Penaklukan Guatemala oleh Spanyol: Perbedaan antara revisi

[[Berkas:Pedro de Alvarado (Tomás Povedano).jpegjpg|thumbjmpl|rightka|Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado memimpin upaya penaklukan Guatemala.<ref name="Lovell05p58">Lovell 2005, hal. 58.</ref>]]

'''Penaklukan SpanyolGuatemala dioleh GuatemalaSpanyol''' adalah konflik panjang yang berlangsung selama upaya [[kolonisasi Spanyol di Amerika]]. Dalam konflik ini, penjajah Spanyol berusaha menguasai wilayah yang kini merupakan bagian dari [[Guatemala]]. Sebelum penaklukan, wilayah ini terdiri dari sejumlah kerajaan [[Mesoamerika]] yang saling beseteru, dan sebagian besar negara tersebut merupakan negara [[bangsa Maya|Maya]]. Banyak [[conquistador]] yang merasa bahwa bangsa Maya adalah "kafir" yang harus dipaksa menjadi Katolik dan didamaikan tanpa memedulikan pencapaian [[peradaban Maya]].<ref name="Jones00p356">Jones 2000, hal. 356.</ref> Kontak pertama antara bangsa Maya dengan penjelajah Eropa berlangsung pada awal abad ke-16 ketika kapal Spanyol yang berlayar dari [[Panama]] ke [[Hispaniola|Santo Domingo]] karam di pesisir timur [[Semenanjung Yucatán]] pada tahun 1511.<ref name="Jones00p356" /> Ekspedisi Spanyol kemudian dilancarkan pada tahun 1517 dan 1519 di berbagai wilayah di pesisir Yucatán.<ref>Jones 2000, hal. 356–358.</ref> Upaya Spanyol untuk menaklukanmenaklukkan bangsa Maya berlangsung lama karena kerajaan-kerajaan Maya melawan upaya [[Imperium Spanyol]] sehingga Spanyol memerlukan waktu hingga dua abad untuk menguasai mereka.<ref>Sharer and Traxler 2006, hal. 8, 757.</ref>

[[Berkas:Guatemala Topography.png|thumbjmpl|rightka|Peta Guatemala.]]

Pada awal abad ke-16, wilayah yang kini merupakan bagian dari Guatemala dikuasi oleh beberapa politi yang saling berseturuberseteru.<ref>Polo Sifontes 1986, hal. 14.</ref> Politi yang paling penting adalah [[Suku K'iche'|K'iche']], Kaqchikel, Tz'utujil, [[Chajoma]],<ref>Hill 1998, hal. 229, 233.</ref> [[suku Mam|Mam]], [[suku Poqomam|Poqomam]], dan [[suku Pipil|Pipil]].<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p6">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 6.</ref> Kelompok-kelompok ini adalah kelompok Maya, kecuali Pipil yang merupakan kelompok [[Nahua]]. Kelompok Pipil memiliki sejumlah [[Negara kota|negara-kota]] di sepanjang pesisir Pasifik di Guatemala selatan dan [[El Salvador]]<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p25">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 25.</ref> dan beribukotaberibu kota di Itzcuintepec.<ref>Polo Sifontes 1981, hal. 123.</ref> [[Suku Xinca|Xinca]] adalah kelompok non-Maya lainnya yang menguasai wilayah pesisir Pasifik tenggara.<ref>Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 26. Jiménez 2006, hal. 1. n. 1.</ref> Bangsa Maya tidak pernah disatukan, namun pada saat bangsa Spanyol datang peradaban Maya telah berusia ribuan tahun dan [[kota Maya|kota-kota besar]] sebelumnya telah bangkit dan runtuh.<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p4">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 4.</ref>

Menjelang penaklukan, [[dataran tinggi Guatemala]] dikuasai oleh beberapa negara Maya yang kuat.<ref>Sharer and Traxler 2006, hal. 717.</ref> Berabad-abad sebelum kedatangan bangsa Spanyol, K'iche' telah mendirikan imperium kecil yang meliputi sebagian besar dataran tinggi Guatemala barat dan pesisir Pasifik di sebelahnya. Namun, pada abad ke-15, Kaqchikel memberontak melawan mantan sekutu K'iche' mereka dan mendirikan kerajaan baru di tenggara dengan [[Iximche]] sebagai ibukotanyaibu kotanya. Beberapa dasawarsa sebelum invasi Spanyol, kerajaan Kaqchikel perlahan-lahan memperkecil wilayah K'iche'.<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p5">Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 5.</ref> Kelompok lain di dataran tinggi meliputi Tz'utujil di sekitar [[Danau Atitlán]], Mam di dataran tinggi barat, dan Poqomam di dataran tinggi timur.<ref name="RestallAsselbergs07p6" />

