Bahasa Inggris: Perbedaan antara revisi

|fam3 fam2 = [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat = {{PBahasa|Jermanik Barat]]}}

|fam5 fam4 = [[Rumpun bahasa Anglo-FrisiaJermanik Laut Utara|Anglo–FrisiaJermanik Laut Utara]]

|fam6 fam5 = [[Rumpun bahasa InggrisAnglo-Frisia|AnglikAnglo-Frisia]]

| ancestor3=[[Bahasa Inggris Modern Awal = {{PBahasa|Inggris Modern Awal]]Kuno}}

'''Bahasa Inggris''' (''English'') adalah sebuah [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik|bahasa Jermanik]] yang pertama kali dituturkan di [[Inggris]] pada [[Abad Pertengahan|Abad Pertengahan Awal]] dan saat ini merupakan bahasa yang paling umum digunakan di seluruh dunia.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mydans|first=Seth|date=14-05-2007|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/14/world/asia/14iht-14englede.5705671.html|title=Across cultures, English is the word|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=21-09-2011|language=bahasa Inggris|archive-date=2021-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815214955/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/14/world/asia/14iht-14englede.5705671.html|dead-url=no}}</ref> Bahasa Inggris dituturkan sebagai bahasa pertama oleh mayoritas penduduk di berbagai negara, termasukantara lain di [[Britania Raya|Inggris Raya]], [[Republik Irlandia|Irlandia]], [[Amerika Serikat]], [[Kanada]], [[Australia]], [[Selandia Baru]], dan sejumlah negara-negara [[Karibia]]; serta menjadi [[bahasa resmi]] di [[Daftar negara yang menuturkan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa resmi|hampir 60 negara berdaulat]]. Bahasa Inggris adalah [[bahasa ibu]] ketiga yang paling banyak dituturkan di seluruh dunia, setelah [[bahasa Mandarin]] dan [[bahasa Spanyol|Spanyol]].<ref name="ethnologue" >{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|accessdate=10-02-2015 |editor1-last=Lewis |editor1-first=M.Paul |editor2-first=Simons |editor2-last=Gary F. |editor3-first=Charles D. |editor3-last=Fennig|website=Ethnologue|edition=18th|location=Dallas, Texas|publisher=SIL International}}</ref> Bahasa Inggris juga digunakan sebagai [[bahasa kedua]] dan bahasa resmi oleh [[Uni Eropa]], [[Negara Persemakmuran]], dan [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], serta beragam [[organisasi]] lainnya.

Bahasa Inggris berkembang pertama kali di [[Kerajaankerajaan-kerajaan Anglo-Saxon]] Inggris dan di wilayah yang saat ini membentukmerupakan [[Skotlandia]] tenggara. Setelah meluasnya pengaruh [[BritaniaInggris Raya]] pada abad ke-17 dan ke-20 melalui [[Imperium Britania Raya|Imperium Inggris Raya]], bahasa Inggris [[Dunia berbahasa Inggris|tersebar luas]] di seluruh [[dunia]].{{sfn|Ammon|2006|p=2245-2247}}{{sfn|Schneider|2007|p=1}}{{sfn|Mazrui|Mazrui|1998|p=21}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fakultas Adab dan Humaniora UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung|last2=Kustanti|first2=Dewi|last3=Prihmayadi|first3=Yadi|date=2017-06-20|title=PROBLEMATIKA BUDAYA BERBICARA BAHASA INGGRIS|url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/jat/article/view/1798/1197|journal=Al-Tsaqafa: Jurnal Ilmiah Peradaban Islam|volume=14|issue=1|pages=161–174|doi=10.15575/al-tsaqafa.v14i1.1798|access-date=2023-01-07|archive-date=2023-01-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107061906/https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/jat/article/view/1798/1197|dead-url=no}}</ref> Di samping itu, luasnya penggunaan bahasa Inggris juga disebabkan oleh penyebaran kebudayaan dan teknologi [[Amerika Serikat]] yang mendominasi di sepanjang abad ke-20.<ref>Hjarvard, Stig (2004) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908064103/http://www.nordicom.gu.se/common/publ_pdf/157_075-098.pdf "The globalization of language: How the media contribute to the spread of English and the emergence of medialects"] Trans. Charly Hultén. ''Nordicom Review''. Retrieved 30 December 2014.</ref> Hal-hal tersebut telah menyebabkan bahasa Inggris saat ini menjadi [[bahasaBahasa duniainternasional|bahasa utama]] dan secara tidak resmi (''[[de facto]]'') dianggap sebagai ''[[linguabasantara|bahasa francapenghubung]] (''lingua franca'') di berbagai belahan dunia.{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=6}}{{sfn|Wardhaugh|2010|p=55}}

