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[[Berkas:Pedro de Alvarado (Tomás Povedano).jpegjpg|thumbjmpl|rightka|Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado memimpin upaya penaklukan Guatemala.<ref name="Lovell05p58">Lovell 2005, hal. 58.</ref>.]]
'''Penaklukan SpanyolGuatemala dioleh GuatemalaSpanyol''' adalah konflik panjang yang berlangsung selama upaya [[kolonisasi Spanyol di Amerika]]. Dalam konflik ini, penjajah Spanyol berusaha menguasai wilayah yang kini merupakan bagian dari [[Guatemala]]. Sebelum penaklukan, wilayah ini terdiri dari sejumlah kerajaan [[Mesoamerika]] yang saling beseteru, dan sebagian besar negara tersebut merupakan negara [[bangsa Maya|Maya]]. Banyak [[conquistador]] yang merasa bahwa bangsa Maya adalah "kafir" yang harus dipaksa menjadi Katolik dan didamaikan tanpa memedulikan pencapaian [[peradaban Maya]].<ref name="Jones00p356">Jones 2000, hal. 356.</ref> Kontak pertama antara bangsa Maya dengan penjelajah Eropa berlangsung pada awal abad ke-16 ketika kapal Spanyol yang berlayar dari [[Panama]] ke [[Hispaniola|Santo Domingo]] karam di pesisir timur [[Semenanjung Yucatán]] pada tahun 1511.<ref name="Jones00p356" /> Ekspedisi Spanyol kemudian dilancarkan pada tahun 1517 dan 1519 di berbagai wilayah di pesisir Yucatán.<ref>Jones 2000, hal. 356–358.</ref> Upaya Spanyol untuk menaklukanmenaklukkan bangsa Maya berlangsung lama karena kerajaan-kerajaan Maya melawan upaya [[Imperium Spanyol]] sehingga Spanyol memerlukan waktu hingga dua abad untuk menguasai mereka.<ref>Sharer and Traxler 2006, hal. 8, 757.</ref>
[[Pedro de Alvarado]] tiba di Guatemala pada awal tahun 1524 dan membawa tentara gabungan Spanyol dan penduduk asli (yang sebagian besar berasal dari [[Tlaxcala (negara Nahua)|Tlaxcala]] dan [[Cholula (situs Mesoamerika)|Cholula]]. Beberapa kenampakan geografis di Guatemala kini memiliki nama [[Nahuatl]] karena pengaruh penduduk asli yang menjadi sekutu Spanyol yang menerjemahkannya untuk bangsa Spanyol.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p764">Sharer and Traxler 2006, hal. 764.</ref> [[Suku Kaqchikel|Suku Maya Kaqchikel]] awalnya bersekutu dengan bangsa Spanyol, namun segera memberontak karena permintaan upeti yang berlebihan; mereka baru menyerah pada tahun 1530. Sementara itu, kerajaan-kerajaan Maya lain di dataran tinggi telah dikalahkan oleh bangsa Spanyol dan sekutu penduduk aslinya. [[Suku Itza|Suku Maya Itza]] dan kelompok Maya lainnya di [[Cekungan Petén]] pertama kali berhubungan dengan [[Hernán Cortés]] pada tahun 1525, namun tetap merdeka dan bermusuhan dengan bangsa Spanyol hingga tahun 1697, ketika serangan Spanyol yang dipimpin oleh [[Martín de Ursúa|Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi]] akhirnya berhasil menundukkan kerajaan Maya terakhir.
Taktik dan teknologi Spanyol dengan penduduk asli sangat berbeda. Spanyol merasa bahwa tawanan hanya menghambat kemenangan, sementara bangsa Maya mengutamakan tawanan dan barang rampasan. Penduduk asli Guatemala tidak memiliki teknologi dari [[Dunia Lama]] seperti roda, kuda, besi, dan [[mesiu]]; mereka juga rentan terhadap penyakit-penyakit dari Dunia Lama. Suku Maya lebih suka menyergap daripada terlibat dalam peperangan berskala besar, dan untuk itu mereka menggunakan tombak, panah, dan pedang; [[suku Xinca]] di selatan menggunakan racun di panahnya. Untuk melawan [[kavaleri]] Spanyol, suku Maya di dataran tinggi menggali lubang.
== Guatemala sebelum penaklukan ==
[[Berkas:Guatemala Topography.png|thumbjmpl|rightka|Peta Guatemala.]]
