Gereja di Timur: Perbedaan antara revisi
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| type = [[Kristen Timur]]
| main_classification =
| orientation = [[Kekristenan Suriah|Kristen Suryani]]<ref name="Wilken 2013">{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert Louis |year=2013 |title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity |chapter=Syriac-Speaking Christians: The Church of the East |journal=Choice Reviews Online |volume=50 |issue=10 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA222 |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] dan [[London]] |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=222–228 |doi=10.5860/choice.50-5552 |isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 |jstor=j.ctt32bd7m.28 |lccn=2012021755 |s2cid=160590164 |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2023-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803001351/https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA222 |dead-url=no }}</ref>
| scripture =
| theology = [[Diofisitisme]],{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=287-289}}
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| founder = [[Yesus Kristus]] (menurut Tradisi Suci)<br> [[Tomas|Rasul Tomas]]
| founded_date = Zaman Apostolik (menurut tradisi Gereja di Timur)
| founded_place = [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani]]<ref name="Wilken 2013"/>{{refn|group=keterangan|Historiografi tradisional Dunia Barat mengenai Gereja ini menetapkan tahun 431 sebagai tahun pendiriannya, yakni tahun penyelenggaraan [[Konsili Efesus]] sekaligus tahun terjadinya "[[Skisma Nestorian]]". Meskipun demikian, Gereja di Timur sudah eksis sebagai sebuah organisasi tersendiri pada tahun 431, dan nama Nestorius tidak tercantum di dalam semua surat keputusan sinode Gereja ini sampai abad ke-7.{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=8}} Paguyuban-paguyuban umat Kristen yang terisolasi dari Gereja di Kekaisaran Romawi agaknya sudah eksis di Persia sejak abad ke-2.{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=11}} Gereja ini mengembangkan suatu hierarki gerejawi yang mandiri sepanjang abad ke-4,{{sfn|Lange|2012|pp=477–9}} dan mencapai identitas kelembagaan yang paripurna ketika diakui sebagai Gereja yang resmi di negara Persia oleh [[Syah (gelar)|Syahansyah]] [[Yazdegerd I]] pada tahun 410.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=13}}}}
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Baris 83:
Gereja di Timur menata diri menjadi [[Gereja nasional]] [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani]] dalam [[Konsili Seleukia-Ktesifon]] tahun 410. Pada tahun 424, Gereja di Timur mengumumkan kemandiriannya dari [[Gereja negara Kekaisaran Romawi|tatanan Gereja]] di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]]. Kepala Gereja di Timur adalah [[Batrik Gereja di Timur|Batrik di Timur]] yang bertakhta di [[Provinsi Kebatrikan Seleukia-Ktesifon|Seleukia-Ktesifon]] selaku penerus suksesi kepemimpinan yang (menurut tradisi Gereja di Timur) bermula pada [[Zaman Apostolik]]. Menurut tradisinya sendiri, Gereja di Timur didirikan [[Tomas|Rasul Tomas]] pada abad pertama. Ritus liturgisnya adalah ritus Suryani Timur yang menggunakan [[Liturgi Adai dan Mari|Liturgi Suci Santo Adai dan Santo Mari]].
Sebagai bagian dari [[Gereja Raya]], Gereja di Timur menjalin [[koinonia|persekutuan]] dengan Gereja-Gereja di Kekaisaran Romawi sampai [[Konsili Efesus]] [[Skisma Nestorian|menganatema]] [[Nestorius]] pada tahun 431.<ref name="Wilken 2013"/> Para pendukung Nestorius berbondong-bondong mengungsi ke Persia. Karena menolak ikut-ikutan menganatema Nestorius, Gereja di Timur dituding menganut paham [[Nestorianisme]], bidat yang konon diajarkan Nestorius. Inilah sebabnya Gereja Barat dan semua Gereja Timur lainnya, baik dari golongan Kalsedon maupun dari golongan non-Kalsedon, melabeli Gereja di Timur dengan sebutan "Gereja Nestorian". Dari segi politik, Persia dan Roma ketika itu sedang berperang, sehingga Gereja di Timur terpaksa menjaga jarak dengan Gereja-Gereja di wilayah Romawi.<ref>Procopius, ''Wars'', I.7.1–2<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62</ref><ref>Joshua the Stylite, ''Chronicle'', [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm XLIII] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214033122/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm |date=2021-02-14 }}<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62</ref><ref>Procopius, ''Wars'', I.9.24<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77</ref> Belakangan ini, para sarjana menyifatkan sebutan "Nestorian" sebagai "sebutan keliru yang patut disesali",{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23–35}}{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=1-14}} dan tidak tepat secara teologis.