Menurut sejarahnya, bahasa Inggris berasal dari peleburan beragam dialek terkaityang saling berkerabat, yang saatdi inizaman sekarang secara kolektif dikenal sebagai [[bahasa Inggris Kuno]], yang dibawa ke pantai timur [[Pulau Britania Raya]] oleh pendatang [[BangsaSuku bangsa Jermanik|Jermanik]] ([[Anglo-Saxons]]Saxon) pada abad ke-5; kata ''English''' berasal dari nama suku [[AnglesSuku Angli|Angli]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |title=English&nbsp;– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |accessdate=4 November 2012 |archive-date=2015-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325140932/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/english |dead-url=no }}</ref> SukuBangsa Anglo-SaxonsSaxon ini sendiri berasal dari wilayah [[AngelnAnglia]] (saat ini [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Jerman]]). Bahasa Inggris awal juga dipengaruhi oleh [[bahasa NorseNordik Kuno]] setelah [[Viking]] menaklukkan [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] pada abad ke-9 dan ke-10.

[[Penaklukan Normandia di Inggris|Penaklukan Normandiaoleh terhadap InggrisNorman]] pada abad ke-11 menyebabkan bahasa Inggris juga mendapat pengaruh dari [[bahasa Norman|bahasa Prancis Norman]], dan [[kosakata]] serta [[ejaan]] dalam bahasa Inggris mulai dipengaruhi oleh bahasa [[bahasa Latin]] [[Romawi]] (meskipun bahasa Inggris sendiri bukanlahbukan termasuk [[rumpun bahasa RomawiRoman]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab13 |title=Words on the brain: from 1&nbsp;million years ago? |work=History of language |accessdate=5 September 2010 |archive-date=2013-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928225527/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab13 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orbilat.com/Influences_of_Romance/English/RIFL-English-Latin-The_Inflluences_on_Old_English.html |title=Latin Influences on Old English |author=Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas |year=1978 |work=An excerpt from Foreign Influences on Old English |accessdate=5 September 2010 |archive-date=2010-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127073603/http://orbilat.com/Influences_of_Romance/English/RIFL-English-Latin-The_Inflluences_on_Old_English.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> yang kemudian dikenal dengan [[bahasa Inggris Pertengahan]]. [[Pergeseran Vokal Besar]] yang dimulai di Inggris bagian selatan pada abad ke-15 adalah salah satu peristiwa bersejarah yang menandai peralihan bahasa Inggris Pertengahan menjadi [[bahasa Inggris Modern]].

Selain bahasa Anglo-SaxonsSaxon dan [[bahasa Prancis Norman]], sejumlah besar kata dalam bahasa Inggris juga berakar dari [[bahasa Latin]], karena bahasa Latin adalah ''[[lingua franca]]'' [[Kekristenan|Gereja Kristen]] dan bahasa utama di kalangan intelektual [[Eropa]],<ref name="Weissbort">Daniel Weissbort (2006). "Translation: theory and practice: a historical reader". p.100. Oxford University Press, 2006</ref> dan telah menjadi dasar kosakata bagi bahasa Inggris modern.

Karena telah mengalami perpaduan beragam kata dari berbagai bahasa di sepanjang sejarah, bahasa Inggris modern memiliki kosakata yang sangat banyak, dengan pengejaanejaan yang kompleks dan tidak teratur (''irregular''), khususnya vokal. Bahasa Inggris modern tidak hanya merupakan perpaduan dari bahasa-bahasa Eropa, tetapi juga dari berbagai bahasa di seluruh dunia. ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' memuat daftar lebih dari 250.000 kata berbeda, tidak termasuk istilah-istilah teknis, sains, dan ''[[bahasa gaul|slang]]'' (bahasa gaul'']]) yang jumlahnya juga sangat banyak.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |title=How many words are there in the English Language? |website=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=bahasa Inggris|accessdate=19-02-2016|archive-date=2011-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130011051/http://oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm |title=Vista Worldwide Language Statistics |publisher=Vistawide.com |accessdate=31-10-2010 |language=bahasa Inggris |archive-date=2016-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120144244/http://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm |dead-url=no }}</ref>

Kata ''English'' berasal dari eponim ''Angle'', nama suku Jermanik yang diperkirakan berasal dari wilayah Angeln di [[JutlandJutlandia]] (sekarang Jerman utara).<ref>{{OEtymD|english}}</ref> Untuk kemungkinan [[etimologi]] kata ini, lihat artikel [[Angeln]] dan [[Suku Angli|Angles]].

