Infeksi oportunistik: Perbedaan antara revisi
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{{Infobox medical condition
|name = Infeksi oportunistik
|image = Chest X-ray in influenza and Haemophilus influenzae - annotated.jpg
|caption = Gambaran [[sinar-X]] seseorang yang pada awalnya menderita [[influenza]] dan kemudian berkembang menjadi [[pneumonia]] akibat infeksi ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'', yang diduga bersifat oportunistik
}}
'''Infeksi oportunistik''' adalah [[infeksi]] yang disebabkan oleh organisme (seperti bakteri, jamur, parasit, atau virus) yang memanfaatkan kesempatan yang biasanya tidak tersedia. Kesempatan ini dapat berupa [[Imunodefisiensi|sistem imun yang melemah]] (misalnya akibat [[AIDS]] atau pemberian [[obat imunosupresif]], seperti pada [[perawatan kanker]]),<ref name=":1">{{cite book|vauthors=Justiz Vaillant AA, Qurie A|date=2021|title=StatPearls|place=Treasure Island (FL)|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|chapter=Immunodeficiency|pmid=29763203|access-date=9 Maret 2021|chapter-url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500027/|url-status=live}}</ref> perubahan [[mikrobioma]] (seperti gangguan pada [[mikrobiota usus]]), atau kerusakan pada [[sistem integumen]] (seperti pada [[trauma tajam]]). Banyak di antara organisme-organisme ini yang tidak menyebabkan penyakit pada inang sehat dengan sistem imun yang baik, dan dalam beberapa kasus, mereka berperan sebagai [[Komensalisme|komensal]] sampai keseimbangan sistem imun terganggu.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|date=2016|title=Macrolide Resistance in ''Streptococcus pneumoniae''|journal=Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology|volume=6|pages=98|doi=10.3389/fcimb.2016.00098|pmc=5030221|pmid=27709102|vauthors=Schroeder MR, Stephens DS|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=2014|title=Propionibacterium acnes: from commensal to opportunistic biofilm-associated implant pathogen|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=27|issue=3|pages=419–40|doi=10.1128/CMR.00092-13|pmc=4135900|pmid=24982315|vauthors=Achermann Y, Goldstein EJ, Coenye T, Shirtliff ME}}</ref> Suatu infeksi juga dapat disebut oportunistik jika suatu [[patogen]] menyebabkan penyakit ringan pada orang sehat, tetapi menyebabkan penyakit yang lebih serius saat kondisi tubuh inangnya memungkinkan.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caballero|first=Mauricio T.|last2=Polack|first2=Fernando P.|date=2018|title=Respiratory syncytial virus is an “opportunistic” killer|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppul.23963|journal=Pediatric Pulmonology|volume=53|issue=5|pages=664–667|doi=10.1002/ppul.23963}}</ref>
==
Berbagai macam patogen terlibat dalam infeksi oportunistik dan dapat menyebabkan berbagai kondisi patologis. Berikut ini beberapa patogen oportunistik dan kondisi yang ditimbulkannya.
