Filsafat India: Perbedaan antara revisi

Naskah-naskah filsafat India kuno dan abad pertengahan mencakup diskusi-diskusi ekstensif mengenai [[Ontologi]] ([[metafisika]], [[Brahman]]-[[Atman]], [[Śūnyatā|Sunyata]]-[[Anatta]]), sarana pengetahuan yang dapat diandalkan ([[epistemologi]], Pramana), sistem nilai ([[aksiologi]]), dan topik-topik lain.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okkLgRTQ8mIC |title=Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics |lastfirst=Roy W. |last=Perrett |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8153-3608-2 |access-date=2020-03-02 |archive-date=2023-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144429/https://books.google.com/books?id=okkLgRTQ8mIC |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ij4yOAP_6fcC|title=Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School |lastfirst=Stephen H. |last=Phillips|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-51898-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USBtAAAAMAAJ|title=The Puruṣārthas: aA studyStudy in Hindu axiologyAxiology|lastfirst=Arvind |last=Sharma |publisher=Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University|year=1982}};<br /ref><br /ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g78Cw4xQmsMC |title=Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges|lastfirst=Purusottama |last=Bilimoria |last2first2=Joseph |last2=Prabhu|last3first3=Renuka M. |last3=Sharma|publisher=Ashgate|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7546-3301-3}}</ref>

[[Berkas:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg|kiri|jmpl| Filsafat Hindu memiliki keragaman tradisi dan banyak orang suci dan cendekiawan, seperti Adi Shankara dari aliran Wedanta Adwaita. ]]

Banyak tradisi intelektual [[Agama Hindu|Hindu]] diklasifikasikan dalam skolastik Brahman-Sanskrit abad pertengahan menjadi suatu daftar standar yang terdiri atas enam aliran ([[darshana]]) ortodoks ([[Āstika dan nāstika|Astika]]), "Enam Filsafat" (''{{IAST|ṣaḍ-darśana}}''), yang seluruhnya menerima kebenaran [[Weda]].{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=231-232}}{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|p=264}}{{Sfn|Nicholson|2010}}

* [[Samkhya]], aliran rasionalisme dengan tema dualisme dan ateistis,<ref>{{cite book|first=Mike |last=Burley (|year=2012), |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, |publisher=Routledge, {{ISBN|isbn=978-0415648875}}, pages |page=43-46 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Tom |last1=Flynn and |first2=Richard |last2=Dawkins (|year=2007), |title=The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief, |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781591023913 |publisher=Prometheus, {{ISBN|isbn=978-1591023913}}, pages|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781591023913/page/n437 420]-421 |language=en}}</ref>

* [[Waisesika]], aliran naturalisme dengan tema-tema atomistis dan berelasi dengan aliran Nyaya,<ref>{{cite book |first=Dale |last=Riepe (|year=1996), |title=Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, {{ISBN|isbn=978-8120812932 |page=227-246 |language=en}},</ref><ref>{{cite pagesbook 227|chapterurl=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-246modern-india/#VaiAto |chapter=2.2 Vaiśeṣika Atomism |title=Analytical philosophy in early modern India |first=Jonardon |last=Ganeri |date=29-05-2019 |series=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |language=en |access-date=03-03-2020 |archive-date=2019-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318135737/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto |dead-url=no }}</ref>

* [[Mimamsa|Purwa Mimamsa]] (atau hanya Mimamsa), aliran ritualisme dengan eksegesis Weda dan penekanan filologi,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Oliver |last=Leaman (|year=2006), |title=Shruti, in ''|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'', |publisher=Routledge, {{ISBN|isbn=978-0415862530 |page=503}},</ref><ref>{{cite pageencyclopedia 503|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383181/Mimamsa |title=Mimamsa |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2014 |language=en |access-date=03-03-2020}}</ref> dan

