Talmud: Perbedaan antara revisi
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{{Tanpa kutipan|date=Januari 2024}}
{{Jew}}
[[Berkas:Bomberg Talmud.JPG|thumb|Halaman pertama dari [[Talmud Babilonia]], Traktat Berachot, folio 2a]]▼
'''Talmud''' ([[bahasa Ibrani]]: תלמוד) adalah catatan tentang diskusi para [[rabi]] yang berkaitan dengan [[Halakha|hukum Yahudi]], [[etika Yahudi|etika]], kebiasaan dan sejarah. Talmud mempunyai dua komponen: [[Mishnah]], yang merupakan kumpulan Hukum Lisan Yudaisme pertama yang ditulis; dan [[Gemara]], diskusi mengenai Mishnah dan tulisan-tulisan yang terkait dengan [[Tannaim]] yang sering membahas topik-topik lain dan secara luas menguraikan [[Tanakh]]. Istilah ''Talmud'' dan ''Gemara'' seringkali digunakan bergantian. Gemara adalah dasar dari semua aturan dari [[Halakha|hukum rabinik]] dan banyak dikutip dalam [[literatur rabinik]] yang lain. Keseluruhan Talmud biasanya juga dirujuk sebagai '''{{lang-he|ש״ס}}''' ('''Shas'''; baca: Syas), singkatan [[bahasa Ibrani]] untuk ''shishah sedarim'', atau "enam tatanan" Mishnah.▼
▲'''Talmud''' ([[bahasa Ibrani]]: תלמוד) adalah catatan tentang diskusi para [[rabi]] yang berkaitan dengan [[Halakha|hukum Yahudi]], [[etika Yahudi|etika]], kebiasaan dan sejarah. Talmud mempunyai dua komponen: [[Mishnah]], yang merupakan kumpulan Hukum Lisan Yudaisme pertama yang ditulis; dan [[Gemara]], diskusi mengenai Mishnah dan tulisan-tulisan yang terkait dengan [[Tannaim]] yang sering membahas topik-topik lain dan secara luas menguraikan [[Tanakh]]. Istilah ''Talmud'' dan ''Gemara''
== Asal-usul ==▼
Studi keyahudian pada mulanya tidak tertulis (lisan). Para rabbi menguraikan dan memperdebatkan hukum serta membahas [[Perjanjian Lama|Alkitab Ibrani]] tanpa bantuan karya-karya tertulis (selain dari kitab-kitab di dalam Kitab Suci sendiri.) Namun, situasi ini berubah secara drastis terutama sebagai akibat penghancuran komunitas Yahudi pada tahun 70 M, dan pergolakan norma-norma sosial dan hukum Yahudi yang ditimbulkannya. Karena para rabi dituntut menghadapi realitas yang baru—yang utamanya [[Yudaisme]] tanpa [[Bait Suci]] dan [[Yudea]] tanpa otonomi—membanjirlah wacana hukum dan sistem studi oral yang lama tidak dapat lagi dipertahankan. Pada masa inilah wacana rabinik mulai dicatat secara tertulis. ▼
▲Studi keyahudian pada mulanya tidak tertulis (lisan). Para rabbi menguraikan dan memperdebatkan hukum serta membahas [[Perjanjian Lama|Alkitab Ibrani]] tanpa bantuan karya-karya tertulis (selain dari kitab-kitab di dalam Kitab Suci sendiri.) Namun, situasi ini berubah secara drastis terutama sebagai akibat penghancuran komunitas Yahudi pada tahun 70 M, dan pergolakan norma-norma sosial dan hukum Yahudi yang ditimbulkannya. Karena para rabi dituntut menghadapi realitas yang baru—yang utamanya [[Yudaisme]] tanpa [[Bait Suci]] dan [[Yudea]] tanpa otonomi—membanjirlah wacana hukum dan sistem studi oral yang lama tidak dapat lagi dipertahankan. Pada masa inilah wacana rabinik mulai dicatat secara tertulis.
Hukum lisan tertua yang dicatat kemungkinan dalam bentuk [[midrash]]i. Di sini diskusi halakhik disusun sebagai tafsiran [[eksegesis|eksegetis]] terhadap [[Torah|Pentateukh]]. Tetapi sebuah bentuk alternatifnya, yang disusun menurut topiknya dan bukan menurut ayat-ayat Alkitab, menjadi dominan pada sekitar tahun 200 M., ketika [[Judah haNasi|Rabi Judah haNasi]] meredaksi [[Mishnah]] (משנה).
