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'''Genealogi genetik''' atau '''silsilah genetik''' adalah penggunaan [[Tes genealogi DNA|tes DNA silsilah]], yaitu, [[pembuatan profil DNA]] dan [[Pengujian DNA|tes DNA]], yang dikombinasikan dengan [[Genealogi|metode silsilah]] tradisional, untuk menyimpulkan [[Jarak genetik|hubungan genetik]] di antara individu. Penerapan ilmu [[genetika]] ini kemudian digunakan oleh sejarawan keluarga di abad ke-21, semenjak tes DNA menjadi terjangkau. Pengujian genealogi genetik telah dipromosikan oleh kelompok amatir, seperti [[Nama keluarga proyek DNA|kelompok studi nama keluarga]] atau kelompok silsilah regional, serta proyek berbasis riset seperti [[Proyek Genografi]].
 
Pada tahun 2019, sekitar 30 juta orang telah diuji. Seiring berkembangnya bidang ilmu ini, tujuan para praktisi meluas, dan banyak yang mencari pengetahuan tentang leluhur mereka jauh ke belakang melampaui abad-abad terkini, di mana silsilah tradisional dapat dibangun.
 
Genealogi genetik telah digunakan oleh sekelompok orang untuk melacak keleluhuran mereka meskipun mereka tidak memiliki akses ke teknik genealogi historis konvensional. Hal ini kemungkinan disebabkan mereka tidak mengetahui salah satu dari kedua orangtua kandung mereka atau karena catatan silsilah konvensional telah hilang atau tidak pernah ada sejak awal. Kelompok orang-orang yang dimaksud diantaranya anak adopsi, anak pungut, penyintas bencana, atau keturunan budak.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/06/how-african-americans-use-dna-testing-to-connect-with-their-past/531834/ |title=How African Americans Use DNA Testing to Connect With Their Past |access-date=2022-11-03 |archive-date=2023-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529200822/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/06/how-african-americans-use-dna-testing-to-connect-with-their-past/531834/ |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://isogg.org/wiki/Utilizing_DNA_testing_to_break_through_adoption_roadblocks |title=Utilizing DNA testing to break through adoption roadblocks |access-date=2022-11-03 |archive-date=2023-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327134219/https://isogg.org/wiki/Utilizing_DNA_testing_to_break_through_adoption_roadblocks |dead-url=no }}</ref>
 
==Sejarah==
[[File:George Darwin sepia tone.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[George Darwin]], merupakan yang pertama yang memperkirakan frekuensi dari [[pernikahan antar sepupu]]]]
 
Investigasi berbasis nama belakang atau nama keluarga di dalam genetika dapat dikatakan pertama kali dilakukan oleh [[George Darwin]], anak dari [[Charles Darwin]] dan sepupu dari Charles, [[Emma Darwin]]. Di tahun 1875, George Darwin menggunakan nama keluarga untuk memperkirakan frekuensi dari pernikahan antar sepupu dan menghitung kemungkinan terjadinya pernikahan antara dua orang dengan nama belakang yang sama ([[isonymy]]). Ia mendapatkan angka 1.5% untuk pernikahan antar sepupu dari seluruh pernikahan di London, dan 3%-3.5% untuk kalangan atas, dan 2.25% untuk penduduk pedesaan secara umum.<ref name=Darwin1875>{{cite journal|first=George H.|last=Darwin|title=Note on the Marriages of First Cousins|journal=Journal of the Statistical Society of London|volume=38|date=Sep 1875|pages=344–348|doi=10.2307/2338771|issue=3|jstor=2338771|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449464|access-date=2022-11-02|archive-date=2022-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102143910/https://zenodo.org/record/1449464|dead-url=no}}</ref>
 