* [[Wedanta]] (juga disebut Uttara Mimamsa), tradisi [[Upanisad]], dengan banyak subaliran mulai dari dualisme hingga nondualisme.<ref>{{cite book |first=Oliver |last=Leaman (|year=2000), |title=Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, |url=https://archive.org/details/easternphilosoph00leam |publisher=Routledge, {{ISBN|isbn=978-0415173582}}, |page=[https://archive.org/details/easternphilosoph00leam/page/n267 251;<br] |language=en}}</ref><br /ref>{{cite book |first=R. |last=Prasad (|year=2009), |title=A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, |publisher=Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|isbn=978-8180695957}}, pages |page=345-347 |language=en}}</ref>

Selain itu, aliran Mādhawa Widyāraṇya juga mencakup yang mengikuti filsafat-filsafat teistis di atas berdasarkan Agama dan Tantra:{{Sfn|Cowell|Gough|2001|p=xii}}

Sistem yang disebutkan di sini bukan satu-satunya sistem ortodoks, tapi merupakan yang utama, dan ada aliran-aliran ortodoks lain. Sistem ini menerima pengaruh [[Weda]] dan dianggap sebagai aliran filsafat Hindu ortodoks ([[Āstika dan nāstika|astika]]). Selain mereka, aliran-aliran yang tidak menerima pengaruh Weda masuk dalam sistem heterodoks (nastika), seperti Buddhisme, Jainisme, Ajiwika, dan Charwaka.<ref>{{cite book |first=Roy |last=Perrett (|year=2000), |title=Indian Philosophy, |publisher=Routledge, {{ISBN|isbn=978-0815336112}}, |page =88 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Sushil last1=Mittal & |first2=Gene |last2=Thursby (|year=2004), |title=The Hindu World, |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduworld00mitt |publisher=Routledge, {{ISBN|isbn=978-0415772273}}, pages|page=[https://archive.org/details/hinduworld00mitt/page/n729 729]-730 |language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=82, 224–49224–249}} Terminologi ortodoks-heterodoks ini adalah suatu susunan dari bahasa Barat, dan tidak memiliki dasar keilmuan dalam bahasa [[Sanskerta]]. Menurut Andrew Nicholson, ada beragam terjemahan heresiologis dari Āstika dan Nāstika dalam literatur abad ke-20 mengenai filsafat India, tapi cukup banyak yang sederhana dan lemah.{{Sfn|Nicholson|2014|loc=Chapter 9}}

[[Berkas:Photo_of_lord_adinath_bhagwan_at_kundalpur.JPG|kiri|jmpl| Rishabhanatha, yang diyakini telah hidup lebih dari sejuta tahun yang lalu, dianggap sebagai pendiri filsafat Jain. ]]

Filsafat [[Jainisme|Jain]] adalah filsafat India tertua yang sepenuhnya memisahkan tubuh ([[materi]]) dari [[jiwa]] (kesadaran).<ref>{{Cite webencyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/dravya |title=dravya –Dravya: Jainism|websiteencyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en |access-date=03-03-2020}}</ref> Jainisme dihidupkan dan dibentuk kembali setelah [[Mahawira]], ''[[Tirthankara]]'' ke-24 dan terakhir, menyintesis dan menyebarkan kembali filsafat dan tradisi Śramaṇa kuno yang dasar-dasarnya berasal dari Tirthankara pertama, yaitu Rishabhanatha berjuta-juta tahun lalu.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXgEfiNY46sC&pg=PA271|title=Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect &#91;A Latter-Day Saint&#93;|last=Patel|first=Haresh|date=March 03-2009|isbn=9781606938461|access-date=2020-03-02|archive-date=2023-07-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144438/https://books.google.com/books?id=SXgEfiNY46sC&pg=PA271|dead-url=no}}</ref> Menurut Dundas, di luar tradisi Jain, para sejarawan memperkirakan Mahawira itu sezaman dengan [[Siddhartha Gautama|Buddha]] pada abad ke-5 SM dan menurut Parshwanatha historis, selisih sekitar 250 tahun, yaitu pada abad ke-8 atau 7 SM.{{Sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}