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=4}} Gereja di Timur sendiri pun menyebut diri "Nestorian", menganatema Konsili Efesus, dan menggelari Nestorius sebagai [[santo]] di dalam liturginya.{{sfn|Joseph|2000|p=42}}{{sfn|Wood|2013|p=140}} Meskipun demikian, para ahli kristologi Gereja di Timur pada akhirnya bersidang dan meratifikasi keputusan [[Konsili Kalsedon]] dalam Sinode Mar [[Aba I]] tahun 544.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moffett|first=Samuel H.|title=A History of Christianity in Asia. Jilid I: Beginnings to 1500|page=219|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=287-289}}
Sebagai golongan ''[[dzimmi|zimi]]'' di bawah [[Penaklukan Persia oleh Muslim|daulat Islam di Persia]] (633-654), Gereja di Timur memainkan peran utama di dalam sejarah [[Kekristenan di Asia]]. Antara abad ke-9 sampai abad ke-14, Gereja di Timur merupakan [[denominasi Kristen]] terbesar di dunia dari segi luas geografis. Gereja di Timur mendirikan [[Keuskupan-keuskupan Gereja di Timur sampai tahun 1318|keuskupan-keuskupan]] dan paguyuban-paguyuban dari [[Laut Tengah]] serta [[Irak]] dan [[Iran]] sekarang ini, sampai ke [[India (provinsi gerejawi Suryani Timur)|India]] ([[Kristen Santo Tomas|umat Kristen Santo Tomas pengamal ritus Suryani]] di [[Kerala]]), [[Kekristenan di kalangan bangsa Mongol|kerajaan-kerajaan bangsa Mongol]] di Asia Tengah, dan [[dinasti Tang|kemaharajaan kulawangsa Tang]] di [[Gereja dari Timur di Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] (abad ke-7 sampai abad ke-9). Pada abad ke-13 dan ke-14, Gereja di Timur mengalami masa-masa ekspansi terakhirnya di bawah daulat [[kekaisaran Mongol|kemaharajaan bangsa Mongol]], yakni masa-masa ketika para rohaniwan Gereja di Timur duduk di dalam majelis istana Mongol.
Bahkan sebelum kehilangan sebagian besar wilayah pelayanannya pada abad ke-14, Gereja di Timur sudah kehilangan pijakan di kandang sendiri. Kemerosotan ini tampak pada penurunan jumlah keuskupan yang masih aktif. Sekitar tahun 1000, ada lebih dari enam puluh keuskupan di kawasan Timur Dekat, tetapi pada pertengahan abad ke-13 sudah tinggal sepertiganya saja, kemudian turun lagi menjadi tujuh keuskupan sesudah [[Timur Leng]] berkuasa.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=84-89}} Sesudah kemaharajaan bangsa Mongol terpecah belah, para penguasa Tionghoa dan Mongol Islam mengusir bahkan nyaris memusnahkan Gereja di Timur maupun umatnya. Sesudah itu, hanya di daerah Mesopotamia Hulu dan [[Pesisir Malabar]] (sekarang [[Kerala]], India) sajalah keuskupan-keuskupan Gereja di Timur dapat ditemukan.
Skisma memecah belah Gereja ini, tetapi pada akhirnya tersisa dua kebatrikan pada tahun 1830, yakni [[Gereja Asiria Timur|Gereja Asyur di Timur]] dan [[Gereja Katolik Kaldea]] (salah satu [[Gereja Katolik Timur]] yang bersatu dengan [[Takhta Suci]]). [[Gereja Purba di Timur]] pecah dari Gereja Asyur di Timur pada tahun 1968. Pada tahun 2017, umat Gereja Katolik Kaldea diperkirakan berjumlah 628.405 jiwa,<ref>[http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024215818/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf |date=2018-10-24 }}
{{cite web | url = http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf | author = Ronald Roberson | title = The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017 | publisher = Catholic Near East Welfare Association | access-date = 10 Agustus 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181024215818/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf | archive-date = 24 Oktober 2018 | url-status = dead }} temu balik bulan Desember 2010. Informasi bersumber dari ''Annuario Pontificio'' edisi 2017.</ref> sementara umat Gereja Asyur di Timur berjumlah 323.300 jiwa,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/holy-apostolic-catholic-assyrian-church-of-the-east|title=Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East — World Council of Churches|website=www.oikoumene.org|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2019-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507053301/https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/holy-apostolic-catholic-assyrian-church-of-the-east/|dead-url=no}}</ref> dan umat Gereja Purba di Timur berjumlah 100.000 jiwa. Angka-angka tersebut tidak mencakup jumlah umat [[Kristen Santo Tomas]] pengamal ritus Suryani, yang juga terpecah belah menjadi beberapa denominasi, antara lain dua [[Gereja Katolik Timur|Gereja Katolik Suryani]] dan beberapa cabang [[Gereja-Gereja Ortodoks Oriental di India|Gereja Ortodoks]] Suryani.
