Manga: Perbedaan antara revisi

[[Blue Lock]]{{Abouttentang|komik atau novel grafik yang dibuat di Jepang}}

| caption = Huruf [[kanji]] untuk "mangamangga" dari ''Seasonal Passersby'' (''Shiki no Yukikai''), 1798, karya [[Santō Kyōden]] dan [[Kitao Shigemasa]].

Di Jepang, orang-orang dari segala kelompok usia membaca manga. Manga mencakup karya-karya dalam berbagai genre: di antaranyadiantaranya [[Fiksi laga|laga]], [[Fiksi petualangan|petualangan]], bisnis dan perdagangan, [[komedi]], [[Fiksi detektif|detektif]], [[drama]], [[Fiksi sejarah|sejarah]], [[Fiksi horor|horor]], [[Fiksi misteri|misteri]], [[Novel romantis|romantis]], [[fiksi ilmiah]] dan [[fantasi]], erotika, [[Novel olahraga|olahraga]] dan permainan, dan cerita seru.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mit.edu/~rei/manga-list.html|title=Manga/Anime topics|website=MIT|access-date=22 Juni 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Brenner|first=Robin E.|url=http://books.google.com/?id=uY8700WJy_gC&pg=PA78|title=Understanding Manga and Anime|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|date=30 Juni 2007|language=en|isbn=9780313094484}}</ref> Sudah banyak manga yang diterjemahkan ke bahasa lainnya.<ref name="Gravett">{{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}</ref> Sejak tahun 1950-an, manga telah menjadi bagian utama dari industri penerbitan Jepang.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kinsella|2000}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1996}}</ref> Pada tahun 1995, pasar manga di Jepang bernilai {{JPY|586.4 miliar|link=yes}} ({{US$|6{{ndash}}7 miliar|long=no|link=yes}}),<ref>{{cite book|last=Schodt|first=Frederik|authorlink=Frederik L. Schodt|url=<!--http://books.google.com/books?id=Z0yDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20-->|title=Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga|title-link=Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga|publisher=Stone Bridge Press|location=Berkeley, CA|year=1996|isbn=978-1-880656-23-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/liang.dreamlandjapanwr0000scho_d1o1/page/19 19]-20}}</ref> dengan penjualan tahunan sekitar 1,9{{nbsp}}miliar untuk manga dan [[majalah manga]] di Jepang (setara dengan 15{{nbsp}}edisi per orang).<ref name="Indianapolis">{{cite news|url=http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/107097112/|title=Manga, anime rooted in Japanese history|website=[[The Indianapolis Star]]|language=en|date=2 Agustus 1997}}</ref> Manga juga memiliki khalayak penikmat yang cukup signifikan di seluruh dunia.<ref name="Wong 2006">{{Harvnb|Wong|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Patten|2004}}</ref> Pada tahun 2008, pasar manga bernilai $175 juta di AS dan Kanada. Manga mencapai angka 38% dalam pasar komik Prancis, yang setara dengan sekitar sepuluh kali lipat dari angka untuk Amerika Serikat.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bouissou|first=Jean-Marie|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00972716/document|title=JAPAN'S GROWING CULTURAL POWER: THE EXAMPLE OF MANGA IN FRANCE|date=2006|access-date=24 Mei 2019}}</ref> Di Prancis, pasar manga dihargai sekitar {{€|460 juta}} (${{To USD|460|FRA|year=2011|round=yes}}{{nbsp}}juta) pada tahun 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasiam.com/english/art/art_vocation_manga.php|title=The Manga Market : Eurasiam – Japanese art & communication School|website=Eurasiam|language=en|access-date=22 Juni 2017}}</ref> Di Eropa dan Timur Tengah, pasar manga bernilai sekitar $250 juta pada tahun 2012.<ref name="Danica Davidson">{{cite web|last=Davidson|first=Danica|url=http://geekout.blogs.cnn.com/2012/01/26/manga-in-the-heart-of-europe/|title=Manga grows in the heart of Europe|website=[[CNN]]|publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting System, Inc.]]|date=26 Januari 2012|access-date=29 Januari 2012|archive-date=2021-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024122838/https://geekout.blogs.cnn.com/2012/01/26/manga-in-the-heart-of-europe/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>