Jainisme adalah suatu agama Śramaṇa dan menolak pengaruh Weda. Namun, seperti semua [[Agama Dharmik|agama India]], agama ini menyebarkan konsep-konsep inti, seperti karma, kehidupan beretika, kelahiran kembali, samsara, dan moksha. Jainisme menekankan kuat pada [[Asketisme|asketisisme]], [[ahimsa]] (tanpa kekerasan), dan anekantawada (relativititas sudut pandang) sebagai sarana pembebasan spiritual, pemikiran-pemikiran yang memengaruhi tradisi-tradisi India lainnya.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0iMBtaSlHYC|title=The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy|lastfirst1=Jay L. |last1=Garfield|last2first2=William |last2=Edelglass |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-532899-8|pages=168}}</ref>

Filsafat Buddhisme adalah suatu sistem pemikiran yang dimulai dengan ajaran [[Siddhartha Gautama]], [[Buddhabhāva|sang Buddha]], atau "yang dibangunkan". Buddhisme didirikan atas unsur-unsur [[Sramana|gerakan Śramaṇa]], yang berkembang pada paruh pertama milenium 1 SM, tetapi pondasinya mengandung pemikiran-pemikiran baru yang tidak ditemukan atau diterima oleh gerakan Sramana lain. Paul Williams menyatakan bahwa Buddhisme dan Hinduisme secara mutualisme saling memengaruhi dan berbagi banyak konsep, tapi kini sulit untuk mengidentifikasikan dan menggambarkan pengaruh-pengaruh itu.<ref name="williams84">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3FuzkBnOxAC |title=Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations|lastfirst=Paul |last=Williams|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-1-134-25057-8|pages=84–85}}</ref> Buddhisme menolak konsep Weda tentang [[Brahman]] (realitas tertinggi) dan [[Atman]] (jiwa, diri) yang menjadi dasar filsafat Hindu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEER8fGxCfMC|title=Philosophy of Religion for a New Century: Essays in Honor of Eugene Thomas Long|lastfirst=Robert |last=Neville |publisher=Springer|others=Jerald Wallulis|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4020-2073-5|editor-lastfirst=Jeremiah |editor-last=Hackett|pages=257}}, Quote: "[Buddhism's ontological hypotheses] that nothing in reality has its own-being and that all phenomena reduce to the relativities of pratitya samutpada. The Buddhist ontological hypothesese deny that there is any ontologically ultimate object such a God, Brahman, the Dao, or any transcendent creative source or principle."</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta |title=Anatta: Buddhism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2013 |language=en |access-date=03-03-2020}}</ref><ref>[a] {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3rYtmCZEIEC|title=Exploring Buddhism|lastfirst=Christmas |last=Humphreys|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1-136-22877-3|pages=42–43|access-date=2020-03-02|archive-date=2023-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111055822/https://books.google.com/books?id=V3rYtmCZEIEC|dead-url=no}}<br /><br />[b] {{cite book |last=Gombrich (2006),|first=Richard F. |year=2009 |page=[https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhathough00gomb/page/n62 47] |title=What the Buddha Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhathough00gomb |series=Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies monographs }}, '''Quote:''' "(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon."</ref>