Pada awal abad ke-16, wilayah yang kini merupakan bagian dari Guatemala dikuasi oleh beberapa politi yang saling berseturuberseteru.<ref>Polo Sifontes 1986, hal. 14.</ref> Politi yang paling penting adalah [[Suku K'iche'|K'iche']], Kaqchikel, Tz'utujil, [[Chajoma]],<ref>Hill 1998, hal. 229, 233.</ref> [[suku Mam|Mam]], [[suku Poqomam|Poqomam]], dan [[suku Pipil|Pipil]].<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p6">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 6.</ref> Kelompok-kelompok ini adalah kelompok Maya, kecuali Pipil yang merupakan kelompok [[Nahua]]. Kelompok Pipil memiliki sejumlah [[Negara kota|negara-kota]] di sepanjang pesisir Pasifik di Guatemala selatan dan [[El Salvador]]<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p25">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 25.</ref> dan beribukotaberibu kota di Itzcuintepec.<ref>Polo Sifontes 1981, hal. 123.</ref> [[Suku Xinca|Xinca]] adalah kelompok non-Maya lainnya yang menguasai wilayah pesisir Pasifik tenggara.<ref>Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 26. Jiménez 2006, hal. 1. n. 1.</ref> Bangsa Maya tidak pernah disatukan, namun pada saat bangsa Spanyol datang peradaban Maya telah berusia ribuan tahun dan [[kota Maya|kota-kota besar]] sebelumnya telah bangkit dan runtuh.<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p4">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 4.</ref>
Menjelang penaklukan, [[dataran tinggi Guatemala]] dikuasai oleh beberapa negara Maya yang kuat.<ref>Sharer and Traxler 2006, hal. 717.</ref> Berabad-abad sebelum kedatangan bangsa Spanyol, K'iche' telah mendirikan imperium kecil yang meliputi sebagian besar dataran tinggi Guatemala barat dan pesisir Pasifik di sebelahnya. Namun, pada abad ke-15, Kaqchikel memberontak melawan mantan sekutu K'iche' mereka dan mendirikan kerajaan baru di tenggara dengan [[Iximche]] sebagai ibukotanyaibu kotanya. Beberapa dasawarsa sebelum invasi Spanyol, kerajaan Kaqchikel perlahan-lahan memperkecil wilayah K'iche'.<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p5">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 5.</ref> Kelompok lain di dataran tinggi meliputi Tz'utujil di sekitar [[Danau Atitlán]], Mam di dataran tinggi barat, dan Poqomam di dataran tinggi timur.<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p6" />
Kerajaan Itza adalah politi terkuat di dataran rendah Petén di Guatemala utara.<ref name="Rice09p17">Rice 2009, hal. 17.</ref> IbukotaIbu kota mereka terletak di [[Nojpetén]], di sebuah pulau di [[Danau Petén Itzá]]. Politi terpenting kedua adalah musuh mereka, [[Ko'woj|Kowoj]]. Kowoj tinggal di sebelah timur Itza, di sekitar danau-danau timur: Danau Salpetén, Danau Macanché, [[Danau Yaxhá]], dan Danau Sacnab.<ref>Rice and Rice 2009, pphal. 10-11. Rice 2009, hal. 17.</ref> Kelompok lain tidak banyak dikenal dan luas wilayah mereka serta konfigurasi politiknya masih belum jelas; beberapa di antara mereka adalah Chinamita, [[Kejache]], Icaiche, [[Lakandon Ch'ol]], [[Suku Mopan|Mopan]], Manche [[Suku Ch'ol|Ch'ol]], dan [[Yalain]].<ref>Rice 2009, phal. 17. Feldman 2000, p. xxi.</ref> Kejache menduduki wilayah di sebelah utara danau, sementara Mopan dan Chinamita tinggal di Petén tenggara.<ref>Rice 2009, phal. 19.</ref> Wilayah Manche terletak di sebelah barat daya Mopan.<ref>Feldman 2000, phal. xxi.</ref> Wilayah Yalain terletak tepat di sebelah timur Danau Petén Itzá.<ref>Rice and Rice 2009, hal. 8, 11–12.</ref>
== Pengaruh penyakit dari Dunia Lama ==
Epidemi yang secara tidak sengaja dibawa oleh bangsa Spanyol adalah [[variola]], [[campak]], dan [[influenza]]. Penyakit tersebut, ditambah dengan [[tifus]] dan [[demam kuning]], sangat berdampak pada penduduk Maya.<ref>Jones 2000, hal. 363.</ref> Penduduk asli di [[Dunia Baru]] tidak memiliki resistensi terhadap penyakit-penyakit tersebut. Akibatnya, penyakit tersebut menewaskan banyak tentara dan penduduk tanpa perlu terjadi pertempuran.<ref>Sharer and Traxler 2006, hal. 762–763.</ref> Kedatangan penyakit-penyakit tersebut merupakan bencana bagi penduduk asli Amerika; diperkirakan 90% penduduk asli Amerika tewas akibat penyakit dalam satu abad setelah kontak dengan bangsa Eropa.<ref name="Coe99p231">Coe 1999, hal. 231.</ref>