Cerita dalam sebuah manga biasanya dicetak dalam warna [[hitam dan putih]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Katzenstein|Shiraishi|1997}}</ref> meskipun ada beberapa manga yang sepenuhnya berwarna (seperti ''[[Colorful (manga)|Colorful]]''). Di Jepang, manga biasanya dimuat berseri dalam majalah manga populer—sering kali berisi banyak cerita, dan masing-masing manga dimuat dalam satu bab dan bersambung ke edisi berikutnya. Bab-bab yang dibundel biasanya diterbitkan ulang dalam bentuk volume ''[[tankōbon]]'', dan terkadang dalam bentuk [[trade paperback (komik)|buku bersampul tipis]].<ref name="GravettSchodt">{{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref> Seorang ilustrator manga (''[[mangaka]]'' dalam bahasa Jepang) biasanya bekerja dibantu beberapa asisten di sebuah studio kecil dan berhubungan dengan editor kreatif dari perusahaan penerbit komersial.<ref name="Kinsella">{{Harvnb|Kinsella|2000}}</ref> Jika sebuah seri manga cukup populer, manga itu bisa dijadikan [[anime]] setelah ceritanya tamat atau selama masih berlanjutberlanju.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kittelson|1998}}</ref> Terkadang, sebuah manga dibuat berdasarkan dari film [[laga hidup]] (''live–action'') atau film animasi lain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnston-O'Neill|2007}}</ref>

Kata "manga" berasal dari kata bahasa Jepang 漫画,<ref>{{Harvnb|Rousmaniere|2001|p=54}}, {{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|p=xiii}}, {{Harvnb|Prohl|Nelson|2012|p=596}},{{Harvnb|Fukushima|2013|p=19}}</ref> yang terdiri dari dua huruf [[kanji]]. Huruf pertama adalah 漫 (man) yang berarti "aneh atau dadakan" dan 画 (ga) yang berarti "gambar".<ref>{{Harvnb|Webb|2006}},{{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|p=xvi}},{{Harvnb|Onoda|2009|p=10}},{{Harvnb|Petersen|2011|p=120}}</ref> Kata ini juga menjadi akar untuk kata bahasa Korea (''manhwa'') dan kata bahasa Mandarin (''manhua'') untuk komik.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|p=xiii}}, {{Harvnb|Onoda|2009|p=10}}, {{Harvnb|Prohl|Nelson|2012|p=596}}, {{Harvnb|Fukushima|2013|p=19}}</ref>

Dalam bahasa Jepang, "manga" mengacu pada semua jenis kartun, komik, dan animasi. Bagi para penutur bahasa Inggris, "manga" memiliki arti yang lebih sempit yaitu "komik Jepang", sejalan dengan penggunaan "[[anime]]" di dalam dan di luar Jepang. Istilah "[[ani-manga]]" digunakan untuk mendeskripsikan komik yang dihasilkan dari animasi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animecornerstore.com/inuyaanno.html|title=Inu Yasha Ani-Manga Graphic Novels|website=Anime Corner Stone|date=1 November 1999|access-date=1 November 2010|archive-url=httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20101204093242/http://www.animecornerstore.com/inuyaanno.html|archive-date=4 Desember 2010-12-04|dead-url=no}}</ref>

Terlepas dari sumbernya, ledakan kreativitas artistik terjadi pada periode pasca-perang,<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1996}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|2007}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004}}</ref> dan melibatkan para mangaka seperti [[Osamu Tezuka]] (''[[Astro Boy]]'') dan [[Machiko Hasegawa]] (''[[Sazae-san]]''). ''Astro Boy'' dengan cepat menjadi (dan masih) sangat populer di Jepang dan di wilayah lain,<ref>{{Harvnb|Kodansha|1999|pp=692–715}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|2007}}</ref> dan adaptasi [[anime]] dari ''Sazae-san'' menarik lebih banyak penonton daripada anime lain di televisi Jepang pada tahun 2011.<ref name="A SHORT HISTORY OF JAPANESE MANGA"/> Tezuka dan Hasegawa sama-sama membuat inovasi gaya. Dalam teknik "sinematografi" ala Tezuka, panel-panelnya digambar seperti film yang mengungkapkan detail peristiwa yang dibuat dengan gerakan lambat, begitu pula ''zoom'' cepat dari jarak jauh ke bidikan dekat. Dinamisme visual semacam ini diadopsi secara luas oleh para mangaka di kemudian hari.<ref name="Schodt 1986">{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref> Fokus Hasegawa pada kehidupan sehari-hari dan pada pengalaman wanita juga menjadi ciri khas manga ''[[shōjo]]'' nantinya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}, {{Harvnb|Lee|2000}}, {{Harvnb|Sanchez|1997–2003}}</ref> Antara tahun 1950 dan 1969, jumlah pembaca manga yang semakin besar muncul di Jepang dengan pemantapan dua genre pemasaran utamanya, manga ''[[shōnen]]'' yang ditujukan pada anak laki-laki dan manga ''shōjo'' yang ditujukan untuk anak perempuan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Toku|2006}}</ref>