Terbitnya sebuah buku semi fiksi ''[[The Seven Daughters of Eve]]'' oleh Sykes di tahun 2001, yang menggambarkan tujuh [[haplogrup]] utama leluhur orang Eropa membantu mendorong pengujian DNA masyarakat untuk tujuan genealogi. Dengan ketersediaan dan keterjangkauan alat uji DNA, genealogi genetik menjadi bidang ilmu yang berkembang pesat. Hingga tahun 2003, bidang karya pengujian DNA berbasis nama keluarga telah menjadi artikel dalam jurnal ''Nature Reviews Genetics''.<ref name=Jobling2003>{{cite journal|last1=Jobling|doi=10.1038/nrg1124|title=The human Y chromosome: An evolutionary marker comes of age|year=2003|first1=Mark A.|last2=Tyler-Smith|first2=Chris|journal=Nature Reviews Genetics|volume=4|issue=8|pages=598–612|pmid=12897772|s2cid=13508130}}</ref> Jumlah firma yang menawarkan pengujian dan konsumen yang menggunakannya meningkat secara dramatis.<ref name=Deboeck>{{cite web|url=http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art12474.asp|author=Deboeck, Guido|title=Genetic Genealogy Becomes Mainstream|publisher=BellaOnline|access-date=19 Feb 2009|archive-date=2009-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116062246/http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art12474.asp|dead-url=no}}</ref> Di tahun 2018, sebuah karya tulis dalam ''[[Science (jurnal)|Science Magazine]]'' memperkirakan bahwa pencarian genealogi DNA terhadap seseorang dari keturunan Eropa akan mendapatkan kemungkinan 60% hasil bahwa ia adalah sepupu tingkat tiga atau lebih dekat lagi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erlich|first1=Yaniv|last2=Shor|first2=Tal|last3=Pe’er|first3=Itsik|last4=Carmi|first4=Shai|date=2018-11-09 |title=Identity inference of genomic data using long-range familial searches |journal=Science |language=en |volume=362 |issue=6415 |pages=690–694|doi=10.1126/science.aau4832|issn=0036-8075|pmid=30309907|pmc=7549546|bibcode=2018Sci...362..690E|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
===Studi berbasis nama keluarga===
Sebuah studi yang ternama pada tahun 1998 menyelidiki garis keturunan [[Thomas Jefferson]] melalui garis keturunan ayah, dan juga garis keturunan dari seorang budak yang terbebaskan [[Sally Hemings]].<ref name=Jefferson>{{cite web |url= http://americanhistory.si.edu/exhibitions/exhibition.cfm?key=38&exkey=1669 |title=Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello: The Paradox of Liberty, 27 January 2012 – 14 October 2012 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=23 March 2012 |quote=The [DNA] test results show a genetic link between the Jefferson and Hemings descendants: A man with the Jefferson Y chromosome fathered Eston Hemings (born 1808). While there were other adult males with the Jefferson Y chromosome living in Virginia at that time, most historians now believe that the documentary and genetic evidence, considered together, strongly support the conclusion that [Thomas] Jefferson was the father of Sally Hemings's children. |archive-date=2013-05-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530094318/http://americanhistory.si.edu/exhibitions/exhibition.cfm?key=38&exkey=1669 |dead-url=no }}</ref>
 
Bryan Sykes, seorang ahli biologi molekuler dari [[Universitas Oxford]] menguji metode baru dalam riset berbasis nama keluarga secara umum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cruwys.blogspot.com/2018/03/farewell-to-oxford-ancestors.html|title=Farewell to Oxford Ancestors|last=Kennett|first=Debbie|date=2018-03-14|website=Cruwys news|access-date=2018-05-21|archive-date=2023-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326111447/https://cruwys.blogspot.com/2018/03/farewell-to-oxford-ancestors.html|dead-url=no}}</ref> Ia menyelidiki nama keluarga Sykes, yang diterbitkan pada tahun 2000, mendapatkan hasil dengan melihat pada keempat penanda [[Y-STR|STR]] pada kromosom pria. Metode ini menjadi menjadikan ilmu genetika sebuah alat utama dalam genealogi dan sejarah.<ref name=Sykes>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/302850|title=Surnames and the Y Chromosome|year=2000|last1=Sykes|first1=Bryan|last2=Irven|first2=Catherine|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=66|issue=4|pages=1417–1419|pmid=10739766|pmc=1288207}}</ref>
 