* [[AIDS]] atau infeksi [[HIV]]▼
* Kecenderungan [[geneticka]] ▼
* Kerusakan [[kulit]]▼
* Prosedur medikal▼
===
* ''[[Clostridioides difficile]]'' (dulu dikenal sebagai ''Clostridium difficile'') adalah spesies bakteri yang menyebabkan infeksi pencernaan dan umumnya diasosiasikan dengan [[infeksi nosokomial]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Czepiel J, Dróżdż M, Pituch H, Kuijper EJ, Perucki W, Mielimonka A, Goldman S, Wultańska D, Garlicki A, Biesiada G | display-authors = 6 | title = Clostridium difficile infection: review | journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 1211–1221 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 30945014 | pmc = 6570665 | doi = 10.1007/s10096-019-03539-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Guh AY, Kutty PK | title = Clostridioides difficile Infection | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 169 | issue = 7 | pages = ITC49–ITC64 | date = October 2018 | pmid = 30285209 | pmc = 6524133 | doi = 10.7326/AITC201810020 }}</ref>
* ''[[Legionella pneumophila]]'' adalah spesies bakteri yang menyebabkan [[legionelosis]], sebuah [[Infeksi saluran pernapasan|infeksi pernapasan]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chahin A, Opal SM | title = Severe Pneumonia Caused by Legionella pneumophila: Differential Diagnosis and Therapeutic Considerations | journal = Infectious Disease Clinics of North America | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 111–121 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28159171 | pmc = 7135102 | doi = 10.1016/j.idc.2016.10.009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Berjeaud JM, Chevalier S, Schlusselhuber M, Portier E, Loiseau C, Aucher W, Lesouhaitier O, Verdon J | display-authors = 6 | title = Legionella pneumophila: The Paradox of a Highly Sensitive Opportunistic Waterborne Pathogen Able to Persist in the Environment | journal = Frontiers in Microbiology | volume = 7 | pages = 486 | date = 2016-04-08 | pmid = 27092135 | pmc = 4824771 | doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00486 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Mycobacterium avium complex]]'' (MAC) adalah kelompok dua bakteri, ''M. avium'' dan ''M. intracellulare'', yang biasanya menginfeksi secara bersamaan dan mengakibatkan infeksi paru yang disebut [[infeksi Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Falkinham JO | title = ''Mycobacterium avium'' complex: Adherence as a way of life | journal = AIMS Microbiology | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 428–438 | date = 2018 | pmid = 31294225 | pmc = 6604937 | doi = 10.3934/microbiol.2018.3.428 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pan SW, Shu CC, Feng JY, Su WJ | title = Treatment for Mycobacterium avium complex lung disease | journal = Journal of the Formosan Medical Association = Taiwan Yi Zhi | volume = 119 Suppl 1 | pages = S67–S75 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32446754 | doi = 10.1016/j.jfma.2020.05.006 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' adalah spesies bakteri yang menyebabkan [[tuberkulosis]], sebuah infeksi pernapasan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gordon SV, Parish T | title = Microbe Profile: Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Humanity's deadly microbial foe | journal = Microbiology | volume = 164 | issue = 4 | pages = 437–439 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29465344 | doi = 10.1099/mic.0.000601 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' adalah spesies bakteri yang dapat menyebabkan infeksi pernapasan dan sering diasosiasikan dengan [[fibrosis sistik]] dan infeksi nosokomial.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pang Z, Raudonis R, Glick BR, Lin TJ, Cheng Z | title = Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: mechanisms and alternative therapeutic strategies | journal = Biotechnology Advances | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 177–192 | date = January–February 2019 | pmid = 30500353 | doi = 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.11.013 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Salmonella]]'' adalah [[genus]] bakteri yang menyebabkan infeksi pencernaan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lamas A, Miranda JM, Regal P, Vázquez B, Franco CM, Cepeda A | title = A comprehensive review of non-enterica subspecies of Salmonella enterica | journal = Microbiological Research | volume = 206 | pages = 60–73 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 29146261 | doi = 10.1016/j.micres.2017.09.010 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' adalah spesies bakteri yang menyebabkan infeksi kulit, [[sepsis]], dan kondisi patologis lainnya. Spesies ini telah mengalami evolusi hingga