Bahasa Inggris modern, kadang digambarkan sebagai ''[[lingua franca]]'' global pertama,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Global English: gift or curse? |doi=10.1017/S0266078405002075 |year=2005 |last1=Smith |first1=Ross |journal=English Today |volume=21 |issue=2 |page=56}}</ref><ref name = "Graddol"/> adalah [[Imperialisme linguistik|bahasa dominan]], atau dalam beberapa kasus bahkan ditetapkan sebagai [[bahasa bantu internasional|bahasa internasional]] dalam bidang komunikasi, sains, teknologi informasi, bisnis, kelautan,<ref>{{cite web|title=IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases|url=http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx|publisher=International Maritime Organization|accessdate=18-02-2016|archive-date=2011-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003233938/http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx|dead-url=yes}}</ref> kedirgantaraan,<ref>{{cite web|title=FAQ – Language proficiency requirements for licence holders – In which languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency?|url=http://www.icao.int/icao/en/trivia/peltrgFAQ.htm#23|publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau|accessdate=02-06-2011|archive-date=2009-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220142943/http://icao.int/icao/en/trivia/peltrgFAQ.htm#23|dead-url=no}}</ref> hiburan, radio, dan diplomasi.<ref name="triumph">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=883997|title=The triumph of English|accessdate=26-03-2007|date=20-12-2001|publisher=The Economist |archive-date=2017-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326145147/http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=883997|dead-url=no}}{{subscription}}</ref> Penyebaran bahasa Inggris di luar [[Kepulauan Britania]] dimulai dengan pertumbuhan [[Imperium Britania]], dan pada abad ke-19 jangkauannya telah global.<ref name="wwenglish">{{cite web |url=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20070401233529/http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php |title=Lecture 7: World-Wide English |accessdate=26-03-2007 |publisher=_EHistLing |archive-date=2007-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070401233529/http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php |dead-url=nounfit }}</ref> Setelah [[Imperium Britania|kolonisasi Britania]] sejak abad ke-16 hingga ke-19, bahasa Inggris menjadi bahasa dominan di [[Amerika Serikat]], [[Kanada]], [[Australia]], dan [[Selandia Baru]]. Pertumbuhan pengaruh budaya dan ekonomi Amerika Serikat dan statusnya sebagai [[negara adidaya]] global sejak [[Perang Dunia II]] turut mempercepat penyebaran bahasa Inggris ke seluruh dunia.<ref name="Graddol">{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/de/learning-elt-future.pdf |format=PDF |title=The Future of English? |accessdate=15-04-2007 |year=1997 |author=[[David Graddol]] |publisher=The British Council |archive-date=2014-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628012917/http://www.britishcouncil.org/de/learning-elt-future.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Bahasa Inggris menggantikan [[bahasa Jerman]] sebagai bahasa sains yang dominan dalam penghargaan [[Hadiah Nobel]] pada paruh kedua abad ke-20.<ref>Graphics: [https://web.archive.org/web/20140617193031/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/scilang.html English replacing German as language of Science Nobel Prize winners]. From [[Jürgen Schmidhuber|J. Schmidhuber]] (2010), [https://web.archive.org/web/20140327012415/http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/nobelshare.html Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century] at [httphttps://arxivweb.archive.org/absweb/100920140102222720/http://www.2634idsia.ch/~juergen/sci.html arXiv:1009.2634v1]</ref> Bahasa Inggris telah menyamai dan bahkan telah melampaui [[bahasa Prancis]] sebagai bahasa dominan dalam dunia diplomasi pada paruh kedua abad ke-19.

Kemampuan berbahasa Inggris telah menjadi kebutuhan dalam sejumlah bidang ilmu, pekerjaan, dan profesi semisal [[kedokteran]] dan [[komputasi]]; sebagai akibatnya, lebih dari satu miliar orang di dunia bisa berbahasa Inggris setidaknya pada tingkat dasar (lihat [[bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua atau internasional]]). Bahasa Inggris adalah salah satu dari enam bahasa resmi [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/languages.shtml |title=UN official languages |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=20-04-2013 |archive-date=2011-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826011927/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/languages.shtml |dead-url=no }}</ref>