Buddhisme berbagi banyak pandangan filosofis dengan sistem India lainnya, seperti kepercayaan pada ''[[Karma dalam agama Buddha|karma]]'' – suatu hubungan sebab-akibat, [[samsara]] – pemikiran-pemikiran mengenai siklis kehidupan setelah kematian dan kelahiran kembali, [[dharma]] – pemikiran mengenai etika, kewajiban, dan nilai, [[Anicca|ketidakkekalan]] semua materi dan tubuh, dan kemungkinan pembebasan spiritual ([[nirwana]] atau [[moksa]]).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkruE6UCz54C|title=Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion|lastfirst=Brian K. |last=Smith|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1998|isbn=978-81-208-1532-2|pages=14|access-date=2020-03-02|archive-date=2023-07-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144933/https://books.google.com/books?id=nkruE6UCz54C|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|lastfirst1=Peter J. |last1=Claus|last2first2=Sarah |last2=Diamond|last3first3=Margaret Ann |last3=Mills|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=978-0-415-93919-5|pages=322–323|access-date=2020-03-02|archive-date=2023-07-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144934/https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC|dead-url=no}}</ref> Perbedaan besar dari filsafat Hindu dan Jain adalah penolakan pengikut Buddha terhadap jiwa yang abadi (''[[atman]]'') dan mendukung ''[[anatta]]'' (tanpa diri).<ref name="5sourcesanatta">'''[a]''' [{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta |title=Anatta],: Buddhism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica (|year=2013) |language=en |access-date=03-03-2020}}, Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self").";<br /><br />'''[b]''' {{cite book |first=Steven |last=Collins (|year=1994), |title=Religion and Practical Reason (Editors|url=https://archive.org/details/religionpractica00reyn |editor-first1=Frank |editor-last1=Reynolds, |editor-first2=David |editor-last2=Tracy), |publisher=State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|isbn=978-0791422175}}, |page=[https://archive.org/details/religionpractica00reyn/page/64 64;] }}, Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";<br /><br />'''[c]''' John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism";<br /><br />'''[d]''' {{cite web |first=Katie |last=Javanaud (|year=2013), [|url=https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana |title=Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], |website=Philosophy Now;<br |access-date=2020-03-02 |archive-date=2015-02-06 |archive-url=https:/>/web.archive.org/web/20150206211126/https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana |dead-url=no }}<br />'''[e]''' {{cite journal |first=David |last=Loy (|year=1982), |title=Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, |journal=International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume |volume=23, Issue |issue=1, |pages =65-74}}</ref>

[[Berkas:Sudama_and_Lomas_Rishi_Caves_at_Barabar,_Bihar,_1870.jpg|jmpl|Kehidupan biara telah menjadi bahianbagian dari semua tradisi filsafat India. Gua-gua kaum fakir dari Ājīvika yang telah hilang di Bihar.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cave Architecture of India, in Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|lastfirst=Pia |last=Brancaccio|publisher=Springer|year=2014|isbn=978-94-007-3934-5|pages=1–9|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_9848-1}}</ref>]]

Filsafat Ājīvika dibangun oleh Makkhali Gosala, merupakan suatu [[Sramana|gerakan ŚramaṇaSramana]] dan pesaing utama [[Buddhisme awal]] dan [[Jainisme]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Jeffrey D. |last=Long (|year=2009), |title=Jainism: An Introduction, |publisher=Macmillan, {{ISBN|isbn=978-1845116255}}, |page =199}}</ref> Ājīvika diorganisasi oleh orang-orang yang terasing yang membentuk komunitas kebiaraan berbeda yang cenderung pada gaya hidup pertapa dan sederhana.{{Sfn|Basham|1951|pp=145-146}}