Manga untuk pembaca pria dibagi lagi menurut usia pembaca yang dituju: anak laki-laki hingga 18 tahun (manga ''shōnen'') dan remaja putra berusia 18 hingga 30 tahun (manga ''[[seinen]]'');<ref>{{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|pp=xxiii–xxiv}}</ref> serta menurut kontennya, termasuk manga laga-petualangan yang sering melibatkan pahlawan pria, humor dagelan, tema kehormatan, dan terkadang menampilkan adegan seks secara eksplisit.<ref name="Brenner">{{Harvnb|Brenner|2007|pp=31–34}}</ref> Orang Jepang menggunakan kanji yang berbeda untuk dua makna yang terkait erat, yaitu "''seinen''" {{lang|ja|青年}} untuk "pemuda, anak muda" dan {{lang|ja|成年}} untuk "orang dewasa, mayoritas". Kanji yang kedua mengacu pada manga pornografi yang ditujukan untuk pria dewasa dan juga disebut manga ''seijin'' ("dewasa" {{lang|ja|成人}}).<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|p=95}}, {{Harvnb|Perper|Cornog|2002}}</ref> Manga ''shōnen'', ''seinen'', dan ''seijin'' memiliki sejumlah fitur yang sama.

Dengan berkurangnya penyensoran di Jepang pada tahun 1990-an, bermacam-macam materi seksual eksplisit muncul dalam manga yang ditujukan untuk pembaca pria, dan dengan demikian berlanjut ke terjemahan bahasa Inggrisnya.<ref name="PCmono">{{Harvnb|Perper|Cornog|2002}}</ref> Namun pada tahun 2010, [[Pemerintah Metropolitan Tokyo]] mengeluarkan undang-undang untuk membatasi konten seperti itu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T101213003771.htm|title=Tokyo moves a step closer to manga porn crackdown|website=The Yomiuri Shimbun|date=14 Desember 2010|access-date=14 Agustus 2019|archive-url=httphttps://archive.istoday/20101216082233/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T101213003771.htm|archive-date=16 Desember 2010-12-16|dead-url=no}}</ref>

Gaya penceritaan ''[[gekiga]]''—yang muram secara tematis, berorientasi pada orang dewasa, dan kadang-kadang sangat kejam—berfokus pada realitas kehidupan sehari-hari yang suram, sering kali digambar dengan cara kasar dan tanpa sentuhan bagus.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rosenbaum|first=Roman|url=http://imrc.jp/images/upload/lecture/data/06ROSENBAUM_Cologne.pdf|title=Gekiga as a site of Intercultural Exchange|website=Kyoto Seika University|access–date=14 Agustus 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–73}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2006}}</ref> Cerita ''Gekiga'' seperti ''Kronik Pencapaian Militer Ninja'' atau ''Ninja Bugeichō'' (1959–1962) karya [[Sampei Shirato]] muncul pada akhir tahun 1950-an dan 1960-an, sebagian berasal dari mahasiswa sayap kiri dan aktivisme politik kelas pekerja<ref name="SchodtG">{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–73}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|pp=38–42}}, {{Harvnb|Isao|2001}}</ref> dan sebagian lainnya berasal dari ketidakpuasan estetika para mangaka muda seperti [[Yoshihiro Tatsumi]] dengan manga yang ada.<ref>{{Harvnb|Isao|2001|pp=147–149}}, {{Harvnb|Nunez|2006}}</ref>

Di Jepang, manga menyumbang 40,6 miliar yen (sekitar 395 juta dolar AS) per tahun untuk industri penerbitan pada tahun 2007.<ref name="IndustrySize">{{Harvnb|Cube|2007}}</ref> Pada tahun 2006, penjualan manga mencapai sekitar 27% dari total penjualan buku, dan penjualan majalah manga, sebesar 20% dari total penjualan majalah.<ref name=mangatrends>{{cite web|url=http://www.jetro.org/trends/market_info_manga.pdf|title=Manga Industry in Japan|website=[[Japan External Trade Organization]]|access-date=27 Mei 2019|archive-url=httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20120406232125/http://www.jetro.org/trends/market_info_manga.pdf|archive-date=6 April 2012-04-06|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Industri manga telah berkembang di seluruh dunia, dan sejumlah perusahaan penerbit dari berbagai negara melisensi dan mencetak ulang manga ke dalam bahasa asli mereka.