Salah satu dampak pertumbuhan bahasa Inggris adalah berkurangnya [[Ragam bahasa|keragaman bahasa]] di berbagai belahan dunia. Pengaruh bahasa Inggris berperan penting dalam [[kepunahan bahasa]].<ref name="Crystal-LanguageDeath">{{cite book|last = Crystal|first = David|authorlink = David Crystal|title = Language Death|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]|year = 2002|doi = 10.2277/0521012716|isbn = 0-521-01271-6 }}</ref> Sebaliknya, berbagai keragaman bahasa Inggris juga berpotensi menciptakan bahasa-bahasa baru dari waktu ke waktu, bersama dengan [[bahasa kreol]] dan [[pidginsbahasa pijin]].<ref name="Cheshire">{{cite book|last = Cheshire|first = Jenny|authorlink = Jenny Cheshire|title = English Around The World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]|year = 1991|doi = 10.2277/0521395658|isbn = 0-521-39565-8 }}</ref>

{{legend|#FFFF00|[[Bahasa Belanda|Belanda]] (serta [[Bahasa Afrikaans|bahasa Afrikaans]] di Afrika)}}

Bahasa Inggris merupakan bahasa [[Rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa|Indo-Eropa]] yang termasuk ke dalam cabang [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat|Jermanik Barat]] dari subrumpun [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik|Jermanik]].{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|pp=29–30}} [[Bahasa Inggris Kuno]] [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|berasal]] dari sebuah wilayah [[kesinambungan dialek]] dan budaya di sekujur pesisir [[Laut Utara]] [[Frisia]]. Ragam tutur di wilayah ini secara bertahap berkembang menjadi [[Rumpun bahasa Inggris|bahasa-bahasa Anglik]] di [[Kepulauan Britania]] serta [[Bahasa Frisia|bahasa-bahasa Frisia]] dan [[Jerman Hulu|Jerman Hulu/Saksen Hulu]] di [[Eropa Daratan]]. Bahasa-bahasa Frisia merupakan kerabat terdekat bagi bahasa Inggris dan bahasa-bahasa Anglik lainnya; keseluruhan bahasa ini tergabung dalam subkelompok [[Rumpun bahasa Anglo-Frisia|Anglo-Frisia]]. Ragam tutur Jerman Hulu/Saksen Hulu juga berkerabat dekat dengan subkelompok ini; terkadang bahasa-bahasa Inggris, Frisia, dan Jerman Hulu digolongkan ke dalam subkelompok [[Rumpun bahasa Ingvaeonik|Ingvaeonik (Jermanik Laut Utara)]], walaupun pengelompokan ini masih diperselisihkan keabsahannya.{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|p=30}} Bahasa Inggris Kuno berevolusi menjadi [[bahasa Inggris Pertengahan]], yang kemudian menurunkan bahasa Inggris Modern.{{sfn|Robinson|1992}} Beberap ragam tutur bahasa Inggris Kuno dan Pertengahan juga berkembang menjadi bahasa-bahasa Anglik lainnya, seperti [[Bahasa Scots|Bahasa Skot]] yang dituturkan di Skotlandia{{sfn|Romaine|1982|pp=56–65}}, atau ragam [[Dialek Fingal|Fingal]] serta [[Dialek Forth dan Bargy|Forth dan Bargy (Yola)]] di Irlandia.{{sfn|Barry|1982|pp=86–87}}

Sebagaimana [[Bahasa Islandia|bahasa Islandia]] dan [[Bahasa Faroe|Faroe]] yang berkembang di kepulauan terpisah dari daratan Eropa, perkembangan bahasa Inggris di [[Kepulauan Britania]] membuatnya terisolasi dari pengaruh bahasa-bahasa Jermanik daratan. Bahasa Inggris pun berubah secara signifikan. Bahasa Inggris tidak [[kesalingpahaman|berkesalingpahaman]] dengan bahasa Jermanik kontinental mana pun, akibat perbedaan dalam hal [[Leksikon|kosa kata]], [[sintaksis]], dan [[fonologi]]. Walaupun begitu, beberapa di antaranya, seperti bahasa Belanda dan Frisia, memiliki kedekatan yang kuat dengan bahasa Inggris, terutama pada tahap-tahap awal pembetukannya.{{sfn|Harbert|2007}}