Kitab suci aliran filsafat Ājīvika mungkin pernah ada, tapi saat ini tidak tersedia dan mungkin hilang. Teori-teori mereka ditarik dari penyebutan-penyebutan tentang Ajivika dalam sumber-sumber sekunder literatur India kuno, terutama dari Jainisme dan Buddhisme yang secara polemik mengkritik Ajivika.{{Sfn|Basham|1951|loc=Chapter 1}} Aliran Ājīvika terkenal dengan doktrin ''Niyati''-nya mengenai determinisme absolut (takdir), premisnya adalah tidak ada kehendak bebas, semua yang telah terjadi, sedang terjadi, dan akan terjadi sepenuhnya ditakdirkan dan suatu fungsi dari prinsip-prinsip kosmis.{{Sfn|Basham|1951|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="james22">{{cite book |first=James |last=Lochtefeld, "|title=Ajivika", |series=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. |volume=1: A–M, |publisher=Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|isbn=978-0823931798}}, |page= 22}}</ref> Ājīvika menganggap doktrin [[karma]] sebagai suatu kekeliruan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html |title=Ajivikas |website=Overview of World Religions Project |publisher=University of Cumbria |language=en |access-date=03-03-2020 |archive-date=2019-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717212839/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> Ājīvika termasuk ateis<ref>{{cite book |first=Johannes |last=Quack (|year=2014), |title=The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_p6g5 |editor-first1=Stephen |editor-last1=Bullivant, |editor-first2=Michael |editor-last2=Ruse), |publisher=Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|isbn=978-0199644650}}, |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_p6g5/page/654 654]}}</ref> dan menolak pengaruh [[Weda]], tapi mereka percaya bahwa dalam setiap makhluk hidup ada ''[[Atman|ātman]]'' – suatu premis pusat aliran Hinduisme dan Jainisme.<ref>{{cite book |author=Analayo (|year=2004), |title=Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization, {{ISBN|isbn=978-1899579549}}, |pages= 207-208}}</ref>{{Sfn|Basham|1951|pp=240-261, 270-273}}

Carwaka atau Lokāyata adalah suatu filsafat tentang [[Skeptisisme filosofis|skeptisisme]] dan [[materialisme]], dibangun pada periode [[Kekaisaran Maurya|Maurya]]. Carwaka sangat kritis terhadap aliran filsafat lain pada masa itu. Carwaka menganggap Weda telah dinodai oleh tiga kesalahan, yaitu ketidakbenaran, kontradiksi diri, dan tautologi.{{Sfn|Cowell|Gough|2001|p=4}} Demikian pula mereka menyalahkan Buddhisme dan Jain, dengan mengejek konsep [[Nirwana|pembebasan]], [[reinkarnasi]], dan akumulasi [[Dasa Kusala Kamma|kebaikan]] atau keburukan melalui karma.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bhattacharya |first=Ramkrishna |url=http://www.carvaka4india.com/2011/08/materialism-in-india-synoptic-view.html |title=Materialism in India: A Synoptic View |date=21-08-2011 |website=cārvāka 4 india |language=en |access-date=03-03-2020 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091119/http://www.carvaka4india.com/2011/08/materialism-in-india-synoptic-view.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Mereka percaya bahwa sudut pandang melepaskan kesenangan untuk menghindari rasa sakit adalah "alasan orang-orang bodoh".{{Sfn|Cowell|Gough|2001|p=4}}

* [[Afeksi|Afeksionisme]]onisme

* [[Swayam Bhagawan]]

* {{Cite book|url=https://archivebooks.orggoogle.com.np/details/practicalsanskri00apteuoftbooks?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC|title=TheHistory Practicaland Sanskrit-EnglishDoctrines of the DictionaryĀjīvikas|last=ApteBasham|first=Vaman ShivramA.L.|publisher=MotilalMoltilal Banarsidass Publishers(Reprint: 2002)|year=19651951|isbn=81-208-05671204-42|edition=Fourth Revised and Enlarged|series=2nd|location=Delhi, India|author-linkref=harv}} aslinya diterbitkan oleh Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.

* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.npca/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYCnfOPCgAAQBAJ&dq|title=HistoryEarly andAsceticism Doctrinesin ofIndia: theĀjīvikism Ājīvikasand Jainism|last=BashamBalcerowicz |first=A.L.Piotr |publisher=MoltilalRoutledge Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002)|year=19512015|isbn=81-208-1204-29781317538530|edition=2nd1st|locationpages=Delhi, India|ref=harv368}} originally published by Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.