== Latar belakang ==
{{Box|{{Denominasi Kristen}}|align=right}}
Kemandirian Kepala Gereja di Timur sudah dimaklumkan pada tahun 424, 9 tahun sebelum penyelenggaraan [[Konsili Efesus]], konsili yang menganatema [[Nestorius]] dan memaklumkan bahwa [[Maria|Maria, ibunda Yesus]], dapat disifatkan sebagai [[Theotokos|Bunda
Dari segi teologi, Gereja di Timur mengadopsi [[diofisitisme|doktrin diofisit]] yang menitikberatkan perbedaan [[persatuan hipostatik|kodrat ilahi dan kodrat insani]] [[Pandangan Kristen tentang Yesus|Yesus]].
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[[File:Christological spectrum-o2p.svg|thumb|300px|Pandangan-pandangan Gereja di Timur pada spektrum kristologis abad ke-5 sampai abad ke-7 (biru muda)]]
{{Utama|Nestorianisme|Skisma Nestorian}}
[[Nestorianisme]] adalah doktrin [[kristologi]]s yang menitikberatkan perbedaan antara kodrat insani dan kodrat ilahi [[Yesus]]. Doktrin ini dinisbatkan kepada [[Nestorius]], [[Patriark Oikumenis Konstantinopel|Batrik Konstantinopel]] dari tahun 428 sampai tahun 431. Doktrin Nestorius merupakan puncak pencapaian mazhab filsafati yang dikembangkan para sarjana [[Perguruan Katekese Antiokhia]], teristimewa [[Teodorus dari Mopsuestia]], guru Nestorius. Kontroversi timbul ketika Nestorius secara terbuka menggugat pemberian gelar ''[[Theotokos|Teotokos]]'' (arti harfiahnya "Sang Pelahir
Selepas tahun 431, pemerintah Kekaisaran Romawi berusaha melenyapkan paham Nestorianisme. Inilah alasan umat Kristen di Persia menyukai Nestorianisme. Menganut paham yang ditentang pemerintah Romawi adalah cara untuk menghapus kecurigaan pemerintah Persia bahwa umat Kristen di Persia adalah antek-antek Kekaisaran Romawi.<ref name=Britannica/><ref name=BritannicaNestorius>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius "Nestorius"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317060817/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius |date=2015-03-17 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Temu balik tanggal 11 November 2018.</ref>
Tidak lama sesudah [[Konsili Kalsedon]] tahun 451, barulah Gereja di Timur merumuskan teologi yang berbeda dari Nestorianisme. Rumusan teologi ini pertama kali diadopsi di dalam [[Sinode Bet Lapat]] tahun 484, dan dikembangkan lebih lanjut pada permulaan abad ke-7, ketika Kekaisaran Persia Sasani berhasil mendaulat daerah luas yang didiami umat Suryani Barat dari Kekaisaran Romawi. Banyak di antara umat Suryani Barat tersebut mengusung teologi [[miafisitisme|miafisit]], yang disebut "Monofisitisme" ([[Eutikianisme]]) oleh lawan-lawan mereka, yakni pandangan teologi yang sangat bertolak belakang dengan Nestorianisme. Kebijakan Gereja di Timur ini mendapatkan dukungan dari
Keabsahan penisbatan Nestorianisme kepada [[Nestorius]], tokoh yang dihormati Gereja di Timur sebagai [[santo]], dipertanyakan.{{sfn|Bethune-Baker|1908|p=82-100}}{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23–35}} David Wilmshurst berpendapat bahwa berabad-abad lamanya "kata 'Nestorian' digunakan baik sebagai istilah yang melecehkan oleh pihak-pihak yang tidak sejalan dengan teologi Suryani Timur maupun sebagai istilah kebanggaan oleh banyak pihak yang membela teologi Suryani Timur [...] dan sebagai istilah deskriptif yang netral dan dirasa tepat oleh pihak-pihak lain. Sekarang ini istilah tersebut
Di luar dari makna religiusnya, kata "Nestorian" dipakai pula dengan makna etnis, sebagaimana tampak pada frasa "umat Nestorian Katolik".<ref>
Dalam artikel ''"The 'Nestorian' Church: a lamentable misnomer"'', yang dimuat dalam jurnal ''[[Bulletin of the John Rylands Library]]'' tahun 1996, [[Sebastian Brock]], salah seorang ''[[Fellow of the British Academy]]'', meratapi kenyataan bahwa "istilah 'Gereja Nestorian' sudah menjadi sebutan standar bagi Gereja timur purba yang pada masa lampau menyebut diri 'Gereja di Timur', tetapi yang sekarang ini lebih menyukai istilah 'Gereja Asyur di Timur' yang lebih lengkap. Sebutan semacam itu bukan hanya tidak sopan
== Organisasi dan struktur ==
Dalam [[Konsili Seleukia-Ktesifon]] tahun 410, Gereja di Timur mengumumkan bahwa Uskup Seleukia-Ktesifon, ibu kota [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Persia]], adalah pemimpin tertingginya. Kepala Gereja di Timur disebut "
