched a [[Gregorian mission|mission]] under [[Augustine of Canterbury]] to convert the [[Anglo-Saxons]], establish new sees and churches throughout their territories, and reassert papal authority over the native church. Gregory intended for Augustine to become the [[metropolitan bishop]] over all of southern Britain, including the existing dioceses under Welsh and Cornish control. Augustine met with British bishops in a series of
The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king [[Æthelfrith]] of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] around 616 at the [[Battle of Chester]] was taken by [[Bede]] as fulfillment of a prophecy allegedly made by [[Augustine of Hippo]] that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons they refused to proselytise.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=180}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|2006|pp=118-119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bede |title=Ecclesiastical History of England |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |date=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/forestculturean01coopgoog |via=Internet Archive }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2017}}{{efn|Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.}} Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt the Roman and Saxon ''[[computus]]'' until induced to do so around 768 by "[[Bishop of Bangor|Archbishop]]" [[Elfodd]] of "Gwynedd". The [[Norman invasion of Wales]] finally brought Welsh dioceses under [[Kingdom of England|England]]'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and [[Philip the Apostle]]'s dispatch of [[
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[[Image:Columba at Bridei's fort.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Columba]]
<!--{{see also|Hiberno-Scottish mission}}
According to Bede, [[Saint Ninian]] was born about 360, in what is present day Galloway, the son of a chief of the Novantae, apparently a Christian. He studied under [[Martin of Tours]] before returning to his own land about 397. He established himself at [[Whithorn]] where he built a church of stone, "Candida Casa". Tradition holds that Ninian established an episcopal see at the Candida Casa in Whithorn, and named the see for Saint Martin of Tours. He converted the southern Picts to Christianity,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whithorn.com/saint-ninian.htm |title=Saint Ninian |website=The Whithorn Trust }}</ref> and died around 432. Many Irish saints trained at the "Candida Casa", such as [[Tigernach of Clones]], [[Ciarán of Clonmacnoise]], and [[Finnian of Movilla]]. Ninian's work was carried on by Palladius, who left Ireland to work among the Picts.The mission to the southern Picts apparently met with some setbacks, as Patrick charged Coroticus and the "apostate Picts" with conducting raids on the Irish coast and seizing Christians as slaves. [[Ternan]] and [[Saint Serf]] followed Palladius. Serf was the teacher of [[Saint Mungo]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/210/7/061.html |title=Butler, Alban. "The Lives of the Saints", Vol. VII, 1866 |website=Bartleby }}</ref> the apostle of Strathclyde, and patron saint of Glasgow.
==== Cornwall ====
{{see also|List of Cornish saints}}
A Welshman of noble birth, [[Saint Petroc]] was educated in Ireland. He set out in a small boat with a few followers. In a type of ''peregrinatio'', they let God determine their course. The winds and tides brought them to the Padstow estuary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm |title=The Story of St. Petroc |website=St. Petroc's, Padstow |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820051815/http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm |archive-date=20 August 2013 }}</ref> [[Kevin of Glendalough]] was a student of Petroc. [[Saint Endelienta]] was the daughter of the Welsh king [[Brychan]]. She also travelled to [[Cornwall]] to evangelize the locals. Her brother [[Nectan of Hartland]] worked in Devon. [[Saint Piran]] is the patron saint of tin miners. An Irishman, he is said to have floated across to Cornwall after being thrown into the sea tied to a millstone. He has been identified on occasion with [[Ciarán of Saigir]].<ref name=schaff>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03/Page_117.html |title=Saint Ciaran of Saigir |encyclopedia=New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge |page=117 }}</ref>
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[[File:Stpatrick hilloftara.jpg|thumb|right|St. Patrick]]
<!--{{see also|List of Irish saints}}
By the early fifth century the religion had spread to Ireland, which had never been part of the [[Roman Empire]]. There were Christians in Ireland before [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|Palladius]] arrived in 431 as the first missionary bishop sent by Rome. His mission does not seem to have been entirely successful. The subsequent mission of [[Saint Patrick]] established churches in conjunction with ''civitates'' like his own in [[Armagh]]; small enclosures in which groups of Christians, often of both sexes and including the married, lived together, served in various roles and ministered to the local population.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=306 & 310}}</ref><ref>Riley, 82–93, 95–96</ref>{{full citation needed|date=May 2017}} Patrick set up diocesan structures with a hierarchy of bishops, priests, and deacons. During the late 5th and 6th centuries true monasteries became the most important centres: in Patrick's own see of Armagh the change seems to have happened before the end of the 5th century, thereafter the bishop was the abbot also.<ref>{{harvnb|Ryan|1931|pp=100–102}}</ref> Within a few generations of the arrival of the first missionaries the monastic and clerical class of the isle had become fully integrated with the culture of Latin letters. Besides Latin, Irish ecclesiastics developed a written form of [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]. Others who influenced the development of [[Christianity in Ireland]] include [[Saint Brigid|Brigid]], [[Saint Moluag|Moluag]] and [[Caillín]].