===Alat uji DNA langsung oleh konsumen===
Di tahun 2000, [[Family Tree DNA]] adalah sebuah perusahaan pertama yang menyediakan alat pengujian DNA langsung oleh konsumen atau warga biasa. Pada awalnya mereka hanya menyediakan alat uji STR [[kromosom Y]] dengan sebelas penanda serta uji [[DNA mitokondria]] HVR1 dan bukan merupakan uji genealogi multigenerasi.<ref name=Belli>{{cite news|last=Belli|first=Anne|title=Moneymakers: Bennett Greenspan|url=http://www.chron.com/business/article/Moneymakers-Bennett-Greenspan-1657195.php|access-date=June 14, 2013|newspaper=Houston Chronicle|date=January 18, 2005|quote=Years of researching his family tree through records and documents revealed roots in Argentina, but he ran out of leads looking for his maternal great-grandfather. After hearing about new genetic testing at the University of Arizona, he persuaded a scientist there to test DNA samples from a known cousin in California and a suspected distant cousin in Buenos Aires. It was a match. But the real find was the idea for Family Tree DNA, which the former film salesman launched in early 2000 to provide the same kind of service for others searching for their ancestors.|archive-date=2022-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102151303/https://www.chron.com/business/article/Moneymakers-Bennett-Greenspan-1657195.php|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref name=NGSQ2005>{{cite journal|title=National Genealogical Society Quarterly|volume=93|issue=1–4|publisher=National Genealogical Society|year=2005|page=248|quote=Businessman Bennett Greenspan hoped that the approach used in the Jefferson and Cohen research would help family historians. After reaching a brick wall on his mother's surname, Nitz, he discovered and Argentine researching the same surname. Greenspan enlisted the help of a male Nitz cousin. A scientist involved in the original Cohen investigation tested the Argentine's and Greenspan's cousin's Y chromosomes. Their haplotypes matched perfectly.}}</ref><ref name=Lomax>{{cite news|last=Lomax|first=John Nova|title=Who's Your Daddy?|url=http://www.houstonpress.com/2005-04-14/news/who-s-your-daddy/|access-date=June 14, 2013|newspaper=Houston Press|date=April 14, 2005|quote=A real estate developer and entrepreneur, Greenspan has been interested in genealogy since his preteen days.|archive-date=2014-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028043401/http://www.houstonpress.com/2005-04-14/news/who-s-your-daddy/|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref name=Dardashti>{{cite news|last=Dardashti|first=Schelly Talalay|title=When oral history meets genetics|url=http://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/When-oral-history-meets-genetics|access-date=June 14, 2013|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=March 30, 2008|quote=Greenspan, born and raised in Omaha, Nebraska, has been interested in genealogy from a very young age; he drew his first family tree at age 11.|archive-date=2023-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626075044/http://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/When-oral-history-meets-genetics|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref name=HBJ2008>{{cite news|last=Bradford|first=Nicole|title=Riding the 'genetic revolution'|newspaper=Houston Business Journal|date=24 Feb 2008|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/2008/02/25/smallb1.html?page=all|access-date=19 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=HBJ2008>{{cite news|last=Bradford|first=Nicole|title=Riding the 'genetic revolution'|newspaper=Houston Business Journal|archive-date=24 Feb 20082022-07-06|archive-url=httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20220706143457/https://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/2008/02/25/smallb1.html?page=all|accessdead-dateurl=19 June 2013no}}</ref><ref name=HBJ2008/> di tahun 2001, GeneTree diakuisisi oleh [[Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation]] (SMGF),<ref name=Wayne2006>{{cite journal|url=http://www.med.wayne.edu/news_media/scribe/PDF/Alum-06-SpringScribe%5B1%5D.pdf |title=CMMG alum launches multi-million dollar genetic testing company |journal=Alum Notes|publisher=Wayne State University School of Medicine |volume=17|date=Spring 2006|page=1|access-date=24 Jan 2013|issue=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809053626/http://www2.med.wayne.edu/news_media/scribe/PDF/Alum-06-SpringScribe%5b1%5d.pdf|archive-date=9 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> yang menyediakan uji kromosom Y dan DNA mitokondria secara gratis.<ref name=Blaine2006>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegeneticgenealogist.com/2007/11/06/how-big-is-the-genetic-genealogy-market/|title=How Big Is the Genetic Genealogy Market?|publisher=The Genetic Genealogist|access-date=19 Feb 2009|date=2007-11-06|archive-date=2010-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305065909/http://www.thegeneticgenealogist.com/2007/11/06/how-big-is-the-genetic-genealogy-market/|dead-url=no}}</ref> GeneTree kemudian kembali ke bisnis pengujian genetik, sejalan dengan perusahaan induknya Sorenson, hingga mereka diakuisisi oleh [[Ancestry.com]] pada tahun 2012.<ref name=SMGF2012>{{cite press release|url=http://corporate.ancestry.com/press/press-releases/2012/05/ancestry.com-dna-launches/|access-date=1 July 2013|title=Ancestry.com Launches new AncestryDNA Service: The Next Generation of DNA Science Poised to Enrich Family History Research|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526104607/http://corporate.ancestry.com/press/press-releases/2012/05/ancestry.com-dna-launches/|archive-date=26 May 2013}} {{Cite web |url=http://corporate.ancestry.com/press/press-releases/2012/05/ancestry.com-dna-launches/ |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2022-11-02 |archive-date=2013-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526104607/http://corporate.ancestry.com/press/press-releases/2012/05/ancestry.com-dna-launches/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref>
 