Sama seperti Gereja-Gereja lain, Gereja di Timur memiliki rohaniwan-rohaniwan [[penahbisan|tertahbis]] dalam tiga jenjang jabatan tradisional, yakni [[uskup]], [[imam]] (atau [[presbiter]]), dan [[diakon]]. Sama seperti Gereja-Gereja lain, Gereja di Timur menerapkan [[episkopal|tatanan keuskupan]], yakni pengelompokan umat menjadi [[keuskupan]]-keuskupan yang masing-masing dikepalai seorang uskup. Umat di tiap keuskupan masih dikelompokkan lagi menjadi [[paroki]]-paroki yang masing-masing dipimpin seorang imam. Keuskupan-keuskupan yang berdekatan dikelompokkan menjadi satu [[provinsi gerejawi|provinsi]] di bawah kepemimpinan seorang [[uskup metropolit|uskup
Hampir sepanjang sejarahnya, Gereja di Timur memiliki kurang lebih 6 provinsi di dalam daerah basis. Pada tahun 410, provinsi-provinsi tersebut adalah (diurut berdasarkan hierarki) [[provinsi Batrik Seleukia-Ktesifon|Seleukia-Ktesifon]] (Irak Tengah), [[Bet Huzaye (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Bet Lapat]] (Iran Barat), [[Nisibis (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Nisibis]] (perbatasan Turki-Irak), [[Maisyan (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Prat de Maishan]] (Basra, Irak Selatan), [[Adiabene (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Arbela]] (Erbil, daerah Turkestan di Irak), dan [[Bet Garmaï (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Karka de Bet Slokh]] (Kirkuk, Irak Timur Laut). Selain itu, Gereja Timur juga membawahi provinsi-provinsi di luar daerah basis yang jumlahnya terus bertambah. Provinsi-provinsi di luar daerah basis Gereja di Timur mula-mula terbentuk di wilayah Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani, tetapi tidak lama kemudian terbentuk pula di luar batas-batas wilayah negara itu. Pada abad ke-10, Gereja di Timur membawahi 20<ref name=Britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorians "Nestorian"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615200116/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorians |date=2010-06-15 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved January 28, 2010.</ref> sampai 30 provinsi gerejawi.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=4}} Menurut John Foster, ada 25 provinsi yang dibawahi Gereja di Timur pada abad ke-9,{{sfn|Foster|1939|p=34}} termasuk di Tiongkok dan India. Provinsi gerejawi di Tiongkok bubar pada abad ke-11, provinsi-provinsi lain menyusul pada abad-abad selanjutnya. Meskipun demikian, pada abad ke-
== Kitab Suci ==
{{main|Pesyita}}
[[Pesyita]],
[[Perjanjian Lama]] Pesyita diterjemahkan dari [[bahasa Ibrani]], kendati tarikh maupun tempat penerjemahannya tidak betul-betul jelas. Para penerjemahnya mungkin adalah orang-orang Yahudi penutur bahasa Suryani atau orang-orang Yahudi pertama yang memeluk agama Kristen. Mungkin teks demi teks diterjemahkan terpisah-pisah, dan kemungkinan besar penerjemahkan dituntaskan sepenuhnya pada abad ke-2. Rata-rata [[Biblical apocrypha|kitab deuterokanonika Perjanjian Lama]] memiliki terjemahan Suryaninya, dan kitab [[Kebijaksanaan Sirakh]] diyakini diterjemahkan dari [[bahasa Ibrani]], bukan dari [[Septuaginta]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/syriac-isbe.html |title=''Syriac Versions of the Bible'', Thomas Nicol |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2020-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307080247/http://bible-researcher.com/syriac-isbe.html |dead-url=no }}</ref>
[[Perjanjian Baru]] Pesyita, yang mula-mula tidak mencakup kitab-kitab yang diragukan keasliannya ([[2 Petrus]], [[2 Yohanes]], [[3 Yohanes]], [[Surat Yudas]], [[Kitab Wahyu|Wahyu]]), sudah menjadi bentuk Pesyita standar pada awal abad ke-5.
==
Ada bukti sastrawi maupun arkeologi mengenai keberadaan citra-citra religius di dalam gereja. Pada tahun 1248, seorang pejabat [[Armenia]] di [[Samarkand]] menulis laporan kunjungannya ke sebuah gereja di kota itu dan melihat sendiri sebuah gambar Kristus dan orang-orang Majus. Dalam laporannya mengenai 1330 jiwa umat Suryani Timur di [[Khanbaliq]], Yohanes dari Kora ({{lang|it|Giovanni di Cori|italic=no}}), Uskup [[Sultaniyah]] Ritus latin di Persia, menyebutkan bahwa mereka memiliki ‘gereja-gereja yang sangat indah dan apik, lengkap dengan salib-salib dan gambar-gambar untuk memuliakan Tuhan dan orang-orang kudus’.<ref name=ICE /> Selain keterangan-keterangan tersebut, ada pula [[lukisan seorang tokoh Kristen Nestorian]] (kemungkinan besar gambar Kristus) yang ditemukan [[Aurel Stein]] pada tahun 1908 di Gua Perpustakaan, salah satu dari gua-[[gua Mogao]].