Bahasa Inggris berasal dari dialek [[Bahasa Ingvaeonik|Jermanik Laut Utara]] yang dibawa ke Britania oleh [[Suku-suku Jermanik|pemukim Jermanik]] dari berbagai wilayah yang saat ini dikenal dengan Belanda, Jerman utara, dan [[Denmark]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Blench|first1=R.|last2=Spriggs|first2=Matthew|title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating Archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses|pages=285–286|year=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-11761-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286 |access-date=2014-01-20|archive-date=2023-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416141846/https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286&hl=en|dead-url=no}}</ref> Menjelang periode ini, penduduk [[Britania Romawi]] berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan bahasa [[Brittonik]], [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|Keltik]], beserta bahasa-bahasa Romawi yang dipengaruhi oleh bahasa Latin setelah pendudukan Romawi yang berlangsung selama 400 tahun.<ref>[httphttps://wwwweb.archive.org/web/20140209095822/http://information-britain.co.uk/historydetails/article/2/ ''"The Roman epoch in Britain lasted for 367 years"''], Information Britain website</ref> Salah satu suku Jermanik yang datang ke Britania adalah [[Angles]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm |title=Anglik English language resource |publisher=Anglik.net |accessdate=21 April 2010 |archive-date=2002-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020604161756/http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> yang diperkirakan pindah seluruhnya ke Britania.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.i.xiv.html |title=Bede's Ecclesiastical History of England &#124; Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |accessdate=2 January 2010 |archive-date=2019-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308011702/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.i.xiv.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> Nama ''England'' (dari ''Engla land''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 | title=Engla land | work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) | author=Bosworth, Joseph | authorlink=Joseph Bosworth | coauthors=Toller, T. Northcote | location=Prague | publisher=[[Charles University]] | access-date=2014-01-20 | archive-date=2012-12-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212612/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 | dead-url=no }}</ref> "''Land of the Angles''") and ''English'' (Old English ''Englisc''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009433 | title=Englisc | work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) | author=Bosworth, Joseph | authorlink=Joseph Bosworth | coauthors=Toller, T. Northcote | location=Prague | publisher=[[Charles University]] | access-date=2014-01-20 | archive-date=2012-12-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212844/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009433 | dead-url=no }}</ref>) berasal dari nama suku ini{{ndash}}meskipun suku-suku Jermanik lainnya seperti [[Saxon]], [[Jute]], dan suku-suku dari pantai [[Frisia]], [[Saxon Hulu]], [[Jutlandia|Jutland]], dan [[Swedia]] selatan juga pindah ke Britania pada periode ini.<ref>{{cite book|last=Collingwood|first=R. G.|authorlink=R. G. Collingwood|coauthors=et al|title=Roman Britain and English Settlements|publisher=Clarendon|location=Oxford, England|year=1936|pages=325 et&nbsp;sec|chapter=The English Settlements. The Sources for the period: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes on the Continent|isbn=0-8196-1160-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html |title=Linguistics Research Center Texas University |publisher=Utexas.edu |date=20 February 2009 |accessdate=21 April 2010 |archive-date=2016-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220085927/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |title=The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe, Calgary University |publisher=Ucalgary.ca |accessdate=21 April 2010 |archive-date=2013-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812103150/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

Pergeseran linguistik dalam bahasa Inggris setelah pendudukan Normandia menghasilkan bahasa baru yang saat ini dikenal dengan [[bahasa Inggris Pertengahan]]; ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' karya [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] adalah karya terkenal yang ditulis dalam bahasa ini. Pada periode ini, bahasa Latin merupakan ''lingua franca'' di kalangan Gereja Kristen dan intelektual Eropa, dan karya-karya ditulis atau disalin dalam bahasa Latin.<ref name="Weissbort"/> Kata-kata Latin kemudian turut diserap untuk menciptakan istilah atau konsep yang tidak terdapat dalam kata bahasa Inggris asli.

Bahasa Inggris berasal dari rumpun bahasa [[Rumpun bahasa Anglo-Frisia|Anglo-Frisia]], subkelompok dari [[Rumpun bahasa Jermanik Barat|bahasa Jermanik Barat]]. Bahasa Jermanik Barat sendiri adalah salah satu cabang dari [[rumpun bahasa Jermanik]], sedangkan Jermanik adalah bagian dari [[rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa]]. Bahasa Inggris modern diturunkan secara langsung dari [[bahasa Inggris Pertengahan]]; Inggris Pertengahan diturunkan dari [[bahasa Inggris Kuno]], yang juga diturunkan dari [[bahasa Proto-Jermanik]]. Seperti kebanyakan bahasa Jermanik lainnya, bahasa Inggris dicirikan dengan penggunaan [[kata kerja pengandaian]], pembagian kata kerja menjadi [[kata kerja kuat Jermanik|kata kerja kuat]] dan [[kata kerja lemah Jermanik|lemah]], dan pergeseran pelafalan dari [[bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa]], yang dikenal dengan [[hukum Grimm]]. Bahasa kerabat terdekat dengan bahasa Inggris (selain bahasa-bahasa yang tergolong dalam [[rumpun bahasa Inggris]] dan bahasa Inggris kreol) adalah [[bahasa Frisia]], yang berasal dari pantai selatan [[Laut Utara]] di [[Belanda]], [[Jerman]], dan [[Denmark]].