terdapat galur yang [[Resistansi obat|resistan terhadap obat]], termasuk [[MRSA]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jenul C, Horswill AR | title = Regulation of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' Virulence | journal = Microbiology Spectrum | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30953424 | pmc = 6452892 | doi = 10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0031-2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kong C, Neoh HM, Nathan S | title = Targeting Staphylococcus aureus Toxins: A Potential form of Anti-Virulence Therapy | journal = Toxins | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 72 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26999200 | pmc = 4810217 | doi = 10.3390/toxins8030072 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' adalah spesies bakteri yang menyebabkan infeksi pernapasan.<ref name=":2" />
* ''[[Streptococcus pyogenes]]'' (juga dikenal sebagai ''Streptococcus'' grup A) adalah spesies bakteri yang menyebabkan berbagai kondisi patologis, termasuk [[impetigo]] dan [[faringitis streptokokus]], serta berbagai penyakit lain yang lebih serius.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jespersen MG, Lacey JA, Tong SY, Davies MR | title = Global genomic epidemiology of Streptococcus pyogenes | journal = Infection, Genetics and Evolution | volume = 86 | pages = 104609 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33147506 | doi = 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104609 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brouwer S, Barnett TC, Rivera-Hernandez T, Rohde M, Walker MJ | title = Streptococcus pyogenes adhesion and colonization | journal = FEBS Letters | volume = 590 | issue = 21 | pages = 3739–3757 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27312939 | doi = 10.1002/1873-3468.12254 | hdl = 10033/619157 | s2cid = 205213711 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
=== Fungi ===
* ''[[Aspergillus]]'' adalah jamur yang diasosiasikan dengan infeksi pernapasan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Latgé JP, Chamilos G | title = Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillosis in 2019 | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = e00140–18, /cmr/33/1/CMR.00140–18.atom | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31722890 | pmc = 6860006 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.00140-18 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = José RJ, Periselneris JN, Brown JS | title = Opportunistic bacterial, viral and fungal infections of the lung | journal = Medicine | volume = 48 | issue = 6 | pages = 366–372 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32390758 | pmc = 7206443 | doi = 10.1016/j.mpmed.2020.03.006 }}</ref>
* ''[[Candida albicans]]'' adalah spesies jamur yang diasosiasikan dengan [[Oral candidiasis|oral thrush]] dan infeksi pencernaan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Akpan A, Morgan R | title = Oral candidiasis | journal = Postgraduate Medical Journal | volume = 78 | issue = 922 | pages = 455–9 | date = August 2002 | pmid = 12185216 | pmc = 1742467 | doi = 10.1136/pmj.78.922.455 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Erdogan A, Rao SS | title = Small intestinal fungal overgrowth | journal = Current Gastroenterology Reports | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 16 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25786900 | doi = 10.1007/s11894-015-0436-2 | s2cid = 3098136 }}</ref>
* ''[[Coccidioides immitis]]'' adalah spesies jamur yang menyebabkan [[koksidiomikosis]] yang lebih dikenal dengan demam lembah.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mu A, Shein TT, Jayachandran P, Paul S | title = Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome in Patients with AIDS and Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | journal = Journal of the International Association of Providers of AIDS Care | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 540–545 | date = 2017-09-14 | pmid = 28911256 | doi = 10.1177/2325957417729751 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Cryptococcus neoformans]]'' adalah spesies jamur yang menyebabkan [[kriptokokosis]] yang dapat berkembang menjadi infeksi paru dan infeksi sistem saraf, seperti [[meningitis]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwon-Chung KJ, Fraser JA, Doering TL, Wang Z, Janbon G, Idnurm A, Bahn YS | title = Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the etiologic agents of cryptococcosis | journal = Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 7 | pages = a019760 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24985132 | pmc = 4066639 | doi = 10.1101/cshperspect.a019760 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Maziarz EK, Perfect JR | title = Cryptococcosis | journal = Infectious Disease Clinics of North America | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 179–206 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26897067 | pmc = 5808417 | doi = 10.1016/j.idc.2015.10.006 }}</ref>