▲[[Berkas:Bomberg Talmud.JPG|
▲{{Literatur rabinik}}
== Mishnah ==
''Mishnah'' (משנה) adalah kompilasi pandangan dan perdebatan hukum. Namanya sendiri berarti "redaksi", dari kata kerja ''shanah'' שנה, yang berarti "mengulangi" atau "meninjau". Nama ini mungkin merupakan petunjuk pada metode studi wacana rabinik dengan cara mengulang-ulang secara lisan.
Pernyataan-pernyataan dalam Mishnah biasanya singkat dan padat, mencatat pandangan-pandangan singkat dari para rabi yang memperdebatkan sebuah topic, atau mencatat sebuah peraturan yang tidak disebutkan sumbernya, yang tampaknya mewakili sebuah pandangan consensus. Para rabi Mishnah dikenal sebagai ''Tannaim'' (tunggal: ''Tanna'' תנא).
Berbeda dengan Midrash, Mishna hanyalah sebuah catatan dari kumpulan halakha (yang lainnya adalah [[Tosefta]]), namun demikian, penataannya menurut topic menjadi kerangka bagi Talmud secara keseluruhan.
=== Struktur dan isi ===
Baris 29 ⟶ 31:
== Beraita ==
Selain Mishnah, karya-karya Tannaim lainnya dicatat pada kira-kira waktu yang bersamaan atau tak lama sesudah itu. Gemara
Beraita mencakup [[Tosefta]], sebuah kumpulan Tannaim dari [[halakha]] yang sejajar dengan Mishna; dan [[Midrash Halakha]], khususnya [[Midrash#Tannaim|Mekhilta, Sifra dan Sifre]].
Baris 36 ⟶ 38:
:''Lihat [[Gemara]] untuk diskusi lebih lanjut.''
Dalam tiga abad setelah peredaksian Mishna, para rabi di seluruh Palestina dan Babilonia menganalisis, memperdebatkan, dan mendiskusikan karya itu. Diskusi-diskusi ini membentuk [[Gemara]] (גמרא). Gemara terutama terpusat pada upaya menjelaskan dan menguraikan pandangan-pandangan dari Tannaim. Para rabi Gemara dikenal sebagai [[Amoraim]] (tunggal: ''Amora'' אמורא). ''Gemara'' berarti “kesempurnaan,” dari ''gamar'' גמר
=== Metodologi ===
Banyak dari Gemara terdiri atas analisis hukum. Titik tolak untuk analisis ini biasanya adalah suatu pernyataan legal yang ditemukan di dalam sebuah Mishna. Pernyataan ini kemudian dianalisis dan dibandingkan dengan pernyataan-pernyataan lain dalam [[Dialektika|dialog dialektis]] di antara kedua pihak yang bertikai (yang
Tanya jawb ini membentuk "bangunan" gemara; nama dari sebuah paragraf gemara adalah ''[[Gemara#Sugya|sugya]]'' (סוגיא; jamak:: ''sugyot''). ''Sugya'' biasanya terdiri atas sebuah uraian yang terinci dan didasarkan bukti tentang sebuah pernyataan mishnah.
Dalam sebuah ''sugya'' tertentu, pernyataan-pernyataan Kitab Suci, Tannaim dan Amoraim diangkat untuk mendukung berbagai pandangan. Dengan demikian, gemara akan menghasilkan ketidaksepakatan [[semantik]] antara Tannaim dan Amoraim (yang
=== Halakha dan Haggadah ===
Baris 52 ⟶ 54:
=== ''Talmud Yerushalmi'' (Talmud Yerusalem) ===
[[Berkas:Yerushalmi Talmud.jpg|jmpl|kiri|250px|Satu halaman dari naskah Talmud Yerusalem yang dibuat pada abad pertengahan, dari [[:en:Cairo Genizah|Cairo Genizah]].]]
{{main|Talmud Yerusalem}}
Baris 58 ⟶ 61:
Gemara ditulis dalam [[bahasa Ibrani]] dan dialek [[bahasa Aram|Aram]] barat yang berbeda dengan padanan Babilonianya.
=== ''Talmud Bavli'' (Talmud
[[Berkas:Chasan Shas.JPG|
''Talmud Bavli'' ("Talmud Babel" atau "Talmud Babilonia") terdiri dari Mishnah dan Gemara Babilonia. Gemara ini adalah sinopsis dari analisis selama 300 tahun lebih atas Mishna di Akademi-akademi Babilonia. Menurut tradisi, Talmud ini diedit oleh dua orang bijak Babilonia, ''Rav Ashi'' dan ''Ravina''.