[[Berkas:Øvre Stabu spearhead.png|jmpl|300px|kiri|[[Ujung tombak Øvre Stabu]] dari abad ke-2 yang bertuliskan ''Raunijaz'' ("tester") dalam [[bahasa Proto-Norse]], salah satu sampel tertulis bahasa Jermanik paling awal.]]

[[Berkas:PercentageEnglish ofProficiency English speakersIndex by country and dependency as of 2014.svg|upright=1.2|jmpl|420px|Persentase penutur bahasa Inggris berdasarkan negara dan wilayah dependen pada tahun 2014.

[[Berkas:Map of English native speakers.png|upright=1.2|jmpl|300px|Persentase pengguna bahasa Inggris sebagai [[bahasa ibu]]]]

Pada tahun 2016, sekitar 400&nbsp;juta orang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai [[bahasa ibu|bahasa pertama]] mereka, sementara 1.1&nbsp;milyar orang menuturkannya sebagai bahasa kedua.<ref>{{cite web|title=Which countries are best at English as a second language?|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b|website=World Economic Forum|access-date=29 November 2016|archive-date=2016-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125144549/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/which-countries-are-best-at-english-as-a-second-language-4d24c8c8-6cf6-4067-a753-4c82b4bc865b/|dead-url=no}}</ref> English is the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|largest language by number of speakers]]. Komunitas penutur bahasa Inggris dapat ditemui di tiap benua.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=106}}

[[Fonetik]] dan [[fonologi]] bahasa Inggris berbeda dari satu dialek ke dialek yang lain, meskipun hal ini biasanya tidak menganggumengganggu komunikasi antar penutur berbeda dialek. Keragaman fonologi menjadikan jumlah [[fonem]] (bunyi yang dapat mengubah arti) yang berbeda-beda, sementara keragaman fonetik memberikan perbedaan dalam hal realisasi pengucapan fonem-fonem tersebut. {{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=334–335}} Ringkasan berikut utamanya menjabarkan dua [[bahasa baku|sistem pengucapan baku]], yaitu Pengucapan Lazim (''[[Received Pronunciation]]'', RP) yang dipakai di [[Britania Raya]], serta logat Amerika Umum (''[[General American]]'', GA) yang dipakai di [[Amerika Serikat]].<!--(See {{slink||Dialects, accents, and varieties}}, below.)-->

Pengucapan vokal-vokal dalam bahasa Inggris amat bervariasi dari satu dialek ke dialek lainnya, dan merupakan salah satu aspek yang paling mudah dideteksi untuk mengetahui logat yang digunakan oleh penuturnya. Tabel di bawah ini mendaftar [[fonem|fonem-fonem]] vokal dalam dialek ''Received Pronunciation'' (RP) dan ''General American'' (GA), dengan contoh-contoh kata yang mengandung vokal-vokal tersebut, berdasarkan [[set kosakata]] yang disusun oleh para linguis. Vokal-vokal di sini direpresentasikan dengan simbol IPA; daftar vokal RP mengikut daftar vokal standar yang biasa ditemukan dalam kamus-kamus dan publikasi lain yang berasal dari Inggris.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wells|first=John C.|date=8 February 2001|url=https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm|title=IPA transcription systems for English|publisher=University College London|access-date=2021-09-16|archive-date=2018-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182345/https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref>

Bahasa Inggris umumnya dianggap sebagai bahasa yang ritmenya diatur oleh suku kata bertekanan (''stress-timed rhythm''); selisih waktu pengucapan antara suku kata bertekanan dalam bahasa Inggris cenderung konstan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentence stress |url=https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |website=ESOL Nexus |publisher=British Council |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=2019-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203092723/https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |dead-url=no }}</ref> Suku kata dengan tekanan diucapkan lebih panjang, sementara suku kata tanpa tekanan (yang berada di antara suku kata bertekanan) dipendekkan. Pemendekan bunyi vokal dalam suku kata tanpa tekanan menyebabkan perubahan dalam [[kualitas vokal]]; fenomena ini disebut juga dengan [[reduksi vokal]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunden |first1=Anya |title=Duration, vowel quality, and the rhythmic pattern of English |journal=Laboratory Phonology |volume=8 |pages=27 |doi=10.5334/labphon.37 |year=2017 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

! Ciri<br/>fonologi !! [[Bahasa Inggris Amerika|Amerika<br/>Serikat]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Kanada|Kanada]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Irlandia|Republik<br/>Irlandia]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Ulster|Irlandia<br/>Utara]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Skotlandia|Skotlandia]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris di Inggris|Inggris]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Wales|Wales]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Afrika Selatan|Afrika<br/>Selatan]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Australia|Australia]] !! [[Bahasa Inggris Selandia Baru|Selandia<br/>Baru]]