Arca pria berbahan lepa seukuran manusia asli ditemukan di sebuah gereja dari akhir abad ke-6 di [[Almada'in|Seleukia-Ktesifon]], yang di bawah fondasinya ditemukan bekas-bekas bangunan gereja lain yang lebih tua, juga menunjukkan bahwa Gereja di Timur menggunakan representasi-representasi figuratif.{{sfn|Baumer|2006|p=75, 94}}
<gallery class="center" widths="225px" heights="249px">
File:Museum für Indische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 061.jpg|Rohaniwan Nestorian melaksanakan prosesi [[
File:
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Feast of the Discovery of the Cross.jpg|
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Announcement of Jesus’ Resurrection.jpg|
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Pentecost.jpg|
File:Cruz de la Iglesia del Oriente («nestoriana»).jpg|
File:Four Evangelists, Church of the East.jpg|
File:Entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem, with a Female Figure in T'ang Costume, Chotscho, Sinkiang.jpg|
File:Nestorian Christian Statuette.jpg|
File:Piatto con decorazione di castello assediato, arg, samirechye, da bolshoe-anikovskaya, IX-X sec su orig del l'VIII sec.JPG|
</gallery><gallery class="center" widths="250px" heights="125px">
File:Sutras on the Origin of Origins of Ta-ch‘in Luminous Religion (detail).jpg|Detail
File:Sutras on the Origin of Origins of Ta-ch‘in Luminous Religion (detail-L).jpg|Detail
</gallery>
==
{{Seealso|
Meskipun umat Kristen Nestorian mengaku sebagai kelanjutan dari jemaat Kristen Perdana yang terbentuk pada abad pertama Masehi, Gereja di Timur pertama kali mendapatkan pengakuan resmi dari pemerintah Kemaharajaan Sasani pada abad ke-4, tatkala [[Yazdegerd I]] (menjabat 399–420) naik takhta. [[Sinode Seleukia-Ktesifon]] yang diselenggarakan di ibu kota Kemaharajaan Sasani pada tahun 410 membenarkan uskup-uskup Gereja di Timur untuk memilih seorang [[Katolikos di Timur|katolikos]] (pemimpin) resmi. [[Katolikos]] [[Ishak dari Seleukia-Ktesifon|Ishak]] diwajibkan memimpin jemaat Kristen Asyur sekaligus menjadi penyambung lidah mereka di hadapan [[Daftar kepala monarki Kekaisaran Sasani|para syahansyah Sasani]].{{sfn|Fiey|1970}}{{sfn|Chaumont|1988}}
Di bawah tekanan syahansyah Sasani, Gereja di Timur kian lama kian menjarak dari [[Pentarki]] (saat itu dikenal sebagai Gereja [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]]). Oleh karena itu, pada tahun 424, uskup-uskup di Kemaharajaan Sasani bersidang di bawah pimpinan Katolikos [[Dadisyo]] (421–456) dan sepakat untuk seterusnya tidak merujuk kepada pihak berwenang mana pun di luar negeri dalam urusan-urusan tata tertib maupun teologi, khususnya kepada uskup atau konsili Gereja di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]].{{sfn|Hill|1988|p=105}}
Kontroversi teologis yang timbul seusai [[Konsili Efesus]] tahun 431 terbukti menjadi salah satu tonggak sejarah Gereja. Konsili Efesus membidatkan Kristologi [[Nestorius]], lantaran keengganannya memuliakan Perawan Maria dengan gelar ''[[Theotokos|Teotokos]]'' (Pelahir [[Tuhan]]) dijadikan bukti bahwa ia percaya ada dua pribadi terpisah (alih-alih dua kodrat manunggal) di dalam diri Kristus.
Syahansyah Sasani yang memusuhi Romawi Timur memanfaatkan kontroversi ini sebagai kesempatan untuk membina umat Kristen Persia menjadi kawula yang setia kepada negara, sehingga memutuskan untuk mendukung [[skisma Nestorian]]. Syahansyah mengambil langkah-langkah untuk menjadikan para pengikut Nestorius sebagai golongan utama di dalam lingkup Gereja Asyur di Timur dengan memberi suaka kepada mereka,{{sfn|Outerbridge|1952}} menghukum mati Katolikos [[Babowai]] yang pro-Romawi pada tahun 484, dan menggantinya dengan [[Barsauma]], Uskup [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] yang berhaluan Nestorian. Katolikos-Batrik [[Babai (Batrik Nestorian)|Babai]] (497–503) mengukuhkan keterkaitan Gereja Asyur dengan Nestorianisme.