Pertanyaan tentang kapan Gemara akhirnya muncul dalam bentuknya yang sekarang belum terjawab oleh para ilmuwan modern. Sebagian dari teksnya baru mencapai bentuk finalnya setelah sekitar tahun [[700]]. Menurut tradisi, para rabi yang menyunting talmud setelah akhir periode Amora disebut ''Saboraim'' atau ''Rabanan Saborai''. Para sarjana modern juga menggunakan istilah ''Stammaim'' (bahasa Ibrani = sumber tertutup, kabur atau tidak disebutkan) untuk para pengarang pernyataan-pernyataan yang tidak disebutkan sumbernya dalam Gemara. (Lihat [[Halakha#Era sejarah penting dalam hukum Yahudi|era dalam hukum Yahudi]].)
Baris 74 ⟶ 77:
== Printing of the Talmud==
The first complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was [[Printing|printed]] in Italy by [[Daniel Bomberg]] during the 16th century. In addition to the ''Mishna'' and ''Gemara'', Bomberg's edition contained the commentaries of [[Rashi]] and [[Tosafot]]. Almost all printings since Bomberg have followed the same pagination. In 1835, a new edition of the Talmud was printed by the Menachem Romm of Vilna. Known as the [[Vilna edition|''Vilna Shas'']], this edition (and later ones printed by his widow and sons) have become an unofficial standard for Talmud editions.
A page number in the Talmud refers to a double-sided page, known as a ''daf''; each daf has two ''amudim'' labelled א and ב, sides A and B. The referencing by ''daf'' is relatively recent and dates from the early Talmud printings of the [[17th century]]. Earlier [[rabbinic literature]] generally only refers to the tractate or chapters within a tractate. Nowadays, reference is made in format [''Tractate daf a/b''] (e.g. Berachot 23b). In the Vilna edition of the Talmud there are 5,894 folio pages.
Baris 80 ⟶ 83:
== Talmud commentary and study ==
The Talmud contains a great wealth of Jewish knowledge and from the time of its completion it became an essential and authoritative addition to Jewish literature. It quickly became an integral part of the curriculum of Jewish schools throughout Babylonia and beyond. In this section we will briefly outline some of the major areas of Talmudic scholarship and study.
The earliest talmud commentaries were written by the Gaonim (approximately 800-1000, C.E.). Although some direct commentaries on particular treatises are extant, our main knowledge of Gaonic era talmud scholarship comes from statements embedded in Geonic responsa which shed light on talmudic passages. After the death of Hai Gaon, however, the center of Talmud scholarship shifts to Europe and North Africa.
=== Halachic and Aggadic extractions ===
Baris 92 ⟶ 95:
=== Understanding the Talmud ===
The talmud is often cryptic and difficult to understand. Its language contains many Greek and Persian words which over time became obscure. A major area of Talmudic scholarship developed in order to explain these passages and words. Some early commentators such as Rabbenu Gershom of Mainz (10th c.) and Rabbenu Hannanel (early 11th c.) produced running commentaries to various tractates. These commentaries could be read with the text of the Talmud and would help explain the meaning of the text. Using a different style, Rabbi Nathan b. Jechiel created a lexicon called the ''Arukh'' in the 11th century in order to translate difficult words.
By far the most well known ''commentary'' on the Babylonian Talmud is that of [[Rashi]] (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040-1105). The commentary is comprehensive, covering almost the entire Talmud. Written as a running commentary, it provides a full explanation of the words, and explains the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. It is considered indispensable to students of the Talmud.
Medieval Ashkenazic Jewry produced another major commentary known as [[Tosafists|Tosafot]] ("additions" or "supplements"). The ''tosafot'' are collected commentaries by various medieval Ashkenazic Rabbis on the Talmud. One of the main goals of the ''Tosafot'' is to explain and interpret contradictory statements in the talmud. Unlike ''Rashi'', the ''Tosafot'' is not a running commentary, but rather comments on selected matters. Often the explanations of ''Tosafot'' differ from those of ''Rashi''.