di tahun 2007, [[23andMe]] adalah perusahaan pertama yang menawarkan alat pengujian berbasis saliva kepada konsumen<ref name = Time>{{Cite news |last=Hamilton |first=Anita |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1852747_1854493,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102044918/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1852747_1854493,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 2, 2008 | title = Best Inventions of 2008 | magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date=October 29, 2008 | access-date = April 5, 2012}}</ref> dan menjadi yang pertama menggunakan DNA autosom untuk pengujian garis keturunan.<ref name="About Us">{{cite web |url=https://mediacenter.23andme.com/company/about-us/ |title=About Us |website=23andMe |access-date=2017-11-22 |archive-date=2018-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180214073640/https://mediacenter.23andme.com/company/about-us/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Gene by Gene">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://isogg.org/wiki/Autosomal_DNA_testing_comparison_chart |title=Autosomal DNA testing comparison chart |website=International Society of Genetic Genealogy Wiki |last1=Janzen |first1=Tim |display-authors=etal |chapter=Family Tree DNA Learning Center |publisher=Gene by Gene |access-date=2022-11-02 |archive-date=2023-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601174412/https://isogg.org/wiki/Autosomal_DNA_testing_comparison_chart |dead-url=no }}</ref> Autosom adalah salah satu dari 22 kromosom selain kromosom X dan Y. Mereka diturunkan dari seluruh leluhur pada generasi terkini sehingga bisa dibandingkan dengan konsumen lain yang melakukan pengujian serupa. Perusahaan kemudian menggunakan data ini untuk memperkirakan "seberapa etnis" seorang konsumen. FamilyTreeDNA mulai masuk ke dalam pasar ini di tahun 2010, diikuti AncestryDNA tahun 2012, dan jumlah dari jenis alat pengujian bertambah dengan cepat. Di tahun 2018 pengujian DNA autosom menjadi yang paling umum, dan bagi beberapa perusahaan adalah satu-satunya jenis pengujian yang mereka tawarkan kepada konsumen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.familytreemagazine.com/premium/top-5-autosomal-dna-tests-2018/|title=The Top 5 Autosomal DNA Tests of 2018|last=Southard|first=Diahan|date=2018-04-25|website=Family Tree|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-18|archive-date=2020-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919183435/https://www.familytreemagazine.com/premium/top-5-autosomal-dna-tests-2018/|dead-url=no}}</ref>
 
