Parasitisme induk: Perbedaan antara revisi

'''Parental-care parasitism''' emphasizes the relationship between [[Host (biology)|the host]] and the parasite in '''brood parasitism'''. Parental-care parasitism occurs when individuals raise offspring of other unrelated individuals. [[Host (biology)|The host]] are the parents of offspring and the parasites are individuals who take advantage of either the nest or eggs within the family construct. Such dynamics occur when the parasites attempt to reduce their [[parental investment]] so they can invest the extra energy into other endeavors. <ref>Roldán, M., & Soler, M. (2011). Parental-care parasitism: How do unrelated offspring attain acceptance bv foster parents?. Behavioral Ecology, 22(4), 679-691. doi:10.1093/beheco/arr041.</ref>

The host may be the one that ultimately ends up raising offspring after they return from [[foraging]]. Once parasitism has occurred, the next most optimal defense is to eject the parasitic egg. According to parental investment theory, the host can possibly adopt some defense to protect their own eggs if they distinguish which eggs are not theirs. Recognition of parasitic eggs is based on identifying pattern differences or changes in the number of eggs. <ref>Lyon, Bruce E. (2003) Egg recognition and counting reduce costs of avian conspecific brood parasitism. Nature 422:495–499</ref> This can be done by grasp ejection if the host has a large enough [[beak]], or otherwise by puncture ejection. Ejection behavior has some costs however, especially when host species have to deal with mimetic eggs. In that case, hosts will inevitably mistake one of their own eggs for a parasite egg on occasion and eject it. In any case, hosts will sometimes damage their own eggs while trying to eject a parasite egg.

Among hosts not exhibiting parasitic egg ejection, some will abandon parasitized nests and start over again. However, at high enough parasitism frequencies, this becomes [[maladaptation|maladaptive]] as the new nest will most likely become reparasitized. Other behavior can include modifying the nest to exclude the parasitic egg, either by weaving over the egg or in some cases rebuilding a new nest over the existing one. For instance, [[american coot|American coots]] might kick the parasites’ eggs out, or build a new nest beside the brood nests where the parasites’ babies starve to death due to lack of food. <ref name=lyon>Lyon, B. E. (1993). Conspecific brood parasitism as a flexible female reproductive tactic in American coots. Animal Behaviour, 46(5), 911-928. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1273</ref>

While parental-care parasitism significantly increased the breeding number of the parasite, only about half of the parasite eggs survived. <ref name=lyon/> Parasitism for the individual (the brood parasite) also has significant drawbacks. As an example, the parasitic offspring of the [[Bearded Reedling|bearded tits, Panurus biarmicus]], compared to the offspring in non-parasitic nests, tend to develop much more slowly and often don’t reach full maturity. <ref>Hoi, H., Darolová, A., & Krištofík, J. (2010). Conspecific brood parasitism and anti-parasite strategies in relation to breeding density in female bearded tits. Behaviour, 147(12), 1533-1549. doi:10.1163/000579510X511060</ref> Parasitic females however can adopt either floater traits or nesting traits. Floater females are entirely dependent on others to raise their eggs because they do not have their own nests. Hence, they reproduce significantly less because the hosts reject their ‘intruder’ eggs or they may just miss the egg-laying period of the bird they are trying to pass their eggs to. Nesting females who have their own nests may also be parasitic due to temporary situations like sudden loss of nests, or they lay surplus eggs, which overload their parental care ability.

Sometimes hosts to the parasitic birds are completely unaware that they are caring for a bird that is not their own. This most commonly occurs because the host cannot differentiate the parasitic eggs from their own. It may also occur when hosts temporarily leave the nest after laying the eggs. The parasites lay their own eggs into these nests so their nestlings share the food provided by the host. It may occur in other situations. For example, female [[eider|eiders]] would prefer to lay eggs in the nests with one or two existing eggs of others because the first egg is the most vulnerable to predators.<ref>Robertson, G. J. (1998). Egg adoption can explain joint egg-laying in common eiders. Behavioral Ecology And Sociobiology, 43(4-5), 289-296. doi:10.1007/s002650050493</ref> In doing so, when a female [[eider]] left the nest after laying the first egg, the probability that the predator attacked her egg decreased on account of presence of others’ eggs. There also are situations in which the parasitic offspring will kill the host nest mate during competition for resources. As an example, the parasite offspring of the [[cowbird]] chick would kill the host nest mates if food intake for each of them is low, but they would not do so if the food intake was adequate, as a result of their interactions with co-inhabitants of the nest. <ref>Gloag, R., Tuero, D. T., Fiorini, V. D., Reboreda, J. C., & Kacelnik, A. (2012). The economics of nestmate killing in avian brood parasites: A provisions trade-off. Behavioral Ecology, 23(1), 132-140. doi:10.1093/beheco/arr166</ref>

* {{cite web | last = Lowther | first = Peter E. | date = 2005–2007 | title = Brood Parasitism | publisher = The Field Museum | url = http://fm1.fieldmuseum.org/aa/staff_page.cgi?staff=lowther&id=417 | accessdate = 2007-01-09 | archive-date = 2012-07-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120726010154/http://fm1.fieldmuseum.org/aa/staff_page.cgi?staff=lowther&id=417 | dead-url = yes }} Includes links to host lists for all known brood-parasitic bird species.

[[Kategori:BurungParasitisme]]