Secara umum, manga tradisional dibaca dari atas ke bawah dan dari [[Penulisan horizontal dan vertikal dalam skrip Asia Timur|kanan ke kiri]]. Beberapa penerbit manga terjemahan tetap menggunakan format asli ini. Penerbit lain mengubah halaman secara horizontal sebelum mencetak terjemahan versi mereka, mengubah arah bacaan menjadi dari kiri ke kanan dan lebih "kebaratan", agar tidak membingungkan pembaca asing atau konsumen komik tradisional. Praktik ini dikenal sebagai "membalik" (''flipping'').<ref name="Farago">{{Harvnb|Farago|2007}}</ref> Sebagian besar kritik mengatakan bahwa praktik tersebut bertentangan dengan tujuan asli pencipta (misalnya jika seseorang mengenakan kemeja yang bertuliskan "MAY", dan kemudian dibalik, maka kata tersebut akan menjadi "YAM"), yang mungkin tidak tahu seberapa canggung membaca komik ketika mata harus melihat melalui halaman dan teks dalam arah yang berlawanan, menghasilkan pengalaman yang sangat berbeda dari membaca sesuatu secara tradisional. Jika terjemahannya tidak disesuaikan dengan gambar yang dibalik dengan cukup hati-hati, teksnya juga mungkin bertentangan dengan gambar. Contohnya seperti seseorang yang menunjuk sesuatu di sebelah kiri mereka dalam teks sementara tangan mereka menunjuk ke kanan pada gambar. Karakter yang diperlihatkan menulis dengan tangan kanan mereka, akan menjadi kidal ketika dibalik. Praktik tersebut juga dapat menyebabkan keanehan pada benda atau tata letak asimetris yang sudah dikenal, seperti mobil yang digambarkan dengan pedal gas di sebelah kiri dan rem di sebelah kanan, atau kemeja dengan kancing pada sisi yang salah, tetapi ini tergolong masalah kecil jika dibandingkan dengan cara membaca yang tidak wajar, dan beberapa di antaranya dapat diselesaikan dengan karya adaptasi yang melampaui sekadar penerjemahan dan pembalikan semata.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bill|first=Randal|url=http://archives.tcj.com/sp2005/intro.html|title=English, For Better or Worse|edition=Special|website=[[The Comics Journal]]|publisher=[[Fantagraphics Books]]|date=2005|archive-url=httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20120323204112/http://archives.tcj.com/sp2005/intro.html|archive-date=23 Maret 2012-03-23|dead-url=yes|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref>

Manga menjadi semakin populer pada tahun-tahun berikutnya, dan sejumlah penerbit baru memasuki pasar penerbitan manga sementara penerbit yang sudah mapan semakin meningkatkan katalog mereka.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|pp=308–319}}</ref> Edisi pertama manga ''[[Daftar manga Pokémon manga|Pokémon]]'' ''[[Electric Tale of Pikachu]]'' terjual lebih dari 1{{nbsp}}juta kopi di Amerika Serikat, menjadikannya [[buku komik]] tunggal terlaris di Amerika Serikat sejak tahun 1993.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/batman-vs-pokemon-last-million-selling.html|title=The last million-selling comic book in North America? It's Batman vs. Pokémon for the title|website=Comichron|date=8 Mei 2014|access-date=20 Agustus 2019|archive-date=2021-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509012448/https://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/batman-vs-pokemon-last-million-selling.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pada tahun 2008, pasar manga AS dan Kanada menghasilkan $175 juta pada penjualan tahunan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reid|2009}}</ref> Bersamaan dengan itu, media arus utama AS mulai membahas manga, dengan munculnya berbagai artikel di ''[[The New York Times]]'', majalah ''[[Time (majalah)|Time]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', dan majalah ''[[Wired (majalah)|Wired]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Glazer|2005}}, {{Harvnb|Masters|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Bosker|2007}}, {{Harvnb|Pink|2007}}</ref> Pada tahun 2017, distributor manga [[Viz Media]] adalah penerbit [[novel grafik]] dan buku komik terbesar di Amerika Serikat, dengan pangsa pasar mencapai 23%.<ref>{{cite news|last=Magulick|first=Aaron|url=http://goboiano.com/viz-manga-sales-are-destroying-dc-marvel-in-comic-market/|title=Viz Manga Sales are Destroying DC, Marvel in Comic Market|website=GoBoiano|date=8 Oktober 2017|access-date=20 Agustus 2019|archive-date=2017-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010022449/http://goboiano.com/viz-manga-sales-are-destroying-dc-marvel-in-comic-market/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>

[[Universitas Kyoto Seika]] di Jepang memiliki jurusan manga yang sangat kompetitif sejak tahun 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://passnavi.evidus.com/search_univ/3940/bairitsu1.html#マンガ|script-title=ja:京都精華大学、入試結果 (倍率)、マンガ学科。|publisher=Obunsha Co., Ltd.|language=ja|date=18 Juli 2014|access-date=18 Juli 2014|archive-date=18 Juli 2014-07-17|archive-url=httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20140717165416/http://passnavi.evidus.com/search_univ/3940/bairitsu1.html#マンガ|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=17 Bahasa Jepang yang Populer|url=httphttps://www.kyoto-seikaayosemarang.ac.jpcom/engumum/edupr-772249477/manga/|title=Kyoto Seika University, Faculty of Manga17-bahasa-jepang-yang-populer-karena-anime-otaku-pasti-sudah-tahu|website=Kyoto Seika Universityayosemarang.com|language=ja|accessarchive-dateurl=18 Juli 2014|archive-date=17 Juli 2014|archivedead-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20140717164445/http://www.kyoto|access-seika.ac.jp/eng/edu/manga/date=24 Juli 2023}}</ref> Kemudian, beberapa universitas dan [[sekolah kejuruan]] ({{nihongo|''Semmon gakkou''|門 学校||lead=yes}}) menyusul dengan mendirikan suatu .