* {{Cite bookCitation|url=https://books.google.cacom/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&dqxkrCRbOq-HUC|title=EarlyThe AsceticismSarva-Darsana-Samgraha inor IndiaReview of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: ĀjīvikismTrubner's andOriental JainismSeries|last=BalcerowiczCowell|first=PiotrE. B.|publisherlast2=RoutledgeGough|yearfirst2=2015A. E.|isbnpublisher=9781317538530Taylor & Francis|editionyear=1st2001|pagesisbn=368978-0-415-24517-3}}

* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/nonviolentresist00gand|title=Non-ViolentThus ResistanceSpake (Satyagraha)Lord Mahavir|last=GandhiJain|first=M.K.Dulichand|publisher=SchockenSri BooksRamakrishna Math|year=19611998|locationisbn=New York81-7120-825-8|author-linkseries=Mahatma Gandhi|url-accesslocation=registrationChennai}}

* {{Cite bookCitation|title=ThusHinduism: SpakePast Lordand MahavirPresent|last=JainMichaels|first=DulichandAxel|publisher=SriPrinceton RamakrishnaUniversity MathPress|year=19982004|isbn=810-7120691-82508953-8|series=1|location=Chennai|author-link=New York}}

* {{Cite book|titleurl=Hinduismhttps://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2|title=Indian PastPhilosophy, andVolume Present1|last=MichaelsRadhakrishnan |first=AxelS.|publisher=PrincetonGeorge UniversityAllen Pressand Unwin Ltd.|year=20041929|isbnedition=0-691-08953-12nd|locationseries=NewMuirhead library of Yorkphilosophy|location=London|author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan}}

* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2sourcebookinindi00radh|title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Volume 1|last=Radhakrishnan|first=S.|publisherlast2=GeorgeMoore, AllenCA and|publisher=Princeton Unwin Ltd.|year=19291967|editionisbn=2nd0-691-01958-4|series=Muirhead library of philosophy|location=London|author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan}}

* {{Cite book|title=Ten theories of human nature|url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh|title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophytentheoriesofhum0000stev|last=RadhakrishnanStevenson|first=S.Leslie|last2publisher=Moore,Oxford CA|publisher=PrincetonUniversity Press|year=19672004|isbn=0-691-01958-4|series=|location=|author-linkedition=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan4}}

* {{Cite book|title=Ten theoriesEssentials of humanIndian naturePhilosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofindi0000hiri_h2s9|last=StevensonHiriyanna|first=LeslieM.|publisher=OxfordMotilal University PressBanarsidas|year=20041995|isbn=|series=|location=|author978-81-208-link=1304-5}} 4th edition.

* [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-1/index.html Sejarah Filsafat India | Ebook HTML (vol. 1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516112626/http://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-1/index.html |date=2016-05-16 }} | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-2/index.html (vol. 2)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620150318/http://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-2/index.html |date=2016-06-20 }} | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-3/index.html (vol. 3)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402184545/http://wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-3/index.html |date=2016-04-02 }} | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-4/index.html (vol. 4)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305185427/http://wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-4/index.html |date=2016-03-05 }} | [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-5/index.html (vol. 5)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511061532/http://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-5/index.html |date=2016-05-11 }} oleh Surendranath Dasgupta

* Panduan bacaan yang direkomendasikan dari jurusan filsafat [[Universitas Kolese London|University College, London]] : [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Indian.pdf London Study Guide of Philosophy Study - Indian Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723102517/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Indian.pdf |date=2021-07-23 }}

* Artikel di [https://www.iep.utm.edu/category/traditions/indian/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530141027/https://iep.utm.edu/category/traditions/indian/ |date=2023-05-30 }}

* [http://ipi.org.in Indian Psychology Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705190242/https://ipi.org.in/ |date=2023-07-05 }} Penerapan Filsafatfilsafat India untuk masalah kontemporer dalam Psikologi

* [[iarchive:Radhakrishnan-History.of.Philosophy-Eastern.and.Western-Volume.1-2|Sejarah Filsafat - Diedit Timur dan Barat diedit oleh Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volume)]] di [[Internet Archive|archive.org]]

* [http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html ''Ensiklopedia'' Proyek ''Filsafat India''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201160007/https://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |date=2022-02-01 }} (Karl Harrington Potter)