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A uniquely Irish [[penance|penitential system]] was eventually adopted as a universal practice of the Church by the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] of 1215.
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== Tradisi Pan-
Caitlin Corning
===
<!--{{main article|Easter controversy|computus}}--><!--
[[Easter]] was originally dated according to [[Hebrew calendar]], which [[Hebrew calendar#New year|tried to place Passover]] on the first full moon following the [[Spring equinox]] but did not always succeed. In his ''[[Life of Constantine]]'', [[Eusebius]] records that the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) decided that all Christians should observe a common date for Easter separate from the Jewish calculations, according to the practice of the [[bishops of Rome]] and [[bishop of Alexandria|Alexandria]].<ref name=conlet>{{Citation| author = Constantine| author-link = Constantine the Great| chapter = Letter on the Keeping of Easter to those not present at Nicaea| date = 325| editor = Eusebius of Caesaria| editor-link = Eusebius of Caesaria| title = The Life of Constantine| volume = III| at = §18–20| publication-date = 1996| isbn = 1-56085-072-8|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.x.html}}</ref> Calculating the proper date of Easter (''[[computus]]'') then became a complicated process involving a [[lunisolar calendar]], finding the first Sunday after an idealized Passover on the first full moon after the equinox.
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A number of other distinctive traditions and practices existed (or are taken to have existed) in Britain or Ireland, but are not known to have been in use across the entire region. Different writers and commenters have identified different traditions as representative of so-called Celtic Christianity.<ref>This list includes information from {{cite book |first=Charles |last=Plummer |chapter=Excursus on the Paschal Controversy and Tonsure |title=Venerablilis Baedae, Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=Plummer |orig-year=1892 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1975 |pages=348-354 }}</ref>
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[[Image:National Library of Ireland MS G10 p24.jpg|thumb|right|Excerpt from the [[Martyrology of Oengus]]]]
Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers. According to Richard Woods, the familial, democratic, and decentralized aspects of Egyptian Christianity were better suited to structures and values of Celtic culture than was a legalistic diocesan form.<ref name=woods/> Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom".<ref name=woods/> An example of this would be [[Kevin of Glendalough]] and [[Cuthbert]] of [[Lindisfarne]].