Over time, many other commentaries have been produced. Some of the more widely known are those of "Maharshal" ([[Solomon Luria]]), "Maharam" ([[Meir Lublin]]) and "Maharsha" ([[Samuel Edels]])
Baris 108 ⟶ 111:
==Historical method==
The Text of the Talmud has been subject to some level of critical scrutiny throughout its history. However, traditionally, the text of the Talmud has been viewed as static and as having a semi-canonical status. Traditional commentaries usually shied away from textual emendation of Talumudic passages. As a result of emancipation from the ghetto (1789), Judaism underwent enormous upheaval and transformation during the Nineteenth century. The Talmud like the rest of Judaism was scrutinized and questioned. As a result modern critical study of the Talmud was born.
Leaders of the Reform movement, such as [[Abraham Geiger]] and [[Samuel Holdheim]], subjected the Talmud to severe scrutiny as part of an effort to break with traditional rabbinic Judaism. In reaction Orthodox leaders such as [[Moses Sofer]] became severely sensitive to any change and would reject any critical analysis of Talmud. Talmud study was caught in the great debate between Reformers and Orthodoxy. Somewhere in between these two diametrically opposed views arose a new method. The Historical-Critical method of Talmud study. These scholars and rabbis believed that Jewish Law was a product of a long development and that tampering with this process should be avoided. On the other hand, they believed that traditional Jewish sources, such as the Talmud, should be subject to academic inquiry and critical analysis. The founders this viewpoint were [[Zecharias Frankel]], [[Leopold Zunz]] and [[Solomon Judah Leib Rappaport]].
In general, it may be said that advocates of the critical method of talmud study were willing to apply modern academic and scientific methods of research to Talmud study. Significantly, advocates of the historical method are willing to emmend the text of the talmud in order to answer difficulties in the text.
Because modern method of historical study has its origins in the era of religious reform it was immedietly controversial within the Orthodox world. Still, many severe critics of Reform and strictly orthodox Rabbis of the nineteenth century utilized this new scientific method ([[Nachman Krochmol]], [[Zevi Hirsch Chajes]], [[Meir Lebush Malbim]]).
=== Talmud scholarship today ===
Baris 121 ⟶ 124:
*Some scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the Talmud. Lacking outside confirming texts, they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws, and that we can say little for certain about their authorship. In this view, the questions above are impossible to answer. See, for example, the works of [[Louis Jacobs]] and [[Shaye J.D. Cohen]].
*Some scholars hold that the Talmud has been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it contains sources which we can identify and describe with some level of reliability. In this view, sources can be identified by tracing the history and analyzing the geographical regions of origin. See, for example, the works of [[Lee I. Levine]] and [[David C. Kraemer]].
*Some scholars hold that many or most the statements and events described in the Talmud usually occurred more or less as described, and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study. In this view, historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliable historical text. See, for example, the works of [[Saul Lieberman]], [[David Weiss Halivni]], and [[Avraham Goldberg]].
Baris 206 ⟶ 207:
== Referensi ==
<references />
=== Umum ===
* [[Maimonides]] ''Introduction to the [[Mishneh Torah]]'' ([http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/e0000.htm English translation])
* [[Maimonides]] ''Introduction to the [[Maimonides#Works and bibliography|Commentary on the Mishnah]]'' ([http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/mahshevt/hakdama/tohen-m-2.htm Hebrew Fulltext]), transl. Zvi Lampel (Judaica Press, 1998). ISBN 1-880582-28-7
* [[Adin Steinsaltz]] ''The Talmud: A Reference Guide'' (Random House, 1996). ISBN 0-679-77367-3
* [[Adin Steinsaltz]] ''The Essential Talmud'' (Basic Books, 1984). ISBN 0-465-02063-1; see also [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/essay_details.asp?id=6&sub=1 here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060525191901/http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/essay_details.asp?id=6&sub=1 |date=2006-05-25 }}
* [[Zvi Hirsch Chajes]] ''"Mevo Hatalmud"'', transl. Jacob Shachter: ''The Students' Guide Through The Talmud'' (Yashar Books, 2005). ISBN 1-933143-05-3
* [[Shmuel Hanaggid]] ''Introduction to the Talmud'', in Aryeh Carmell ''Aiding Talmud Study'' (Philipp Feldheim, 1986). ISBN 0-87306-428-3
* Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo ''The Infinite Chain
* D. Landesman ''A Practical Guide to Torah Learning'' (Jason Aronson, 1995). ISBN 1-56821-320-4
* Aaron Parry ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to The Talmud'' (Alpha Books, 2004). ISBN 1-59257-202-2
Baris 220 ⟶ 223:
=== Studi Sejarah ===
* Shalom Carmy (Ed.) ''Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations'' Jason Aronson, Inc.