Pada tahun 1519 dan 1520, sebelum kedatangan bangsa Spanyol, epidemi menyebar ke Guatemala selatan.<ref>Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 3.</ref> Pada saat Spanyol sedang sibuk berperang melawan [[Aztek]], wabah menyebar ke ibu kota Kaqchikel di Iximche, sementara ibu kota K'iche' di [[Q'umarkaj]] mungkin juga mengalami nasib yang sama.<ref>Carmack 2001b, hal. 172.</ref> Kemungkinan wabah yang sama menyebar ke seluruh Dataran Tinggi Guatemala.<ref>Lovell 2005, hal. 70.</ref> Menurut pemahaman modern, diperkirakan 33-50% penduduk dataran tinggi tewas karena tidak memiliki resistensi. Jumlah penduduk di dataran tinggi Guatemala tetap berada di bawah jumlah penduduk sebelum penaklukan hingga pertengahan abad ke-20.<ref name="Lovel05p71">Lovell 2005, hal. 71.</ref> Pada tahun 1666, [[tifus murine]] menyebar di departemen Huehuetenango. Variola juga dilaporkan menyebar di San Pedro Saloma pada tahun 1795.<ref name="Hinz0810p37">Hinz 2008, 2010, hal. 37.</ref> Setelah Nojpetén jatuh ke tangan bangsa Spanyol pada tahun 1697, diperkirakan terdapat sekitar 60.000 orang Maya yang tinggal di sekitar Danau Petén Itzá, termasuk pengungsi-pengungsi dari wilayah lain. Namun, 88% antara mereka tewas setelah sepuluh tahun dijajah akibat penyakit dan perang.<ref>Jones 2000, hal. 364.</ref>
== Catatan kaki ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Daftar pustaka ==
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
<!--BEGIN biblio format. If indent param. is used, Pls use a colon (:) instead of asterisk (*) for bullet markers in the references list -->
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:{{cite map|publisher={{aut|ITMB Publishing Ltd.}} |title=Guatemala |edition=3rd |year=1998 |scale=1:500000 |series=International Travel Maps |isbn=0-921463-64-2 |oclc=421536238 }}
:{{cite web |title=Qnaab'ila b'ix Qna'b'ila, Our thoughts and our feelings: Maya-Mam women's struggles in San Ildefonso Ixtahuacán |author={{aut|Jiménez, Ajb'ee}} |year=2006 |publisher=[[University of Texas at Austin]] |format=PDF |url=http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/etext/llilas/claspo/fieldreports/jimenez06.pdf |accessdate=2011-09-04 }}
:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Jones, Grant D.}} |year=1981 |coauthors={{aut|Don S. Rice}} and {{aut|Prudence M. Rice}} |title=The Location of Tayasal: A Reconsideration in Light of Peten Maya Ethnohistory and Archaeology |journal=American Antiquity |publisher=[[Society for American Archaeology]] |volume=46 |issue=6 |month=July |location=Washington, D.C., USA |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/280599 |format=[[PDF]] |accessdate=2012-12-02 |issn=0002-7316 |oclc=482285289 |jstor=280599 }} {{subscription required}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Jones, Grant D.}} |year=2000 |chapter=The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present |editor=Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) |title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, {{nowrap|Vol. II}}: Mesoamerica, {{nowrap|part 2}} |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=346–391|isbn=0-521-65204-9 |oclc=33359444}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Jones, Grant D.}} |year=2009 |chapter=The Kowoj in Ethnohistorical Perspective |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse|location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=55–69[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse/page/55 55]–69|isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268}}
:{{cite web |author={{aut|Josserand, J. Kathryn}} |coauthors=and {{aut|Nicholas A. Hopkins}} |year=2001 |format=PDF |title=Chol Ritual Language |url=http://www.famsi.org/reports/94017/94017Josserand01.pdf |publisher=FAMSI (Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies) |location=Los Angeles, California, US |accessdate=2012-01-30 }}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lara Figueroa, Celso A.}} |year=2000 |chapter=Introducción |edition=3rd |title=Recordación Florida: Primera Parte: Libros Primero y Segundo |publisher=Editorial Artemis-Edinter |series=Ayer y Hoy |location=Guatemala |isbn=84-89452-66-0 |oclc=}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lehmann, Henri}} |others={{aut|Andrew McIntyre}} and {{aut|Edwin Kuh}} |year=1968 |title=Guide to the Ruins of Mixco Viejo|publisher=[[Piedra Santa]] |location=Guatemala |oclc=716195862}}