[[MyHeritage]] meluncurkan layanan pengujiannya di tahun 2016, memungkinkan pengguna menggunakan uji usap rongga mulut untuk mendapatkan sampel<ref name="TCrucnhDAN">{{cite news |last1=Lardinois |first1=Frederic |title=MyHeritage launches DNA testing service to help you uncover your family's history |url= https://techcrunch.com/2016/11/07/myheritage-launches-dna-testing-service-to-help-you-uncover-your-familys-history/ |access-date=13 December 2016 |work=TechCrunch |date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=2021-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902163138/https://techcrunch.com/2016/11/07/myheritage-launches-dna-testing-service-to-help-you-uncover-your-familys-history/ |dead-url=no }}</ref> dan memperkenalkan alat analisis baru di tahun 2019, yaitu ''autoclusters'' yang mengelompokan hasil uji yang secara visual serupa ke dalam klaster<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://blog.myheritage.com/2019/02/introducing-autoclusters-for-dna-matches/ |title=Introducing AutoClusters for DNA Matches|date=2019-02-28|website=MyHeritage Blog|access-date=2022-11-02|archive-date=2023-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607230806/https://blog.myheritage.com/2019/02/introducing-autoclusters-for-dna-matches/|dead-url=no}}</ref> dan "teori pohon keluarga" yang memberikan perkiraan berbasis kecocokan antara hasil uji DNA.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.danaleeds.com/myheritages-theory-of-family-relativity-an-exciting-new-tool/|title=MyHeritage's "Theory of Family Relativity": An Exciting New Tool!|date=2019-03-15 |website=DanaLeeds.com |language=en-US|access-date=2022-11-02|archive-date=2023-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326023645/https://www.danaleeds.com/myheritages-theory-of-family-relativity-an-exciting-new-tool/|dead-url=no}}</ref> [[Living DNA]], yang berdiri pada tahun 2015, menggunakan [[chip SNP]] untuk menghasilkan laporan keleluhuran secara autosomal, kromosom-Y, dan DNA mitokondria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/living-dna-review|title=Living DNA review|date=21 June 2019|access-date=2022-11-02|archive-date=2021-03-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311011101/https://www.techradar.com/reviews/living-dna-review|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/22/cnn-underscored/living-dna-review-dna-testing-for-ethnicity/index.html|title = Is this the most detailed at-home DNA testing kit yet?|website = [[CNN]]|date = 22 April 2019|access-date = 2022-11-02|archive-date = 2022-04-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220408094003/https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/22/cnn-underscored/living-dna-review-dna-testing-for-ethnicity/index.html|dead-url = no}}</ref>
 
Di tahun 2019, konsumen total dari keempat perusahaan terbesar adalah 26 juta jiwa.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web |url= https://blogs.ancestry.com/ancestry/2017/11/02/continued-commitment-to-customer-privacy-and-control/ |title=Continued Commitment to Customer Privacy and Control |website=Ancestry Blog |date=November 2, 2017 |access-date=2022-11-02 |archive-date=2021-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126145212/https://blogs.ancestry.com/ancestry/2017/11/02/continued-commitment-to-customer-privacy-and-control/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name="About Us"/><ref name="Gene by Gene"/> Di bulan Agustus tahun 2019, dilaporkan bahwa setidaknya 30 juta orang telah melakukan pengujian DNA untuk tujuan genalogi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/08/25/dna-tests-from-companies-like-23andme-ancestry-see-sales-slowdown.html|title=Consumer DNA testing has hit a lull — here's how it could capture the next wave of users|last=Farr|first=Christina|date=2019-08-25|website=CNBC|language=en|access-date=2019-12-01|archive-date=2019-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230104022/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/08/25/dna-tests-from-companies-like-23andme-ancestry-see-sales-slowdown.html|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/612880/more-than-26-million-people-have-taken-an-at-home-ancestry-test/|title=More than 26 million people have taken an at-home ancestry test|last=Regalado|first=Antonio|date=2019-02-11|website=MIT Technology Review|language=en|access-date=2019-04-16|archive-date=2020-01-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102162640/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/612880/more-than-26-million-people-have-taken-an-at-home-ancestry-test/|dead-url=no}}</ref>
 