* ''[[Histoplasma capsulatum]]'' adalah spesies jamur yang menyebabkan [[histoplasmosis]], dengan berbagai manifestasi klinis, tetapi pada umumnya melibatkan sistem pernapasan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Horwath MC, Fecher RA, Deepe GS | title = Histoplasma capsulatum, lung infection and immunity | journal = Future Microbiology | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 967–75 | date = 2015-06-10 | pmid = 26059620 | pmc = 4478585 | doi = 10.2217/fmb.15.25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mittal J, Ponce MG, Gendlina I, Nosanchuk JD | title = Histoplasma Capsulatum: Mechanisms for Pathogenesis | journal = Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology | volume = 422 | pages = 157–191 | date = 2018 | pmid = 30043340 | pmc = 7212190 | doi = 10.1007/82_2018_114 | publisher = Springer International Publishing | isbn = 978-3-030-30236-8 | place = Cham | veditors = Rodrigues ML }}</ref>
* ''[[Pseudogymnoascus destructans]]'' (dulu dikenal sebagai ''Geomyces destructans'') adalah spesies jamur yang menyebabkan [[sindrom hidung putih]] pada kelelawar.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Seyedmousavi S, Bosco SM, de Hoog S, Ebel F, Elad D, Gomes RR, Jacobsen ID, Jensen HE, Martel A, Mignon B, Pasmans F, Piecková E, Rodrigues AM, Singh K, Vicente VA, Wibbelt G, Wiederhold NP, Guillot J | display-authors = 6 | title = Fungal infections in animals: a patchwork of different situations | journal = Medical Mycology | volume = 56 | issue = suppl_1 | pages = 165–187 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29538732 | pmc = 6251577 | doi = 10.1093/mmy/myx104 }}</ref>
* ''[[Microsporidia]]'' adalah kelompok jamur yang menginfeksi beragam takson dalam kerajaan hewan; salah satu spesiesnya menyebabkan [[mikrosporodiosis]] pada manusia dengan sistem imun yang lemah.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stentiford GD, Becnel JJ, Weiss LM, Keeling PJ, Didier ES, Bjornson S, Freeman MA, Brown MJ, Roesel K, Sokolova Y, Snowden KF, Solter L | display-authors = 6 | title = Microsporidia - Emergent Pathogens in the Global Food Chain | journal = Trends in Parasitology | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 336–348 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26796229 | pmc = 4818719 | doi = 10.1016/j.pt.2015.12.004 }}</ref>
* ''[[Pneumocystis jirovecii]]'' (dulu dikenal sebagai ''Pneumocystis carinii'') adalah spesies jamur yang menyebabkan [[pneumonia pneumosistis]], sebuah infeksi pernapasan.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sokulska M, Kicia M, Wesołowska M, Hendrich AB | title = Pneumocystis jirovecii--from a commensal to pathogen: clinical and diagnostic review | journal = Parasitology Research | volume = 114 | issue = 10 | pages = 3577–85 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26281787 | pmc = 4562001 | doi = 10.1007/s00436-015-4678-6 }}</ref>
===
* ''[[Cryptosporidium]]'' adalah genus [[protozoa]] yang menginfeksi [[saluran pencernaan]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gerace E, Lo Presti VD, Biondo C | title = ''Cryptosporidium'' Infection: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Differential Diagnosis | journal = European Journal of Microbiology & Immunology | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 119–123 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31934363 | pmc = 6945992 | doi = 10.1556/1886.2019.00019 }}</ref>
* ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' adalah spesies protozoa yang menyebabkan [[toksoplasmosis]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mendez OA, Koshy AA | title = Toxoplasma gondii: Entry, association, and physiological influence on the central nervous system | journal = PLOS Pathogens | volume = 13 | issue = 7 | pages = e1006351 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28727854 | pmc = 5519211 | doi = 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006351 | veditors = Gubbels MJ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunter CA, Sibley LD | title = Modulation of innate immunity by Toxoplasma gondii virulence effectors | journal = Nature Reviews. Microbiology | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | pages = 766–78 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23070557 | pmc = 3689224 | doi = 10.1038/nrmicro2858 }}</ref>
=== Virus ===