The claim is made that the true Ecclesiastical power in the Celtic world lay in the hands of [[abbots]] of [[monasteries]], rather than the Bishop of [[Dioceses]]s.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=433}}</ref> It is certain that the ideal of monasticism was universally esteemed in Celtic Christianity.<ref name=Herren13>{{harvnb|Herren|Brown|2002|p=13}}</ref> This was especially true in Ireland and areas evangelised by Irish missionaries, where monasteries and their abbots came to be vested with a great deal of ecclesiastical and secular power. Following the growth of the monastic movement in the 6th century, Abbots controlled not only individual monasteries, but also expansive estates and the secular communities that tended them.<ref name=Hughes311312>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=311–312}}</ref> As monastics, abbots were not necessarily [[Holy Orders (Catholic Church)|ordained]] (i.e. they were not necessarily [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priests]] or bishops). They were usually descended from one of the many Irish royal families, and the founding regulations of the Abbey sometimes specified that the Abbotcy should if possible be kept within one family lineage.<ref>[[Dáibhí Ó Cróinín|Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí]] in {{harvnb|Youngs|1989|pp=13–14}}</ref>
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The focus on powerful abbots and monasteries was limited to the Irish Church, however, and not in Britain. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433/>
Irish monasticism was notable for its permeability. In permeable monasticism, people were able to move freely in and out of the monastic system at different points of life. Young boys and girls would enter the system to pursue Latin scholarship. Students would sometimes travel from faraway lands to enter the Irish monasteries. When these students became adults, they would leave the monastery to live out their lives. Eventually, these people would retire back to secure community provided by the monastery and stay until their death. However, some would stay within the monastery and become leaders. Since most of the clergy were Irish, native traditions were well-respected. Permeable monasticism popularised the use of vernacular and helped mesh the norms of secular and monastic element in Ireland, unlike other parts of Europe where monasteries were more isolated. Examples of these intertwining motifs can be seen in the hagiographies of [[St. Brigid]] and [[St. Columba]].<ref name="de Paor 1958">{{cite book|last1=de Paor|first1=Máire|last2=de Paor|first2=Liam|title=Early Christian Ireland: Ancient Peoples and Places|url=https://archive.org/details/earlychristianir00depa|year=1958|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}
This willingness to learn, and also to teach, was a hallmark of the "permeable monasticism" that so characterised the Irish monastery. While a hermitage was still the highest form of dedication, the monasteries were very open to allowing students and children within the walls for an education, without requiring them to become monks. These students were then allowed to leave and live within the community, and were welcomed back in their old age to retire in peace. This style of monasticism allowed for the monastery to connect with, and become a part of, the community at large. The availability of the monks to the people was instrumental in converting Ireland from paganism to Christianity, allowing a blend of the two cultures.<ref name="de Paor 1958"/>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}
====Wales====
<!--{{main article|Clas (ecclesiastical settlement)}}--><!--
According to [[hagiography|hagiographies]] written some centuries later, [[Illtud]] and his pupils [[Saint David|David]], Gildas, and [[Deiniol]] were leading figures in 6th-century Britain.
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* [[Ancient British Church]] (part of the "neo-Celtic Christian" restoration movement of 19th century origin)
* [[Celtic Orthodox Church]]
* [[Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages#Celtic Christian traditions|Celtic Christian traditions in Gwynedd until 1100]]--><!--
* [[
<!--* [[David Adam (minister)]]
* [[Gallican Rite]]
* [[Gregorian Reform]]
Baris 188 ⟶ 185:
* {{cite book |title=Annales Cambriae |editor-first=John |editor-last=Williams |location=London |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts |date=1860 |url=https://archive.org/details/annalescambriae00willgoog |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author=Bede |title=Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum |series=Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=Plummer |location=Oxonii |publisher=E Typographeo Clarendoniano |date=1896 |url=https://archive.org/details/historiamecclesi02bedeuoft |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author=Cummian |title=De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi |editor1-first=Maura |editor1-last=Walsh |editor2-first=Dáibhí |editor2-last=Ó Cróinín |<!--editor2-link=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín -->|location=Toronto |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |date=1988 |pages=93-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Gildas |title=De Excidio Brittaniae |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |<!--editor-link=J. A. Giles--> |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |title=Historia Brittonum |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |title=Medieval Handbooks of Penance |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalhandbook0000mcne_b0u4 |editor1-first=John T. |editor1-last=McNeill |editor2-first=Helena M. |editor2-last=Gamer |location=New York |publisher=Columba University Press |date=1938 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |author=Patrick (Saint) |title=Confessio |editor-first=John |editor-last=Skinner |translator=John Skinner |publisher=Image |date=1998 }}
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |title=The Lives of the British Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/b3136035x_0001 |date=1907 }} Scanned by Google; [http://www.celticchristianity.infinitesoulutions.com/saints_alpha.html