:{{cite book |chapter=Las tierras comunales xincas de Guatemala |title=Tierra, identidad y conflicto en Guatemala |author={{aut|Letona Zuleta, José Vinicio}} |coauthors={{aut|Carlos Camacho Nassar}} and {{aut|Juan Antonio Fernández Gamarro}} |editor=Carlos Camacho Nassar |publisher=Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales (FLACSO); Misión de Verificación de las Naciones Unidas en Guatemala ([[MINUGUA]]); Dependencia Presidencial de Asistencia Legal y Resolución de Conflictos sobre la Tierra (CONTIERRA) |location=Guatemala |oclc=54679387 |isbn=978-99922-66-84-7}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite web |author={{aut|Limón Aguirre, Fernando}} |year=2008 |title=La ciudadanía del pueblo chuj en México: Una dialéctica negativa de identidades |publisher=El Colegio de la Frontera Sur – Unidad San Cristóbal de Las Casas |location=San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Mexico |url=http://www.ciesas.edu.mx/proyectos/relaju/cd_relaju/Ponencias/Mesa%20Valladares-Castro/LimonAguirreFernando.pdf |accessdate=2011-09-15 |archive-date=2012-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402122802/http://www.ciesas.edu.mx/proyectos/relaju/cd_relaju/Ponencias/Mesa%20Valladares-Castro/LimonAguirreFernando.pdf |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}
:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |coauthors={{aut|Christopher H. Lutz}} and {{aut|William R. Swezey}} |title=The Indian Population of Southern Guatemala, 1549-1551: An Analysis of López de Cerrato's Tasaciones de Tributos |journal=The Americas |volume=40 |issue=4 |month=April |year=1984 |pages=459–477 |publisher=Academy of American Franciscan History |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/980856 |accessdate=2012-11-07 |jstor=980856 }} {{subscription required}}
:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |year=1988 |journal=Latin American Research Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=25–57 |publisher=The Latin American Studies Association |title=Surviving Conquest: The Maya of Guatemala in Historical Perspective |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/maya/maya.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |accessdate=2012-09-27 |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania }}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |year=2000 |chapter=The Highland Maya |editor=Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) |title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, {{nowrap|Vol. II}}: Mesoamerica, {{nowrap|part 2}} |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=392–444|isbn=0-521-65204-9 |oclc=33359444}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |year=2005 |title=Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |location=Montreal, Canada |edition=3rd |isbn=0-7735-2741-9 |oclc=58051691 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=05wSqQiu52MC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lutz, Christopher H.}} |year=1997 |title=Santiago de Guatemala, 1541–1773: City, Caste, and the Colonial Experience |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |isbn=0-8061-2597-7 |oclc= 29548140}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Matthew, Laura E.}} |year=2012 |title=Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA |isbn=978-0-8078-3537-1 |oclc=752286995 |format=hardback |series=First Peoples |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RVAFbknbo_EC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |format=hardback}}
:{{cite web |author={{aut|Mendoza Asencio, Hilda Johanna}} |year=2011 |url=http://biblioteca.usac.edu.gt/EPS/07/07_1606.pdf |title=Módulo pedagógico para desarrollo turístico dirigido a docentes y estudiantes del Instituto Mixto de Educación Básica por Cooperativa de Enseñanza, Pasaco, Jutiapa |accessdate=2012-09-24 |publisher=Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Facultad de Humanidades |format=[[PDF]] |archive-date=2013-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531135838/http://biblioteca.usac.edu.gt/EPS/07/07_1606.pdf |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book|author=MINEDUC |year=2001 |title=Historia y Memorias de la Comunidad Étnica Chuj |volume=II |edition=Versión escolar|editor=Eleuterio Cahuec del Valle |location=Guatemala |publisher=[[Universidad Rafael Landívar]]/[[UNICEF]]/FODIGUA |oclc=741355513}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite web |year=2011 |author={{aut|Municipalidad de San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán}} |title=Historia del Municipio |url=http://www.sancristobalacasaguastlan.gob.gt/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=82 |publisher=Municipalidad de San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán |accessdate=2012-09-24 |archive-date=2014-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103210651/http://www.sancristobalacasaguastlan.gob.gt/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=82 |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}