* ''[[Cytomegalovirus]]'' adalah famili virus oportunistik yang sering diasosiasikan dengan infeksi pernapasan.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fonseca Brito L, Brune W, Stahl FR | title = Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Pneumonitis: Cell Tropism, Inflammation, and Immunity | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 20 | issue = 16 | pages = 3865 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31398860 | pmc = 6719013 | doi = 10.3390/ijms20163865 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* ''[[Human polyomavirus 2]]'' (juga dikenal sebagai virus JC) adalah spesies virus yang menyebabkan [[leukoensefalopati multifokal progresif]] (PML).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bohra C, Sokol L, Dalia S | title = Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy and Monoclonal Antibodies: A Review | journal = Cancer Control | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 1073274817729901 | date = 2017-11-01 | pmid = 28975841 | pmc = 5937251 | doi = 10.1177/1073274817729901 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kartau M, Sipilä JO, Auvinen E, Palomäki M, Verkkoniemi-Ahola A | title = Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy: Current Insights | journal = Degenerative Neurological and Neuromuscular Disease | volume = 9 | pages = 109–121 | date = 2019-12-02 | pmid = 31819703 | pmc = 6896915 | doi = 10.2147/DNND.S203405 }}</ref>
* ''[[Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus|Human herpesvirus 8]]'' adalah spesies virus yang diasosiasikan dengan [[sarkoma Kaposi]], salah satu tipe kanker.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Radu O, Pantanowitz L | title = Kaposi sarcoma | journal = Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine | volume = 137 | issue = 2 | pages = 289–94 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23368874 | doi = 10.5858/arpa.2012-0101-RS | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cesarman E, Damania B, Krown SE, Martin J, Bower M, Whitby D | title = Kaposi sarcoma | journal = Nature Reviews. Disease Primers | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 9 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30705286 | pmc = 6685213 | doi = 10.1038/s41572-019-0060-9 }}</ref>
== Penyebab ==
[[Imunodefisiensi]] atau [[imunosupresi]] ditandai dengan tidak adanya atau gangguan pada komponen sistem imun, yang menyebabkan turunnya fungsi imun secara umum imunitas terhadap patogen. Kedua kondisi ini dapat disebabkan oleh berbagai faktor, termasuk:
* [[Malnutrisi]]
* [[Kelelahan]]
* Infeksi berulang atau kambuh
* Pemberian [[obat imunosupresif]] bagi penerima [[transplantasi organ]]
* Pemberian [[kemoterapi]] untuk [[kanker]]
▲* [[AIDS]] atau infeksi [[HIV]]
▲* Kerusakan [[kulit]]
* Pemberian [[antibiotik]] yang selanjutnya mengganggu keseimbangan [[mikrobioma]] dan memungkinkan beberapa [[mikroorganisme]] mengalahkan mikroorganisme yang lain dan menjadi patogen (misalnya gangguan [[mikrobiota usus]] dapat menyebabkan infeksi ''Clostridium difficile'')
* Kehamilan
* Penuaan
* [[Leukopenia]] (misalnya [[neutropenia]] dan [[limfositopenia]])
* [[Luka bakar]]
* Gangguan atau ketidakseimbangan mikrobiota vagina yang kemudian memungkinkan proliferasi mikroorganisme oportunistik dan menyebabkan [[vaginosis bakterialis]].<ref name="AfricaNel2014">{{cite journal|date=July 2014|title=Anaerobes and bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy: virulence factors contributing to vaginal colonisation|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=11|issue=7|pages=6979–7000|doi=10.3390/ijerph110706979|pmc=4113856|pmid=25014248|vauthors=Africa CW, Nel J, Stemmet M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Mastro2013">{{cite journal|date=July 2013|title=Bacterial vaginosis: a review on clinical trials with probiotics|url=http://www.newmicrobiologica.org/PUB/allegati_pdf/2013/3/229.pdf|journal=The New Microbiologica|volume=36|issue=3|pages=229–38|pmid=23912864|vauthors=Mastromarino P, Vitali B, Mosca L}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=July 2013|title=Bacterial vaginosis: a review on clinical trials with probiotics|url=http://www.newmicrobiologica.org/PUB/allegati_pdf/2013/3/229.pdf|journal=The New Microbiologica|volume=36|issue=3|pages=229–38|pmid=23912864|vauthors=Mastromarino P, Vitali B, Mosca L}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=April 2011|title=First report of Atopobium vaginae bacteremia with fetal loss after chorionic villus sampling|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=49|issue=4|pages=1684–6|doi=10.1128/JCM.01655-10|pmc=3122803|pmid=21289141|vauthors=Knoester M, Lashley LE, Wessels E, Oepkes D, Kuijper EJ}}</ref>
== Referensi ==
{{reflist|30em}}
{{Konsep dalam penyakit infeksius}}
[[Kategori:Penyakit menular]]
[[Kategori:Penyakit sistem kekebalan]]
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