=== Zaman Partia dan Sasani ===
[[File:Church of Saint John the Arab.jpg|thumb|225px|
Gereja di Timur juga berkembang di kerajaan [[bani Lakhmid]] sampai zaman penaklukan Muslim, teristimewa sesudah pemimpin bani Lakhmid, [[Alnu'man III bin Almundir]], secara resmi memeluk agama Kristen sekitar tahun 592.
=== Di bawah daulat Islam ===
[[File:Church of the East provinces 10 c.svg|thumb|
[[File:Mural of a Cleric of the Church of the East.jpg|thumb|left|150px|
Patriarch [[Timothy I (Nestorian Patriarch)|Timothy I]] (780–823), a contemporary of the Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]], took a particularly keen interest in the missionary expansion of the Church of the East. He is known to have consecrated metropolitans for Damascus, for [[Armenia (East Syrian Diocese)|Armenia]], for Dailam and Gilan in Azerbaijan, for [[Rai (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|Rai]] in Tabaristan, for Sarbaz in Segestan, for the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] of Central Asia, for China, and possibly also for [[Tibet]]. He also detached India from the metropolitan province of [[Fars (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|Fars]] and made it a separate metropolitan province, known as [[India (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|India]].{{sfn|Fiey|1993|p=47 (Armenia), 72 (Damascus), 74 (Dailam and Gilan), 94–6 (India), 105 (China), 124 (Rai), 128–9 (Sarbaz), 128 (Samarqand and Beth Turkaye), 139 (Tibet)}} By the 10th century the Church of the East had a number of dioceses stretching from across the Caliphate's territories to India and China.<ref name=Britannica/>
Baris 259:
In 1771, [[Eliya XI]] (XII) and his designated successor (the future [[Eliya XII]] (XIII) Isho{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿ}}yahb) made a profession of faith that was accepted by Rome, thus establishing communion. By then, acceptance of the Catholic position was general in the [[Mosul]] area. When [[Eliya XI]] (XII) died in 1778, [[Eliya XII]] (XIII) made a renewed profession of Catholic faith and was recognised by Rome as Patriarch of Mosul, but in May 1779 renounced that profession in favor of the traditional faith. His younger cousin [[Yohannan VIII Hormizd|Yohannan Hormizd]] was locally elected to replace him in 1780, but for various reasons was recognised by Rome only as Metropolitan of Mosul and Administrator of the Catholics of the Alqosh party, having the powers of a Patriarch but not the title or insignia. When [[Joseph IV (Chaldean Patriarch)|Joseph IV]] of the Amid Patriarchate resigned in 1780, Rome likewise made his nephew, [[Joseph V Augustine Hindi|Augustine Hindi]], whom he wished to be his successor, not Patriarch but Administrator. No one held the title of Chaldean Catholic patriarch for the next 47 years.
===
{{main|Gereja Katolik Kaldea|Gereja Asyur di Timur}}
When [[Eliya XII]] (XIII) died in 1804, the Nestorian branch of the Eliya line died with him.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=263}}{{sfn|Hage|2007|p=473}} With most of his subjects won over to union with Rome by Hormizd, they did not elect a new traditionalist Patriarch. In 1830, Hormizd was finally recognized as the [[Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon|Chaldean Catholic Patriarch of Babylon]], marking the last remnant of the hereditary system within the Chaldean Catholic Church.
Baris 294:
'''Kepustakaan'''
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* {{Cite book|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=Pour un Oriens Christianus Novus: Répertoire des diocèses syriaques orientaux et occidentaux|year=1993|location=Beirut|publisher=Orient-Institut|isbn=9783515057189|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802075358/https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|chapter=The Spread of the Persian Church|title=Syriac Dialogue: First Non-Official Consultation on Dialogue within the Syriac Tradition|year=1994|location=Vienna|publisher=Pro Oriente|pages=97–107|isbn=9783515057189|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802075358/https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Filoni|first=Fernando|author-link=Fernando Filoni|title=The Church in Iraq|year=2017|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Catholic University of America Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ|isbn=9780813229652|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003412/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp8rDwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Foltz|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780312233389|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czVRPa7GxrUC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003413/https://books.google.com/books?id=czVRPa7GxrUC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Foster|first=John|title=The Church of the T'ang Dynasty|year=1939|location=London|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scpZAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003912/https://books.google.com/books?id=scpZAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Frazee|first=Charles A.|title=Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923|year=2006|orig-year=1983|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6DM4szwUpEC|isbn=9780521027007|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115221203/https://books.google.com/books?id=X6DM4szwUpEC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Frykenberg|first=Robert Eric|title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present|year=2008|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ|isbn=9780198263777|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004008/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Giamil|first=Samuel|title=Genuinae relationes inter Sedem Apostolicam et Assyriorum orientalium seu Chaldaeorum ecclesiam|year=1902|location=Roma|publisher=Ermanno Loescher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pL0WmAEACAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003913/https://books.google.com/books?id=pL0WmAEACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Grillmeier|first1=Aloys|author-link1=Aloys Grillmeier|last2=Hainthaler|first2=Theresia|title=Christ in Christian Tradition: The Churches of Jerusalem and Antioch from 451 to 600|volume=2/3|year=2013|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199212880|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lokeAAAAQBAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802044349/https://books.google.com/books?id=lokeAAAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Gulik|first=Wilhelm van|title=Die Konsistorialakten über die Begründung des uniert-chaldäischen Patriarchates von Mosul unter Papst Julius III|journal=Oriens Christianus|year=1904|volume=4|page=261–277|url=https://archive.org/download/orienschristian04grgoog/orienschristian04grgoog.