Kerajaan Itza adalah politi terkuat di dataran rendah Petén di Guatemala utara.<ref name="Rice09p17">Rice 2009, hal. 17.</ref> IbukotaIbu kota mereka terletak di [[Nojpetén]], di sebuah pulau di [[Danau Petén Itzá]]. Politi terpenting kedua adalah musuh mereka, [[Ko'woj|Kowoj]]. Kowoj tinggal di sebelah timur Itza, di sekitar danau-danau timur: Danau Salpetén, Danau Macanché, [[Danau Yaxhá]], dan Danau Sacnab.<ref>Rice and Rice 2009, hal. 10-11. Rice 2009, hal. 17.</ref> Kelompok lain tidak banyak dikenal dan luas wilayah mereka serta konfigurasi politiknya masih belum jelas; beberapa di antara mereka adalah Chinamita, [[Kejache]], Icaiche, [[Lakandon Ch'ol]], [[Suku Mopan|Mopan]], Manche [[Suku Ch'ol|Ch'ol]], dan [[Yalain]].<ref>Rice 2009, hal. 17. Feldman 2000, p. xxi.</ref> Kejache menduduki wilayah di sebelah utara danau, sementara Mopan dan Chinamita tinggal di Petén tenggara.<ref>Rice 2009, hal. 19.</ref> Wilayah Manche terletak di sebelah barat daya Mopan.<ref>Feldman 2000, hal. xxi.</ref> Wilayah Yalain terletak tepat di sebelah timur Danau Petén Itzá.<ref>Rice and Rice 2009, hal. 8, 11–12.</ref>

Pada tahun 1519 dan 1520, sebelum kedatangan bangsa Spanyol, epidemi menyebar ke Guatemala selatan.<ref>Restall and Asselbergs 2007, hal. 3.</ref> Pada saat Spanyol sedang sibuk berperang melawan [[Aztek]], wabah menyebar ke ibukotaibu kota Kaqchikel di Iximche, sementara ibukotaibu kota K'iche' di [[Q'umarkaj]] mungkin juga mengalami nasib yang sama.<ref>Carmack 2001b, hal. 172.</ref> Kemungkinan wabah yang sama menyebar ke seluruh Dataran Tinggi Guatemala.<ref>Lovell 2005, hal. 70.</ref> Menurut pemahaman modern, diperkirakan 33-50% penduduk dataran tinggi tewas karena tidak memiliki resistensi. Jumlah penduduk di dataran tinggi Guatemala tetap berada di bawah jumlah penduduk sebelum penaklukan hingga pertengahan abad ke-20.<ref name="Lovel05p71">Lovell 2005, hal. 71.</ref> Pada tahun 1666, [[tifus murine]] menyebar di departemen Huehuetenango. Variola juga dilaporkan menyebar di San Pedro Saloma pada tahun 1795.<ref name="Hinz0810p37">Hinz 2008, 2010, hal. 37.</ref> Setelah Nojpetén jatuh ke tangan bangsa Spanyol pada tahun 1697, diperkirakan terdapat sekitar 60.000 orang Maya yang tinggal di sekitar Danau Petén Itzá, termasuk pengungsi-pengungsi dari wilayah lain. Namun, 88% antara mereka tewas setelah sepuluh tahun dijajah akibat penyakit dan perang.<ref>Jones 2000, hal. 364.</ref>

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:{{cite web |author={{aut|Limón Aguirre, Fernando}} |year=2008 |title=La ciudadanía del pueblo chuj en México: Una dialéctica negativa de identidades |publisher=El Colegio de la Frontera Sur&nbsp;– Unidad San Cristóbal de Las Casas |location=San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Mexico |url=http://www.ciesas.edu.mx/proyectos/relaju/cd_relaju/Ponencias/Mesa%20Valladares-Castro/LimonAguirreFernando.pdf |accessdate=2011-09-15 |archive-date=2012-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402122802/http://www.ciesas.edu.mx/proyectos/relaju/cd_relaju/Ponencias/Mesa%20Valladares-Castro/LimonAguirreFernando.pdf |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}

:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |coauthors={{aut|Christopher H. Lutz}} and {{aut|William R. Swezey}} |title=The Indian Population of Southern Guatemala, 1549-1551: An Analysis of López de Cerrato's Tasaciones de Tributos |journal=The Americas |volume=40 |issue=4 |month=April |year=1984 |pages=459–477 |publisher=Academy of American Franciscan History |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/980856 |accessdate=2012-11-07 |jstor=980856 }} {{subscription required}}

:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |year=1988 |journal=Latin American Research Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=25–57 |publisher=The Latin American Studies Association |title=Surviving Conquest: The Maya of Guatemala in Historical Perspective |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/maya/maya.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |accessdate=2012-09-27 |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania }}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |year=2000 |chapter=The Highland Maya |editor=Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) |title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, {{nowrap|Vol. II}}: Mesoamerica, {{nowrap|part 2}} |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=392–444|isbn=0-521-65204-9 |oclc=33359444}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lovell, W. George}} |year=2005 |title=Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |location=Montreal, Canada |edition=3rd |isbn=0-7735-2741-9 |oclc=58051691 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=05wSqQiu52MC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Lutz, Christopher H.}} |year=1997 |title=Santiago de Guatemala, 1541–1773: City, Caste, and the Colonial Experience |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |isbn=0-8061-2597-7 |oclc= 29548140}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Matthew, Laura E.}} |year=2012 |title=Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA |isbn=978-0-8078-3537-1 |oclc=752286995 |format=hardback |series=First Peoples |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RVAFbknbo_EC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |format=hardback}}

:{{cite web |author={{aut|Mendoza Asencio, Hilda Johanna}} |year=2011 |url=http://biblioteca.usac.edu.gt/EPS/07/07_1606.pdf |title=Módulo pedagógico para desarrollo turístico dirigido a docentes y estudiantes del Instituto Mixto de Educación Básica por Cooperativa de Enseñanza, Pasaco, Jutiapa |accessdate=2012-09-24 |publisher=Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Facultad de Humanidades |format=[[PDF]] |archive-date=2013-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531135838/http://biblioteca.usac.edu.gt/EPS/07/07_1606.pdf |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}

:{{cite book|author=MINEDUC |year=2001 |title=Historia y Memorias de la Comunidad Étnica Chuj |volume=II |edition=Versión escolar|editor=Eleuterio Cahuec del Valle |location=Guatemala |publisher=[[Universidad Rafael Landívar]]/[[UNICEF]]/FODIGUA |oclc=741355513}} {{es icon}}

:{{cite web |year=2011 |author={{aut|Municipalidad de San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán}} |title=Historia del Municipio |url=http://www.sancristobalacasaguastlan.gob.gt/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=82 |publisher=Municipalidad de San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán |accessdate=2012-09-24 |archive-date=2014-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103210651/http://www.sancristobalacasaguastlan.gob.gt/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=82 |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}

:{{cite web |author={{aut|Ortiz Flores, Walter Agustin}} |year=2008 |title=Segundo Asiento Oficial de la Ciudad según Acta |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110714085615/http://www.miciudadvieja.com/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1&Itemid=2 |accessdate=2011-10-25 |publisher=www.miciudadvieja.com |location=Ciudad Vieja Sacatepéquez, Guatemala |archive-date=2011-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714085615/http://www.miciudadvieja.com/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1&Itemid=2 |dead-url=unfit }} {{es icon}}

:{{cite book|author={{aut|Phillips, Charles}} |title=The Complete Illustrated History of the Aztecs & Maya: The definitive chronicle of the ancient peoples of Central America & Mexico&nbsp;– including the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Mixtec, Toltec & Zapotec |year=2006, 2007 |publisher=Anness Publishing Ltd |location=London, UK |isbn=1-84681-197-X |oclc=642211652}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Polo Sifontes, Francis}} |year=1986 |title=Los Cakchiqueles en la Conquista de Guatemala |publisher=CENALTEX |location=Guatemala |oclc=82712257}} {{es icon}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Pons Sáez, Nuria}} |year=1997 |title=La Conquista del Lacandón |publisher=[[National Autonomous University of Mexico|Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]] |location=Mexico |isbn=968-36-6150-5 |oclc=40857165}} {{es icon}}

:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Putzeys, Ivonne}} |coauthors=and {{aut|Sheila Flores}} |year=2007 |title=Excavaciones arqueológicas en la Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad de Chiquimula de la Sierra: Rescate del nombre y el prestigio de una iglesia olvidada |journal=XX Simposio de Arqueología en Guatemala, 2006 (edited by J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo and H. Mejía) |pages=1473–1490 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala |format=PDF |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/90_-_Yvonne_y_Sheila.pdf |accessdate=2012-01-24 |archive-date=2011-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914123003/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/90_-_Yvonne_y_Sheila.pdf |dead-url=yes }} {{es icon}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Recinos, Adrian}} |authorlink=Adrián Recinos |year=1952, 1986 |title=Pedro de Alvarado: Conquistador de México y Guatemala |edition=2nd |location=Guatemala |publisher=CENALTEX Centro Nacional de Libros de Texto y Material Didáctico "José de Pineda Ibarra" |oclc=243309954}} {{es icon}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Recinos, Adrian}} |year=1998 |title=Memorial de Solalá, Anales de los Kaqchikeles; Título de los Señores de Totonicapán |publisher=Piedra Santa |location=Guatemala|isbn=84-8377-006-7 |oclc=25476196}} {{es icon}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Restall, Matthew}} |authorlink=Matthew Restall |coauthors=and {{aut|Florine Asselbergs}} |year=2007 |title=Invading Guatemala: Spanish, Nahua, and Maya Accounts of the Conquest Wars |publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]] |location=University Park, Pennsylvania, US |isbn=978-0-271-02758-6 |oclc=165478850}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Rice, Prudence M.}} |year=2009 |chapter=Who were the Kowoj? |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse|location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=17–19[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse/page/17 17]–19|isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Rice, Prudence M.}} |coauthors=and {{aut|Don S. Rice}} |year=2009 |chapter=Introduction to the Kowoj and their Petén Neighbors |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse|location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=3–15[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse/page/3 3]–15|isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Rice, Prudence M.}} |coauthors={{aut|Don S. Rice}}, {{aut|Timothy W. Pugh}} and {{aut|Rómulo Sánchez Polo}} |year=2009 |chapter=Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpetén |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse|location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=123–140[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig0000unse/page/123 123]–140|isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Salazar, Gabriel}} |year=1620, 2000 |title=Lost Shores, Forgotten Peoples: Spanish Explorations of the South East Maya Lowlands |url=https://archive.org/details/lostshoresforgot0000unse_k0e8|chapter=Geography of the Lowlands: Gabriel Salazar, 1620 |pages=21–54[https://archive.org/details/lostshoresforgot0000unse_k0e8/page/n48 21]–54|editor=Lawrence H. Feldman |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |location=Durham, North Carolina, US |isbn=0-8223-2624-8 |oclc=254438823}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Schele, Linda}} |authorlink=Linda Schele |coauthors=and {{aut|Peter Mathews}} |year=1999 |title=The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs |url=https://archive.org/details/codeofkingslangu00lind|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |location=New York, US |isbn=978-0-684-85209-6 |oclc=41423034}}

:{{cite web |author={{aut|SEGEPLAN}} |year=2010 |url=http://www.segeplan.gob.gt/2.0/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&task=download&id=103 |format=[[PDF]] |accessdate=2012-09-26 |title=Plan de Desarrollo San Agustín Acasaguastlán El Progreso 2011-2025 |publisher=SEGEPLAN |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala }} {{es icon}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Sharer, Robert J.}} |authorlink=Robert Sharer|coauthors=with {{aut|Loa P. Traxler}} |year=2006 |title=The Ancient Maya |edition=6th |location=Stanford, California, US |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=0-8047-4817-9 |oclc=57577446}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Smith, Carol A.}} |year=1997 |chapter=Race/Class/Gender Ideology in Guatemala: Modern and Anti-Modern Forms |title=Women Out of Place: The Gender of Agency, the Race of Nationality |editor=Brackette Williams |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, US and London, UK |pages=50–78 |isbn=0-415-91496-5 |oclc=60185223}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Smith, Michael E.}} |title=The Aztecs |edition=2nd |year=1996, 2003 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Malden, Massachusetts, US and Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-631-23016-8 |oclc=59452395}}

:{{cite journal |title=Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Reports on the Chol Mayas | author={{aut|Thompson, J. Eric S.}} |journal=American Anthropologist |date=October-December 1938 |volume=40 |issue=4 (Part 1) |series=New Series |pages=584-604 |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/661615 |jstor=661615 |publisher=Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association |accessdate=22/10/2013 }} {{subscription required}}

:{{cite journal |author={{aut|Veblen, Thomas T.}} |title=Native Population Decline in Totonicapan, Guatemala |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=67 |issue=4 |month=December |year=1977 |pages=484–499 |accessdate=2012-09-27 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2562478 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]], on behalf of the [[Association of American Geographers]] |location= }} {{subscription required}}

:{{cite book |author={{aut|Webster, David L.}} |year=2002 |title=The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse |url=https://archive.org/details/fallofancientmay0000webs|location=London, UK |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |isbn=0-500-05113-5 |oclc=48753878}}

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