* [[Louis Jacobs]], "How Much of the Babylonian Talmud is Pseudepigraphic?" Journal of Jewish Studies 28, No. 1 (1977), pp.
* Richard Kalmin ''Sages, Stories, Authors and Editors in Rabbinic Babylonia'' Brown Judaic Studies
* David C. Kraemer, ''On the Reliability of Attributions in the Babylonian Talmud,'' Hebrew Union College Annual 60 (1989), pp.
* Lee Levine, Ma'amad ha-Hakhamim be-Erez Yisrael (Jerusalem: Yad Yizhak Ben-Zvi, 1985), (=The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity)
* [[Saul Lieberman]] ''Hellenism in Jewish Palestine'' (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950)
Baris 236 ⟶ 239:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T Talmud], jewishencyclopedia.com
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=33&letter=T Talmud Commentaries], jewishencyclopedia.com
* [http://www.aish.com/literacy/jewishhistory/Crash_Course_in_Jewish_History_Part_39_-_Talmud.asp Jewish History: Talmud] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118034335/http://www.aish.com/literacy/jewishhistory/Crash_Course_in_Jewish_History_Part_39_-_Talmud.asp |date=2014-11-18 }}, aish.com
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/talmud_&_mishna.html Talmud/Mishna/Gemara], jewishvirtuallibrary.org
* [http://library.law.miami.edu/jewishguide.html Jewish Law Research Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050404033745/http://library.law.miami.edu/jewishguide.html |date=2005-04-04 }}, [[University of Miami]] Law Library
* [http://ohr.edu/judaism/survey/survey.htm A survey of rabbinic literature], [[Ohr Somayach]]
Baris 248 ⟶ 251:
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/talmud.htm Rodkinson English translation] (1903, parts only).
* [http://www.e-daf.com Images of each page of the Babylonian Talmud].
* [http://www.mashvinan.com Talmud computerized synopsis of multiple manuscripts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311111000/http://www.mashvinan.com/ |date=2007-03-11 }}
=== Layout Talmudik ===
* [http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudPage.html "A Page from the Babylonian Talmud"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016224130/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudPage.html |date=2009-10-16 }} [[image map]] from Prof. Eliezer Segal
* [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/2/Judaism/talmud.html Talmud and its Shape: colour coded ''daf''], upenn.edu
* [http://www.wujs.org.il/activist/learning/guide/page.shtml A page of Talmud] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060831082924/http://www.wujs.org.il/activist/learning/guide/page.shtml |date=2006-08-31 }} from the World Union of Jewish Students (WUJS)
* [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/content.asp?id=17 A Tour of the English-language Steinsaltz Edition of the Talmud page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228013952/http://steinsaltz.org/dynamic/content.asp?id=17 |date=2009-02-28 }}
* [http://www.shemayisrael.co.il/dafyomi2/today.htm point by point summary and discussion by ''daf'']
Baris 261 ⟶ 264:
* [http://www.dafyomi.org/ A general resource for Daf Yomi]
* [http://www.shemayisrael.co.il/dafyomi2/calendars/calendar.htm Calendar for this Daf Yomi cycle]
* [http://www.mishnaofthedaf.org/mishna.php Mishnah corresponding to the daily Daf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210191522/http://www.mishnaofthedaf.org/mishna.php |date=2005-12-10 }}
* [http://www.DafAWeek.com Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week]
* [http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/content.asp?id=20 Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz's Daily Insights on Daf Yomi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423231822/http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/content.asp?id=20 |date=2008-04-23 }}
=== Bantahan terhadap tuduhan bahwa Talmud bersifat anti-Semit ===
* [http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/the_talmud.pdf The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805220714/http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/the_talmud.pdf |date=2010-08-05 }}, [[Anti-Defamation League]].
* [http://talmud.faithweb.com/ The Real Truth about the Talmud]
* [http://groups.msn.com/Mishpocha/thetalmudpart1.msnw Mishpocha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328225214/http://groups.msn.com/Mishpocha/thetalmudpart1.msnw |date=2008-03-28 }}
* [http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/van_hyning.html Pemalsu Talmud]
=== Suara ===
* [http://www.mp3shiur.com/viewCat.asp?catID=7 Shiurim on the Talmud], mp3shiur.com
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