:{{cite web |author={{aut|Ortiz Flores, Walter Agustin}} |year=2008 |title=Segundo Asiento Oficial de la Ciudad según Acta |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110714085615/http://www.miciudadvieja.com/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1&Itemid=2 |accessdate=2011-10-25 |publisher=www.miciudadvieja.com |location=Ciudad Vieja Sacatepéquez, Guatemala |archive-date=2011-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714085615/http://www.miciudadvieja.com/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1&Itemid=2 |dead-url=unfit }} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book|author={{aut|Phillips, Charles}} |title=The Complete Illustrated History of the Aztecs & Maya: The definitive chronicle of the ancient peoples of Central America & Mexico – including the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Mixtec, Toltec & Zapotec |year=2006, 2007 |publisher=Anness Publishing Ltd |location=London, UK |isbn=1-84681-197-X |oclc=642211652}}
:{{cite journal|author={{aut|Polo Sifontes, Francis}} |year=1981 |title=Título de Alotenango, 1565: Clave para ubicar geograficamente la antigua Itzcuintepec pipil |pages=109–129 |journal=Antropología e Historia de Guatemala |editor=Francis Polo Sifontes and Celso A. Lara Figueroa |volume=3, II Epoca |publisher=Dirección General de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala, Ministerio de Educación |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala |oclc=605015816}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Polo Sifontes, Francis}} |year=1986 |title=Los Cakchiqueles en la Conquista de Guatemala |publisher=CENALTEX |location=Guatemala |oclc=82712257}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Pons Sáez, Nuria}} |year=1997 |title=La Conquista del Lacandón |publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico|Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]] |location=Mexico |isbn=968-36-6150-5 |oclc=40857165}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Putzeys, Ivonne}} |coauthors=and {{aut|Sheila Flores}} |year=2007 |title=Excavaciones arqueológicas en la Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad de Chiquimula de la Sierra: Rescate del nombre y el prestigio de una iglesia olvidada |journal=XX Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2006 (edited by J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo and H. Mejía) |pages=1473–1490 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala |format=PDF |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/90_-_Yvonne_y_Sheila.pdf |accessdate=2012-01-24 |archive-date=2011-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914123003/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/90_-_Yvonne_y_Sheila.pdf |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Recinos, Adrian}} |authorlink=Adrián Recinos |year=1952, 1986 |title=Pedro de Alvarado: Conquistador de México y Guatemala |edition=2nd |location=Guatemala |publisher=CENALTEX Centro Nacional de Libros de Texto y Material Didáctico "José de Pineda Ibarra" |oclc=243309954}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Recinos, Adrian}} |year=1998 |title=Memorial de Solalá, Anales de los Kaqchikeles; Título de los Señores de Totonicapán |publisher=Piedra Santa |location=Guatemala|isbn=84-8377-006-7 |oclc=25476196}} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Restall, Matthew}} |authorlink=Matthew Restall |coauthors=and {{aut|Florine Asselbergs}} |year=2007 |title=Invading Guatemala: Spanish, Nahua, and Maya Accounts of the Conquest Wars |publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]] |location=University Park, Pennsylvania, US |isbn=978-0-271-02758-6 |oclc=165478850}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Rice, Prudence M.}} |year=2009 |chapter=Who were the Kowoj? |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse|location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=17–19[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse/page/17 17]–19|isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Rice, Prudence M.}} |coauthors=and {{aut|Don S. Rice}} |year=2009 |chapter=Introduction to the Kowoj and their Petén Neighbors |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse|location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=3–15[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse/page/3 3]–15|isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Rice, Prudence M.