Beberapa dialek memiliki bunyi konsonan fonemis dan fonetis yang lebih banyak atau lebih sedikit dari jumlah bunyi dalam ragam-ragam baku. Sebagian ragam konservatif seperti bahasa Inggris Skotlandia menggunakan bunyi [[suara (fonetik)|nirsuara]] {{IPAblink|ʍ}} dalam kata ''whine'' 'mengeluh', kontras dengan bunyi {{IPA|[w]}} dalam kata ''wine'' '(minuman) anggur' yang menggunakan getaran pita suara. Sementara itu, kebanyakan dialek lainnya menggunakan {{IPA|[w]}} dalam kedua kondisi; ciri ini disebut juga sebagai [[Merger konsonan wine–whine merger|merger konsonan ''wine''–''whine'']]. Bunyi frikatif velar nirsuara {{IPA|/x/}} dapat ditemukan dalam bahasa Inggris Skotlandia, yang membedakan antara pengucapan kata ''loch'' {{IPA|/lɔx/}} 'danau' dengan kata ''lock'' {{IPA|/lɔk/}} 'mengunci, gembok'. Logat seperti [[Cockney]] yang mengalami fenomena "penghapusan ''h''" (''h-dropping'') tidak memiliki bunyi frikatif glotal {{IPA|/h/}}, dan logat yang mengalami "penghentian ''th''" (''th-stopping'') dan "pengedepanan ''th''" (''th-fronting'') seperti [[bahasa Inggris Afrika-Amerika|dialek Afrika-Amerika]] dan [[Inggris Estuari]] tidak memiliki frikatif dental {{IPA|/θ, ð/}}, tetapi menggantinya dengan hentian dental/alveolar {{IPA|/t, d/}} atau frikatif labiodental {{IPA|/f, v/}}.{{sfn|Roach|2009|p=53}}{{sfn|Giegerich|1992|page=36}} Perubahan lain yang memengaruhi fonologi ragam-ragam tempatan di antaranya adalah penghapusan ''yod'' (penghapusan bunyi {{IPA|/j/}} dalam beberapa kondisi), peleburan ''yod'' (peleburan bunyi {{IPA|/j/}} yang membentuk kluster dengan konsonan lain menjadi bunyi sibilan), dan pemupusan kluster konsonan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wells |first1=John |title=Accents of English |url=https://archive.org/details/accentsofenglish0000well |date=1982 |isbn=0-521-28540-2}}</ref>

{{utama|AlphabetAlfabet Inggris}}

-->* {{cite book |first1=Bas |last1=Aarts |first2=Liliane |last2=Haegeman |date=2006 |chapter=6. English Word classes and Phrases |title=The Handbook of English Linguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofenglis0000unse_s1q0 |editor1-last=Aarts |editor1-first=Bas |editor2-first=April |editor2-last=McMahon |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Alcaraz Ariza |first1=M. Á. |last2=Navarro |first2=F. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542023518 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02351-8 |pages=752–759 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Medicine: Use of English |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025635/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542023518 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Annamalai |first=E. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542046113 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04611-3 |pages=610–613 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=India: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2021-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204024307/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542046113 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

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-->* {{cite book |last1=Bauer |first1=Laurie |last2=Huddleston |first2=Rodney |chapter=Chapter 19: Lexical Word-Formation |editor1-last=Huddleston |editor1-first=Rodney |editor2-last=Pullum |editor2-first=Geoffrey K. |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 |chapter-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |access-date=10 February 2015 |pages=1621–1721 |lay-url=http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~culicove/Publications/CGEL_Review.pdf |lay-date=10 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212000801/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=R. |last2=Spriggs |first2=Matthew |title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating Archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses |pages=285–286 |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-11761-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286 |access-date=2021-09-15 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200408/https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite web |last1=Bosworth |first1=Joseph |author-link1=Joseph Bosworth |last2=Toller |first2=T. Northcote |title=Engla land |work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) |date=1921 |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Charles University]] |archive-date=2012-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212612/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Brinton |first1=Laurel J. |last2=Brinton |first2=Donna M. |date=2010 |title=The linguistic structure of modern English |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-8824-0 |url=https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=2015-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501194533/https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Brutt-Griffler |first=J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006441 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00644-1 |pages=690–697 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Languages of Wider Communication |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025627/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006441 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Alistair |author-link=Alistair Campbell (academic) |title=Old English Grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishgramma00camp |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1959 |isbn=978-0-19-811943-2 }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Cercignani |first=Fausto |title=Shakespeare's works and Elizabethan pronunciation |date=1981 |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |access-date=14 March 2015 |jstor=3728688 |isbn=978-0-19-811937-1 |lay-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200400/https://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Beverley |last2=Mees |first2=Inger M. |year=2003 |orig-year=First published 1981 |title=The Phonetics of English and Dutch |url=https://archive.org/details/phoneticsofengli0000coll |edition=5th |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-10340-5 }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Connell |first=B. A. |title=Nigeria: Language Situation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542016552 |access-date=25 March 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01655-2 |pages=88–90 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924145240/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542016552 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Rubal-Lopez |first2=Alma |title=Post-Imperial English: Status Change in Former British and American Colonies, 1940–1990 |date=1996 |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-087218-7 |url=http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |access-date=2 April 2015 |page=261 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924071825/http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |title=Language Death |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2002 |url=http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139106856 |access-date=25 February 2015 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139106856 |isbn=978-1-139-10685-6 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160417/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139106856 |dead-url=yes }}