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Гумилёв|first=Лев Николаевич|author-link=Lev N. Gumilev|title=Поиски вымышленного царства: Легенда о государстве пресвитера Иоанна|language=ru|trans-title=Searching for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John|location=Москва|publisher=Наука|year=1970|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cnm4AAAAIAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003914/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cnm4AAAAIAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Habbi|first=Joseph|title=Signification de l'union chaldéenne de Mar Sulaqa avec Rome en 1553|journal=L'Orient Syrien|year=1966|volume=11|pages=99-132, 199-230|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pEWAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003914/https://books.google.com/books?id=-pEWAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Habbi|first=Joseph|title=L'unification de la hiérarchie chaldéenne dans la première moitié du XIXe siècle|journal=Parole de l'Orient|year=1971a|volume=2|issue=1|pages=121–143|url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34989/po_1971_1_121.pdf|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2021-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619040820/https://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34989/po_1971_1_121.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Habbi|first=Joseph|title=L'unification de la hiérarchie chaldéenne dans la première moitié du XIXe siècle (Suite)|journal=Parole de l'Orient|year=1971b|volume=2|issue=2|pages=305–327|url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34999/po_1971_2_305.pdf|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2021-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619041837/https://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34999/po_1971_2_305.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hage|first=Wolfgang|title=Das orientalische Christentum|year=2007|location=Stuttgart|publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgz_NyvRFIUC|isbn=9783170176683|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802043723/https://books.google.com/books?id=jgz_NyvRFIUC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Harrak|first=Amir|title=Patriarchal Funerary Inscriptions in the Monastery of Rabban Hormizd: Types, Literary Origins, and Purpose|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=2003|volume=6|issue=2|pages=235–264|url=https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/journals/hug/6/1/article-p293.pdf|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003916/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31826/hug-2010-060112/pdf|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hauser|first=Stefan R.|chapter=The Church of the East until the Eighth Century|title=The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Archaeology|year=2019|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=431–450|isbn=9780199369041|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWR7DwAAQBAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004947/https://books.google.com/books?id=uWR7DwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Herman|first=Geoffrey|chapter=The Syriac World in the Persian Empire|title=The Syriac World|year=2019|location=London|publisher=Routledge|pages=134–145|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/41536816|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406085403/https://www.academia.edu/41536816|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hill|first=Donald|author-link=Donald Hill|title=Islamic Science and Engineering|year=1993|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8XaAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780748604555|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004928/https://books.google.com/books?id=o8XaAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Hill|editor-first=Henry|title=Light from the East: A Symposium on the Oriental Orthodox and Assyrian Churches|year=1988|location=Toronto|publisher=Anglican Book Centre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BmaQAAAACAAJ|isbn=9780919891906|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004953/https://books.google.com/books?id=BmaQAAAACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Hodgson|editor-first1=Leonard|editor-link1=Leonard Hodgson|editor-last2=Driver|editor-first2=Godfrey R.|editor-link2=Godfrey Rolles Driver|title=Nestorius: The Bazaar of Heracleides|year=1925|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=9781725202399|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVn7DwAAQBAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004922/https://books.google.com/books?id=YVn7DwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Hunter|first=Erica|title=The church of the East in central Asia|journal=The Bulletin of the John Rylands Library|year=1996|volume=78|issue=3|pages=129–142|url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403|doi=10.7227/BJRL.78.3.10|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031352/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian)|title=The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410|year=2014|orig-year=2005|location=London-New York|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eI19AwAAQBAJ|isbn=9781317878995|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004922/https://books.google.com/books?id=eI19AwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jakob|first=Joachim|title=Ostsyrische Christen und Kurden im Osmanischen Reich des 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderts|year=2014|location=Münster|publisher=LIT Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNV8BAAAQBAJ|isbn=9783643506160|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115221203/https://books.google.com/books?id=vNV8BAAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jenkins|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Jenkins|title=The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia - and How It Died|year=2008|location=San Francisco|publisher=HarperOne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4HYAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780061472800|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004923/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4HYAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Joseph|first=John B.|author-link=John Joseph (historian)|title=The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers|year=2000|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=9004116419|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005424/https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Jugie|first=Martin|title=L'ecclésiologie des Nestoriens|journal=Échos d'Orient|year=1935|volume=34|issue=177|pages=5–25|doi=10.3406/rebyz.1935.2817}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Wassilios|title=Das nestorianische Christentum an den Handelswegen durch Kyrgyzstan bis zum 14. Jh|year=2000|location=Turnhout|publisher=Brepols Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0w7ZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9782503510354|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005433/https://books.google.com/books?id=0w7ZAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Michael F.