GEDmatch mengemukakan di tahun 2018 bahwa setidaknya setengah dari satu juta hasil uji konsumen mereka adalah orang Amerika.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-to-solve-cold-cases-all-it-takes-is-dna-a-genealogy-site-and-high-speed-internet-1.6657176 |title=To Solve Cold Cases, All It Takes Is Crime Scene DNA, a Genealogy Site and High-speed Internet |last=Michaeli |first=Yarden |date=2018-11-16|work=Haaretz|access-date=2018-11-21|language=en|archive-date=2018-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206021208/https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-to-solve-cold-cases-all-it-takes-is-dna-a-genealogy-site-and-high-speed-internet-1.6657176|dead-url=no}}</ref> Karena distribusi alat uji DNA terbatas secara geografis, terlihat hasil yang seolah rasis di dalam basis data. CEO dari 23andME, Anne Wojcicki, menyatakan di tahun 2020 bahwa perusahaannya adalah bagian dari "masalah tersebut".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2020-06-10|title=Geneticists weigh in on how 23andMe can tackle racial inequity in the field |url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/06/10/23andme-ancestry-racial-inequity-genetics/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=[[Stat (website)|STAT]]|language=en-US|archive-date=2023-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602131458/https://www.statnews.com/2020/06/10/23andme-ancestry-racial-inequity-genetics/|dead-url=no}}</ref> pakar genetika dan ketidaksetaraan layanan kesehatan percaya bahwa rasisme yang tampak dari analisis DNA tersebut dapat ditangani dengan membangun tim dengan etnokultural yang beragam guna meyakinkan mereka yang berkulit berwarna untuk melakukan pengujian DNA.<ref name=":2" />
 