{{Portal|Jepang|Anime dan manga|Komik}}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Allison | first = Anne | authorlink = Anne Allison | year = 2000 | contribution = Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls | editor-last = Craig | editor-first = Timothy J. | title = Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture | url = https://archive.org/details/japanpopinsidew00crai | location = Armonk, New York | publisher = M.E. Sharpe | isbn = 978-0-7656-0561-0 }}

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* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Brenner | first = Robin E. | year = 2007 | title = Understanding Manga and Anime | url = https://archive.org/details/understandingman0000bren | location = Westport, Connecticut | publisher = Libraries Unlimited/Greenwood | isbn = 978-1-59158-332-5 }}

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* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Crandol | first = Mike | date = 14 January 2002 | title = The Dirty Pair: Run from the Future | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future | work = Anime News Network | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}

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* {{cite press release | publisher = Dark Horse Comics | date = 6 February 2004 | title = Dark Horse buys Studio Proteus | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press-release/2004-02-06/dark-horse-buys-studio-proteus | ref = {{SfnRef|Dark Horse Comics|2004}} }}

* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Drazen| first = Patrick | year = 2003 | title = Anime Explosion! The What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation |url=https://archive.org/details/animeexplosionwh00draz| location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge | isbn = 978-1-880656-72-3}}

* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Farago | first = Andrew | date = 30 September 2007 | title = Interview: Jason Thompson | url = http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 | publisher = The Comics Journal | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}

* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Fishbein | first = Jennifer | date = 26 December 2007 | title = Europe's Manga Mania | url = http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2007/gb20071226_346610.htm | journal = BusinessWeek | access-date = 29 December 2007 }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Fukushima | first = Yoshiko | year = 2013 | title = Manga Discourse in Japan Theatre | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=PfeAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 | page = 19 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 9781136772733 }}

* {{cite journalnews | ref = harv | last =Gardner Glazer | first = William O.Sarah | date =November 200318 September 2005 | title = AttackManga of the Phallicfor Girls | url = http://www.depauwnytimes.educom/sfs2005/review_essays09/gardner8818/books/review/18glazer.htmhtml | journalnewspaper = ScienceThe FictionNew StudiesYork | issue = 88Times | access-date = 54 AprilMarch 2008 }}

* {{cite newsbook | ref = harv | last =Glazer Gravett | first = SarahPaul | dateyear = 18 September 20052004 | title = Manga: Sixty Years of forJapanese GirlsComics | url = httphttps://wwwarchive.nytimes.comorg/2005details/09/18/books/review/18glazer.htmlmangasixtyyearso0000grav | newspaperlocation = The New York Times | access-datepublisher = 4Harper MarchDesign | isbn = 978-1-85669-391-2 2008}}

* {{cite bookweb | ref = harv | last = Gravett | first = Paul | yeardate = 200415 October 2006 | title = MangaGekiga: SixtyThe YearsFlipside of Japanese ComicsManga | locationurl = New Yorkhttp://www.paulgravett.com/index.php/articles/article/gekiga/ | publisheraccess-date = Harper4 DesignMarch |2008 isbn = 978-1-85669-391-2}}

* {{cite webjournal | ref = harv | last =Gravett Griffiths | first = PaulOwen | date = 1522 OctoberSeptember 20062007 | title = GekigaMilitarizing Japan: ThePatriotism, FlipsideProfit, ofand MangaChildren's Print Media, 1894–1925 | url = http://www.paulgravettjapanfocus.comorg/index.php/articles/article/gekiga-Owen-Griffiths/2528 | journal = Japan Focus | access-date = 416 MarchDecember 2008 }}

* {{cite journalbook | ref = harv | last =Griffiths Isao | first = OwenShimizu | dateyear = 222001 September| 2007contribution = Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga | editor-last = Lent | editor-first = John A. | title = MilitarizingIllustrating JapanAsia: PatriotismComics, ProfitHumor Magazines, and Children's Print Media,Picture 1894–1925Books | url = httphttps://www.japanfocusarchive.org/-Owen-Griffithsdetails/2528illustratingasia0000unse | journallocation = JapanHonolulu, FocusHawaii | access-datepublisher = 16University Decemberof Hawai'i Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2471-6 2008}}

* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.0022-3840.2005.00123.x | ref = harv | last = Ito | first = Kinko | year = 2005 | title = A history of manga in the context of Japanese culture and society | url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/jpcu/2005/00000038/00000003/art00002 | journal = [[The Journal of Popular Culture]] | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 456–475 | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}

* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Johnston-O'Neill | first = Tom | date = 3 August 2007 | title = Finding the International in Comic Con International | url = http://parobs.org/index.php?module=article&view=279&lay_quiet=1&8dced886a4bd24eb30fc46843fb4287a=23679635f7832235dae9949749a76f35 | publisher = The San Diego Participant Observer | access-date = 5 April 2008 | archive-date = 2011-08-22 | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/617dUlIDW?url=http://parobs.org/index.php?module=article | dead-url = yes }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Kinsella | first = Sharon | year = 2000 | title = Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society | url = https://archive.org/details/adultmangacultur00kins | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | publisher = University of Hawai'i Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2318-4 }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Kittelson | first = Mary Lynn | year = 1998 | title = The Soul of Popular Culture: Looking at Contemporary Heroes, Myths, and Monsters | url = https://archive.org/details/soulofpopularcul0000unse | location = Chicago | publisher = Open Court | isbn = 978-0-8126-9363-8 }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lee | first = William | year = 2000 | contribution = From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan | editor-last = Craig | editor-first = Timothy J. | title = Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture | url = https://archive.org/details/japanpopinsidew00crai | location = Armonk, New York | publisher = M.E. Sharpe | isbn = 978-0-7656-0561-0 }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lent | first = John A. | year = 2001 | title = Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books | url = https://archive.org/details/illustratingasia0000unse | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2471-6 }}

* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Leonard | first = Sean | date = 12 September 2004 | title = Progress Against the Law: Fan Distribution, Copyright, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation | url = http://web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lone | first = Stewart | year = 2007 | title = Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia: From the Taiping Rebellion to the Vietnam War | url = http://books.google.com/?id=qmSnTIAPnoUC&pg=PA75&lpg=PA75&dq=shonen+sekai | publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] | location = Westport, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-313-33684-3 }}

* {{cite web | ref = harv | author = Mahousu | date = January 2005 | title = Les editeurs des mangas | url = http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html | archive-url = httphttps://archive.istoday/20120717053952/http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 2012-07-17 | publisher = self-published | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2009}}

* {{cite press release | ref = {{SfnRef|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|2007}} | publisher = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan | date = 29 June 2007 | title = First International MANGA Award | url = http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = McCarthy | first = Helen | year = 2014 | title = A Brief History of Manga: The Essential Pocket Guide to the Japanese Pop Culture Phenomenon | url = http://books.google.de/books?id=Qg4FCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT6 | page = 6 | publisher = Hachette UK | isbn = 9781781571309 }}

* {{cite news | ref = harv | last = Nunez | first = Irma | date = 24 September 2006 | title = Alternative Comics Heroes: Tracing the Genealogy of Gekiga | newspaper = The Japan Times | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fb20060924a1.html | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Onoda | first = Natsu | year = 2009 | title = God of Comics: Osamu Tezuka and the Creation of Post-World War II Manga | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=dvaR1-9HE7YC&pg=PA10 | page = 10 | publisher = University Press of Mississippi | isbn = 9781604734782 }}

* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Perper| first = Timothy | last2 = Cornog | first2 = Martha | year = 2003 | contribution = Sex, love, and women in Japanese comics | editor-last =Francoeur| editor-first = Robert T. | editor2-last =Noonan| editor2-first = Raymond J. |editor2-link=| title = The Comprehensive International Encyclopedia of Sexuality |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcomplet0000unse| location = New York | publisher = Continuum | isbn = 978-0-8264-1488-5}}

* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Petersen |first=Robert S. |title=Comics, Manga, and Graphic Novels: A History of Graphic Narratives |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Hr7aZh6oonoC&pg=PA120 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313363306 }}

* {{cite book |ref = harv |last1 = Prohl |first1 = Inken |last2 = Nelson |first2 = John K | year = 2012 | title = Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=uiZi2mgC5a4C&pg=PA596 |page = 596 |publisher = BRILL |isbn = 9789004234352 }}

* {{cite journalbook |ref=harv| last =Pink Poitras | first = Daniel H.Gilles | dateauthorlink = 22Gilles OctoberPoitras 2007| year = 2001 | title = Japan,Anime InkEssentials: InsideEvery theThing Mangaa IndustrialFan ComplexNeeds to Know | url = httphttps://wwwarchive.wired.comorg/techbizdetails/media/magazine/15-11/ff_mangaanimeessentialse0000poit | journallocation = WiredBerkeley, California | volumepublisher = 15Stone Bridge | issueisbn = 11978-1-880656-53-2 | access-dateref = 19 Decemberharv 2007}}

* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Reid | first = Calvin | date = 286 MarchFebruary 20062009 | title = HarperCollins,2008 Graphic Novel Sales TokyopopUp Ink5%; Manga DealOff 17% | url = http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/1-legacy/24-comic-book-news/comicsreviews/article/171829362-2008-graphic-novel-sales-harpercollinsup-tokyopop5-ink-manga-dealoff-17-.html | journal = Publishers Weekly | access-date = 47 MarchSeptember 2009 2008}}

* {{cite journalweb | ref = harv | last =Reid Riciputi | first = CalvinMarco | date = 625 FebruaryOctober 20092007 | title = 2008 GraphicKomikazen: NovelEuropean Salescomics Upgo 5%; Manga Off 17%independent | url = http://www.publishersweeklycafebabel.com/pweng/by-topicarticle/1-legacy22681/24komikazen-comiceuropean-bookcomics-reviewsgo-independent.html | publisher = Cafebabel.com | access-date = 4 March 2008 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081011141705/http://www.cafebabel.com/eng/article/9362-2008-graphic22681/komikazen-noveleuropean-salescomics-up-5--manga-off-17go-independent.html | journalarchivedate = Publishers Weekly2008-10-11 | access-datedf = 7dmy-all }}{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2009}}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Rousmaniere | first = Nicole | year = 2001 | title = Births and Rebirths in Japanese Art : Essays Celebrating the Inauguration of the Sainsbury Institute for the Study of Japanese Arts and Cultures | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yj3rAAAAMAAJ&q | publisher = Hotei Publishing | isbn = 978-9074822442 }}

* {{cite news | ref = harv | last = Tai | first = Elizabeth | date = 23 September 2007 | title = Manga outside Japan | url = http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2007/9/23/lifebookshelf/18898783&sec=lifebookshelf | newspaper = Star Online | access-date = 19 December 2007 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012143933/http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=%2F2007%2F9%2F23%2Flifebookshelf%2F18898783&sec=lifebookshelf | archivedate = 2007-10-12 October 2007 | df = dmy-all }}

* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Tchiei | first = Go | year = 1998 | title = Characteristics of Japanese Manga | url = http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga2.html | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}

* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Thompson | first = Jason | year = 2007 | title = Manga: The Complete Guide | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GvEFDD4rdWMC&pg | location = New York | publisher = Ballantine Books | isbn = 978-0-345-48590-8 }}

* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last =Thorn Toku | first = MattMasami | authorlinkdate = MattSpring Thorn |date=July–September 20012006 | title = ShôjoShojo Manga—Something forManga: theGirl GirlsPower! | url = http://matt-thornwww.comcsuchico.edu/shoujo_mangapub/japan_quarterlycs/spring_06/feature_03.html | journalpublisher = TheCalifornia JapanState QuarterlyUniversity, Chico | volumejournal = 48Chico Statements | issueisbn = 3978-1-886226-10-4 | access-date = 5 April 2008 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080411053104/http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | archivedate = 2008-04-11 | df = dmy-all }}

* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = TokuVollmar | first = MasamiRob | date = Spring1 2006March 2007 | title = ShojoFrederic Boilet and the Nouvelle Manga: Girl Power!revolution | url = http://wwwgoliath.csuchicoecnext.educom/pubcoms2/csgi_0199-6318937/spring_06/feature_03Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html | publisher = California State University, Chico | journal = ChicoWorld StatementsLiterature | isbn = 978-1-886226-10-4Today | access-date = 514 AprilSeptember 20082007 | deadurlarchive-date = yes2011-06-15 | archiveurlarchive-url = httphttps://web.archive.org/web/2008041105310420110615141406/http://wwwgoliath.csuchicoecnext.educom/pubcoms2/csgi_0199-6318937/spring_06/feature_03Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html | archivedatedead-url = 11 April 2008 | df = dmy-allyes }}

* {{cite journalnews | ref = harv | last =Vollmar Webb | first = RobMartin | date = 128 MarchMay 20072006 | title = FredericManga Boiletby andany theother Nouvellename Manga revolutionis... | url = http://goliathsearch.ecnextjapantimes.comco.jp/coms2/gi_0199cgi-6318937bin/Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvellefl20060528x1.html | journalnewspaper = World[[The LiteratureJapan TodayTimes]] | access-date = 145 April September2008 2007}}

* {{cite newsbook |ref=harv| last =WebbWong| first = MartinWendy Siuyi | dateyear = 28 May 20062002 | title = MangaHong byKong anyComics: otherA nameHistory is...of Manhua | url = httphttps://searcharchive.japantimes.co.jporg/cgi-bindetails/fl20060528x1.htmlhongkongcomicshi0000wong| location = New York | newspaperpublisher = [[ThePrinceton JapanArchitectural Times]]Press | access-dateisbn = 5 April 2008978-1-56898-269-4}}

* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Wong | first = Wendy | date = September 2007 | title = The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America | url = http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html | journal = Media Digest | access-date = 19 December 2007 | archive-date = 2013-06-21 | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/6HXJ51BC8?url=http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html | dead-url = yes }}

* {{cite web | title = About Manga Museum: Current situation of manga culture | url = http://www.kyotomm.com/HP/international/english/about_genjo.html | publisher = Kyoto Manga Museum | access-date = 6 September 2009 | ref = CITEREFManga Museum2009 | archive-date = 2009-05-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090528115502/http://www.kyotomm.com/HP/international/english/about_genjo.html | dead-url = yes }}

* {{cite web | title = Correction: World Manga | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga | work = Anime News Network | date = 10 May 2006 | access-date = 19 December 2007 | ref = CITEREFANN 10 May 2006 }}

* {{cite web | title = I.C. promotes AmeriManga | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2002-11-27/i.c-promotes-amerimanga | work = Anime News Network | date = 11 November 2002 | access-date = 4 March 2008 | ref = CITEREFANN2002 }}

* {{cite web | title = Interview with Tokyopop's Mike Kiley | url = http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11249.html | work = ICv2 | date = 7 September 2007 | access-date = 19 December 2007 | ref = CITEREFICv22007 }}

* {{cite book | ref = CITEREFKodansha1999 | title = Japan: Profile of a Nation, Revised Edition | url = https://archive.org/details/japanprofileofna0000unse_d3e2 | location = Tokyo | publisher = Kodansha International | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-4-7700-2384-1 }}

* {{cite web | title = Japan's Foreign Minister Creates Foreign Manga Award | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-05-22/international-manga-award | date = 22 May 2007 | work = Anime News Network | access-date = 5 October 2009 | ref = CITEREFANN2007 }}

* {{cite web | title = manga | url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manga | publisher = Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary | access-date = 6 September 2009 | ref = CITEREFMerriam-Webster2009 }}

* {{cite web | title = Manga-mania in France | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2004-02-04/manga-mania-in-france | work = Anime News Network | date = 4 February 2004 | access-date = 19 December 2007 | ref = CITEREFANN2004 }}

* {{cite web | title = 'Manga no Kuni': A manga magazine from the Second Sino-Japanese War period | url = http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=4&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | publisher = Kyoto International Manga Museum | access-date = 21 December 2008 | ref = Manga no Kuni | archive-date = 2009-04-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090409073253/http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=4&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | dead-url = yes }}

* {{cite web | title = 'Poten': a manga magazine from Kyoto | url = http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=3&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | archive-url = httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20090410081554/http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=3&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 10 April 2009-04-10 | publisher = Kyoto International Manga Museum | access-date = 21 December 2008 | ref = Poten }}

* {{cite web | title = 'Shonen Pakku'; Japan's first children's manga magazine | url = http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=2&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | archive-url = httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20090410081500/http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=2&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 10 April 2009-04-10 | publisher = Kyoto International Manga Museum | access-date = 21 December 2008 | ref = Shonen Pakku }}

* {{cite web | title = The first Japanese manga magazine: Eshinbun Nipponchi | url = http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=1&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | publisher = Kyoto International Manga Museum | access-date = 21 December 2008 | ref = Eshinbun Nipponchi | archive-url = httphttps://www.webcitation.org/617dlBFZi?url=http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng | archive-date = 22 August 2011-08-22 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}

* {{cite web | title = Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-05/tokyopop-to-move-away-from-oel-and-world-manga-labels | work = Anime News Network | date = 5 May 2006 | access-date = 19 December 2007 | ref = CITEREFANN 5 May 2006 }}

* {{cite web | title = Un poil de culture – Une introduction à l'animation japonaise | url = http://www.metalchroniques.fr/guppy/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=437 | date = 11 July 2007 | language = French | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = httphttps://web.archive.org/web/20080108163613/http://www.metalchroniques.fr/guppy/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=437 | archivedate = 8 January 2008-01-08 | df = dmy-all | access-date = 2019-08-20 }}

* {{it icon}} Marcella Zaccagnino and Sebastiano Contrari. "[http://limes.espresso.repubblica.it/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/manga-giapponeallaconquistadelmondo.pdf Manga: il Giappone alla conquista del mondo]" ([http {{Webarchive|url=https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/6P2CA2j7h?url=web/20200823203117/http://limes.espresso.repubblica.it/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/manga-giapponeallaconquistadelmondo.pdf Archive]|date=2020-08-23 }}) ''[[Limes, rivista italiana di geopolitica]]''. 31/10/2007.