|title=God is One: A Christian Defence of Divine Unity in the Muslim Golden Age|year=2019|location=Carlisle|publisher=Langham Publishing|isbn=9781783685776|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXPnDwAAQBAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005429/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXPnDwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Labourt|first=Jérôme|title=Note sur les schismes de l'Église nestorienne, du XVIe au XIXe siècle|journal=Journal Asiatique|year=1908|volume=11|pages=227–235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtrNz6uG6bIC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005429/https://books.google.com/books?id=WtrNz6uG6bIC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Labourt|first=Jérôme|chapter=St. Ephraem|title=The Catholic Encyclopedia|volume=5|year=1909|location=New York|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05498a.htm|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2017-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721112224/http://newadvent.org/cathen/05498a.htm|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lampart|first=Albert|title=Ein Märtyrer der Union mit Rom: Joseph I. 1681–1696, Patriarch der Chaldäer|year=1966|location=Einsiedeln|publisher=Benziger Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOFiQgAACAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005429/https://books.google.com/books?id=iOFiQgAACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite book|last=Lange|first=Christian|title=Mia energeia: Untersuchungen zur Einigungspolitik des Kaisers Heraclius und des Patriarchen Sergius von Constantinopel|year=2012|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMvX6Ct6qxYC|isbn=9783161509674|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005927/https://books.google.com/books?id=sMvX6Ct6qxYC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Lemmens|first=Leonhard|title=Relationes nationem Chaldaeorum inter et Custodiam Terrae Sanctae (1551-1629)|journal=Archivum Franciscanum Historicum|year=1926|volume=19|page=17–28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bOzNAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005931/https://books.google.com/books?id=bOzNAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Luke|first=Harry Charles|chapter=The Christian Communities in the Holy Sepulchre|editor-last=Ashbee|editor-first=Charles Robert|title=Jerusalem 1920-1922: Being the Records of the Pro-Jerusalem Council during the First Two Years of the Civil Administratio|year=1924|location=London|publisher=John Murray|pages=46–56|chapter-url=https://archive.org/download/jerusalem192019200ashbuoft/jerusalem192019200ashbuoft.pdf}}
* {{cite book|chapter=Chaldean Catholic Church (Eastern Catholic)|editor-last=Marthaler|editor-first=Berard L.|title=The New Catholic Encyclopedia|volume=3|year=2003|publisher=Thompson-Gale|pages=366–369|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpAQAAMAAJ}}{{Pranala mati|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Cite book|last=Menze|first=Volker L.|chapter=The Establishment of the Syriac Churches|title=The Syriac World|year=2019|location=London|publisher=Routledge|pages=105–118|isbn=9781138899018|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005932/https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|series=The Church in history|volume=2|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=978-0-88-141056-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112174712/https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Moffett|first=Samuel Hugh|chapter=Alopen|title=Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions|year=1999|publisher=William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|pages=14–15|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ8BFk9K0ToC|isbn=9780802846808|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005932/https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ8BFk9K0ToC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mooken|first=Aprem|author-link=Aprem Mooken|title=The Nestorian Fathers|year=1976|location=Trichur|publisher=Mar Narsai Press|url=https://ia801001.us.archive.org/34/items/nestorianfathers0000mara/nestorianfathers0000mara.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mooken|first=Aprem|author-link=Aprem Mooken|title=Nestorian Missions|year=1976|location=Trichur|publisher=Mar Narsai Press|url=https://ia802802.us.archive.org/8/items/nestorianmission0000mara/nestorianmission0000mara.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Morgan|first=David|title=The Mongols|year=1986|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbungEACAAJ|isbn=9780631135562|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005932/https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbungEACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Moule|first=Arthur C.|author-link=Arthur Christopher Moule|title=Christians in China before the year 1550|year=1930|location=London|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U80NAQAAIAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005933/https://books.google.com/books?id=U80NAQAAIAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Murre van den Berg|first=Heleen|title=The Patriarchs of the Church of the East from the Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries|journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies|year=1999|volume=2|issue=2|pages=235–264|doi=10.31826/hug-2010-020119|url=https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/journals/hug/2/1/article-p235.pdf|doi-access=free|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2020-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118085531/https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/journals/hug/2/1/article-p235.pdf|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Murre van den Berg|first=Heleen|chapter=Classical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Church of the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800|title=Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting|year=2008|location=Wiesbaden|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|pages=335–352|isbn=9783447057875|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803010454/https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC|dead-url=no}}
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{{refend}}
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