== Lihat pula ==
Baris 54 ⟶ 57:
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-0-8153-4185-7 | title = Human Evolutionary Genetics : Origins, Peoples and Disease | last1 = Jobling | first1 = Mark |last2=Hurles |first2=Matthew |last3=Tyler-Smith |first3=Chris | year = 2003 | publisher = Garland Science | location = New York, NY }}
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-0-618-35210-4 | title = Mapping Human History : Genes, Race, and Our Common Origins | last1 = Olson | first1 = Steve | year = 2003 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston, MA | url = https://archive.org/details/mappinghumanhist00stev }} ''Survey of major populations.''
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-0-7867-1192-5 | title = The Real Eve : Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa | url = https://archive.org/details/realevemodernman0000oppe | last1 = Oppenheimer | first1 = Stephen | year = 2003 | publisher = Carroll & Graf | location = New York, NY }}
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-1-59486-006-5 | title = Trace Your Roots with DNA : Using Genetic Tests to Explore Your Family Tree | last1 = Smolenyak | first1 = Megan | author2 = Ann Turner | year = 2004 | publisher = Distributed to the trade by Holtzbrinck Publishers | location = Emmaus, PA; Rodale, NY | url = https://archive.org/details/traceyourrootswi00smol }} ''Out of date but still worth reading.''
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-1-5500-2536-1 | title = DNA and Family History : How Genetic Testing Can Advance Your Genealogical Research | last1 = Pomery | first1 = Chris | author2 = Steve Jones | year = 2004 | publisher = Dundurn Group | location = Toronto, Ontario, Canada | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/dnafamilyhistory0000pome }} ''Early guide for do-it-yourself genealogists.''
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-1-905615-12-4 | title = Family History in the Genes : Trace Your DNA and Grow Your Family Tree | url = https://archive.org/details/familyhistorying0000pome | last1 = Pomery | first1 = Chris | year = 2007 | publisher = National Archives | location = Kew, UK }}
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-1-4016-0144-7 | title = Unlocking Your Genetic History : A Step-by-Step Guide to Discovering Your Family's Medical and Genetic Heritage | url = https://archive.org/details/unlockingyourgen0000shaw | last1 = Shawker | first1 = Thomas H. | year = 2004 | publisher = Rutledge Hill Press | location = Nashville, TN }} ''Guide to the subject of family medical history and genetic diseases.''
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-0-393-32314-6 | title = The Seven Daughters of Eve : The Science That Reveals Our Genetic Ancestry | last1 = Sykes | first1 = Bryan | year = 2002 | publisher = Norton | location = New York, NY | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/sevendaughtersof00brya }} ''Names the founders of Europe’s major female haplogroups [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|Helena]], [[Haplogroup J (mtDNA)|Jasmine]], [[Haplogroup K (mtDNA)|Katrine]], [[Haplogroup T (mtDNA)|Tara]], [[Velda]], [[Haplogroup X (mtDNA)|Xenia]], and [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|Ursula]].''
*{{cite book | isbn = 978-0-393-05896-3 | title = Adam's Curse : A Future Without Men | last1 = Sykes | first1 = Bryan | year = 2004 | publisher = W.W. Norton | location = New York, NY | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/adamscursefuture0000syke }}
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===Jurnal ilmiah===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Decker |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2007.01.012|pmid=19083761|title=The impact of additional Y-STR loci on resolving common haplotypes and closely related individuals|year=2007 |first1=A.E.|last2=Kline|first2=M.C.|last3=Vallone|first3=P.M.|last4=Butler|first4=J.M.|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=1|issue=2|pages=215–217|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258971|access-date=2022-11-02|archive-date=2022-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102142512/https://zenodo.org/record/1258971|dead-url=no}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Dula |doi=10.1046/j.1471-8731.2003.00069.x|title=The Ethical and Social Implications of Exploring African American Genealogies|year=2003 |first1=Annette|last2=Royal|first2=Charmaine|last3=Secundy|first3=Marian Gray|last4=Miles|first4=Steven|journal=Developing World Bioethics|volume=3|issue=2|pages=133–41|pmid=14768645}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Elhaik |doi=10.1093/gbe/evt066|title=The GenoChip: A New Tool for Genetic Anthropology|year=2013 |first1=E.|last2=Greenspan|first2=E.|last3=Staats|first3=S.|last4=Krahn|first4=T.|last5=Tyler-Smith|first5=C.|last6=Xue|first6=Y.|last7=Tofanelli|first7=S.|last8=Francalacci|first8=P.|last9=Cucca|first9=F.|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|volume=5|issue=5|pages=1021–31|pmid=23666864|pmc=3673633 }}
*{{cite journal|last1=El-Haj |doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.223|title=Rethinking genetic genealogy: A response to Stephan Palmi|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-ethnologist_2007-05_34_2/page/223|year=2007 |first1=Nadia ABU|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=34|issue=2|pages=223–226}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Fujimura |doi=10.1177/0306312710379170|title=Different differences: The use of 'genetic ancestry' versus race in biomedical human genetic research|year=2010 |first1=J. H.|last2=Rajagopalan|first2=R.|journal=Social Studies of Science|volume=41|pages=5–30|pmid=21553638|issue=1|pmc=3124377}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Golubovsky |doi=10.1093/humrep/den052|title=Unexplained infertility in Charles Darwin's family: Genetic aspect|year=2008 |first1=M.|journal=Human Reproduction|volume=23|issue=5|pages=1237–8|pmid=18353904|doi-access=free}}
Baris 91 ⟶ 94:
*{{cite journal|last1=Tutton |doi=10.1080/1463677042000189606|title="They want to know where they came from": Population genetics, identity, and family genealogy|year=2004 |first1=Richard|s2cid=22737465|journal=New Genetics and Society|volume=23|pages=105–20|pmid=15470787|issue=1}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Van Oven |doi=10.1002/humu.20921|title=Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation|year=2009 |first1=Mannis|last2=Kayser|first2=Manfred|s2cid=27566749|journal=Human Mutation|volume=30|issue=2|pages=E386–94|pmid=18853457|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Williams |doi=10.1007/s11013-005-7426-3|pmid=16249951|title=Genetic Genealogy: The Woodson Family's Experience|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_culture-medicine-and-psychiatry_2005-06_29_2/page/225|year=2005 |first1=Sloan R.|journal=Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry|volume=29|issue=2|pages=225–252|s2cid=24648033}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Wolinsky |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7400843|title=Genetic genealogy goes global. Although useful in investigating ancestry, the application of genetics to traditional genealogy could be abused|year=2006 |first1=Howard|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=7|issue=11|pages=1072–4|pmid=17077861|pmc=1679782}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Zabel |first1=Joseph |doi=10.15779/Z385D8NF71 |title=The Killer Inside Us: Law, Ethics, and the Forensic Use of Family Genetics |journal=Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law |date=2019 |volume=24 |issue=2 |doi-broken-date=31 July 2022 |url=https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1136717 |access-date=2022-11-02 |archive-date=2020-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630153701/https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1136717 |dead-url=no }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Greytak |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.03.039
|title=Genetic genealogy for cold case and active investigations
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== Pranala luar ==
 
* [https://thegeneticgenealogist.com/ Shared cM Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702071920/https://thegeneticgenealogist.com/ |date=2023-07-02 }} – how to determine ones relationship based on Centimorgan (cM) values
 
{{genetika manusia}}
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Genealogi_genetik"