}} |coauthors={{aut|Don S. Rice}}, {{aut|Timothy W. Pugh}} and {{aut|Rómulo Sánchez Polo}} |year=2009 |chapter=Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpetén |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse|location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=123–140[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse/page/123 123]–140|isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Salazar, Gabriel}} |year=1620, 2000 |title=Lost Shores, Forgotten Peoples: Spanish Explorations of the South East Maya Lowlands |url=https://archive.org/details/lostshoresforgot0000unse_k0e8|chapter=Geography of the Lowlands: Gabriel Salazar, 1620 |pages=21–54[https://archive.org/details/lostshoresforgot0000unse_k0e8/page/n48 21]–54|editor=Lawrence H. Feldman |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |location=Durham, North Carolina, US |isbn=0-8223-2624-8 |oclc=254438823}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Schele, Linda}} |authorlink=Linda Schele |coauthors=and {{aut|Peter Mathews}} |year=1999 |title=The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs |url=https://archive.org/details/codeofkingslangu00lind|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |location=New York, US |isbn=978-0-684-85209-6 |oclc=41423034}}
:{{cite web |author={{aut|SEGEPLAN}} |year=2010 |url=http://www.segeplan.gob.gt/2.0/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&task=download&id=103 |format=[[PDF]] |accessdate=2012-09-26 |title=Plan de Desarrollo San Agustín Acasaguastlán El Progreso 2011-2025 |publisher=SEGEPLAN |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala }} {{es icon}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Sharer, Robert J.}} |authorlink=Robert Sharer|coauthors=with {{aut|Loa P. Traxler}} |year=2006 |title=The Ancient Maya |edition=6th |location=Stanford, California, US |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=0-8047-4817-9 |oclc=57577446}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Smith, Carol A.}} |year=1997 |chapter=Race/Class/Gender Ideology in Guatemala: Modern and Anti-Modern Forms |title=Women Out of Place: The Gender of Agency, the Race of Nationality |editor=Brackette Williams |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, US and London, UK |pages=50–78 |isbn=0-415-91496-5 |oclc=60185223}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Smith, Michael E.}} |title=The Aztecs |edition=2nd |year=1996, 2003 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Malden, Massachusetts, US and Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-631-23016-8 |oclc=59452395}}
:{{cite journal |title=Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Reports on the Chol Mayas | author={{aut|Thompson, J. Eric S.}} |journal=American Anthropologist |date=October-December 1938 |volume=40 |issue=4 (Part 1) |series=New Series |pages=584-604 |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/661615 |jstor=661615 |publisher=Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association |accessdate=22/10/2013 }} {{subscription required}}
:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Veblen, Thomas T.}} |title=Native Population Decline in Totonicapan, Guatemala |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=67 |issue=4 |month=December |year=1977 |pages=484–499 |accessdate=2012-09-27 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2562478 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]], on behalf of the [[Association of American Geographers]] |location= }} {{subscription required}}
:{{cite book|author={{aut|Wagner, Henry Raup}}|coauthor=and {{aut|Helen Rand Parish}}|title=The Life and Writings of Bartolomé de Las Casas|publisher=[[University of New Mexico Press]]|year=1967|oclc=427169}}
:{{cite book |author={{aut|Webster, David L.}} |year=2002 |title=The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse |url=https://archive.org/details/fallofancientmay0000webs|location=London, UK |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |isbn=0-500-05113-5 |oclc=48753878}}
{{refend}}<!-- END biblio format style -->
:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Kramer, Wendy}} |coauthors={{aut|W. George Lovell}} and {{aut|Christopher H. Lutz}} |year=1990 |title=Encomienda and Settlement: Towards a Historical Geography of Early Colonial Guatemala |journal=Yearbook. Conference of Latin American Geographers |volume=16 |pages=67–72 |publisher=University of Texas Press |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25765724 |jstor=25765724 |issn=1054-3074 |oclc=4897324685 |location=Austin, Texas, USA |accessdate=2013-03-24}} {{subscription required}}
{{refend}}<!-- END biblio format style -->
{{Topik Guatemala}}
[[Kategori:Sejarah Guatemala]]
[[Kategori:Sejarah Mesoamerika]]
[[Kategori:Penaklukan SpanyolAmerika dioleh AmerikaSpanyol|Guatemala]]
[[Kategori:Perang yang melibatkan Spanyol]]
[[Kategori:Sejarah peradaban Maya]]
{{Link FA|en}}
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