{{refend}}
Baris 199 ⟶ 196:
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofsaints16bari |title=The Lives of the Saints |volume=16 |chapter=The Celtic Church and its Saints |publisher=Longmans, Green, & Co. |location=New York |date=1898 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last= Bradley |first= Ian |
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofwesternchr0002brow |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2003 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Charles-Edwards |first=T.M. |title=Early Christian Ireland |publisher=Cambridge |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Caitlin Corning |last=Corning |first=Caitlin |title= The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year= 2006 |isbn=1-4039-7299-0 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Ó Cróinín |first=Dáibhí |authorlink=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |title=Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200 |location=London |date=1995 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Wendy |chapter=The Myth of the Celtic Church |title=The Early Church in Wales and the West |series=Oxbow Monograph |volume=16 |editor1-first=Nancy |editor1-last=Edwards |editor2-first=Alan |editor2-last=Lane |pages=12-21 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxbow |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Flechner |editor-first=Roy |editor2-last=Meeder |editor2-first=Sven
* {{Cite book|last1=Herren|first1=Michael W.|last2=Brown|first2= Shirley Ann|authorlink= |title=Christ in Celtic Christianity |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |year=2002 |isbn=0-85115-889-7 |url={{google books|ZFqNUMa8bfYC|plainurl=yes}} |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Kathleen Hughes (historian) |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Celtic Church: Is This a Valid Concept? O'Donnell lectures in Celtic Studies, University of Oxford 1975 |journal=[[Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies]] |volume=1 |year=1981 |pages=1–20 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Church in Early Irish Society |location=London |publisher=Methuen |year=1966|isbn=1-59740-067-X |oclc=711797907 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |editor-last=Ó Cróinín |editor-first=
* {{cite book |last=John |first=Eric |authorlink=Eric John |chapter=The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church |title=Anglo-Saxon History: Basic Readings |editor-first=David A. E. |editor-last=Pelteret |location=New York |publisher=Garland Publishing |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last= Koch|first= John T.|coauthors= |title= Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia| publisher= ABC-CLIO|year=2006 |isbn= |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|title= A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest|last= Lloyd|first= John Edward|authorlink= John Edward Lloyd|coauthors= |year= 1912|publisher= Longmans, Green, and Co.|location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= https://books.google.com/?id=NYwNAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lloyd+history+of+Wales#v=onepage&q=
* {{Cite journal|last= McCarthy|first= Daniel|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2003|month= |title= On the Shape of the Insular Tonsure|journal= Celtica
* {{Cite journal|last= Meeder|first= Sven|authorlink= |year= 2011|month= |title= Boniface and the Irish Heresy of Clemens
* {{cite book |last=Nordenfalk |first=Carl |title=Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/celticanglosaxon00nord |location=New York |publisher=George Braziller |date=1977 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pächt |first=Otto |title=Book Illumination in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/bookillumination0000pcht |date=1986 |publisher=Harvey Miller Publishers |location=London |isbn=0-19-921060-8 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Ryan |first=John |title=Irish Monasticism, Origins and Early Development |url=https://archive.org/details/irishmonasticism0000unse_q5d2 |publisher=Talbot Press |location=Dublin |date=1931 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sharpe |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Sharpe (historian) |title=Some problems concerning the organisation of the Church in early medieval Ireland |journal=[[Peritia]] |volume=3 |pages=230-70 |date=1984 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Stancliffe |first=Clare |chapter=Columbanus and the Gallic Bishops |title=Mélanges offerts au Professeur Oliver Guillot |editor1-first=G. |editor1-last=Constable |editor2-first=M. |editor2-last=Rouche |pages=205-14 |location=Paris |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |authorlink=Patrick Wormald |last=Wormald |first=Patrick |chapter=Bede and the 'Church of the English' |title=The Times of Bede: Studies in Early English Christian Society and its Historian |editor-first=Stephen |editor-last=Baxter |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2006 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last=Yorke |first=Barbara|authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/conversionofbrit0000york |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=0-582-77292-3 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|editor1-first=Susan |editor1-last=Youngs |title='The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD |url=https://archive.org/details/workofangelsmast0000unse |year=1989 |publisher=British Museum Press |location=London |isbn=0-7141-0554-6 |ref=harv }}
{{refend}}
== Pustaka tambahan ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|year=1996 |last=Cahill |first=Thomas |title=How the Irish Saved Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/howirishsavedciv0000cahi |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=0-385-41849-3 }}
* {{cite book |authorlink=Henry Mayr-Harting |last=Mayr-Harting |first=Henry |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofchristia0000mayr |edition=3rd |location=London |publisher=B.T. Batsford Ltd |date=1991 }}
{{refend}}
[[Kategori:Kristen di Eropa]]
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