-->* {{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=English as a Global Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=69 |date=2003a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |access-date=4 February 2015 |isbn=978-0-521-53032-3 |lay-url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam041/2003282119.pdf |lay-source=Library of Congress (sample) |lay-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200407/https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003b |isbn=978-0-521-53033-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |access-date=4 February 2015 |lay-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/english-language-and-linguistics-general-interest/cambridge-encyclopedia-english-language-2nd-edition |lay-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=Subcontinent Raises Its Voice |year=2004 |url=http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |access-date=4 February 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian |archive-date=2008-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417171455/http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Daniels |editor1-first=Peter T. |editor2-last=Bright |editor2-first=William |title=The World's Writing Systems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |access-date=23 February 2015 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |lay-url=http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780195079937.do |lay-date=23 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200408/https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Dehaene |first=Stanislas |title=Reading in the Brain: The Science and Evolution of a Human Invention |date=2009 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-02110-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ |access-date=3 April 2015 |lay-url=http://readinginthebrain.pagesperso-orange.fr/intro.htm |lay-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200401/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Denning |first1=Keith |last2=Kessler |first2=Brett |last3=Leben |first3=William Ronald |title=English Vocabulary Elements |date=17 February 2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516803-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |access-date=25 February 2015 |lay-url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/english-vocabulary-elements-9780195168037?cc=us&lang=en& |lay-date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Deumert |first=A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012943 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01294-3 |pages=129–133 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Migration and Language |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025549/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012943 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Durrell |first=M. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542021891 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02189-1 |pages=53–55 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Germanic Languages |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924145318/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542021891 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |title=Summary by language size |access-date=10 February 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |ref={{harvid|Ethnologue|2010}} |archive-date=2018-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226040016/https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |dead-url=no }}

* {{cite journal |last1=Flemming |first1=Edward |last2=Johnson |first2=Stephanie |year=2007 |title=''Rosa's roses'': reduced vowels in American English |journal=[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002817 |url=http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.536.1989 |s2cid=145535175 |access-date=2021-09-15 |archive-date=2018-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182406/http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |title=English Phonology: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/englishphonology0000gieg |first=Heinz J. |last=Giegerich |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-33603-1 |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Gneuss |first=Helmut |chapter=Chapter 2: The Old English Language |editor1-last=Godden |editor1-first=Malcolm |editor2-last=Lapidge |editor2-first=Michael |date=2013 |title=The Cambridge companion to Old English literature |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000malc |edition=Second |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-15402-4 |pages=19–49[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000malc/page/19 19]–49 }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gottlieb |first=H. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542044552 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04455-2 |pages=196–206 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Linguistic Influence |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025550/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542044552 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Graddol |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Leith |editor2-first=Dick |editor3-last=Swann |editor3-first=Joan |editor4-last=Rhys |editor4-first=Martin |editor5-last=Gillen |editor5-first=Julia |title=Changing English |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |access-date=11 February 2015 |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-37679-2 |ref={{harvid|Graddol|Leith|Swann et al.|2007}} |archive-date=2015-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224062821/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Harbert |first=Wayne |title=The Germanic Languages |url=http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511755071 |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01511-0 |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511755071 |jstor=40492966 |lay-source=Language (journal of the Linguistic Society of America) |lay-date=26 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402120615/http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511755071 |dead-url=yes }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Hickey |first=R. |date=2007 |title=Irish English: History and present-day forms |url=https://archive.org/details/irishenglishhist0000hick |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}

-->* {{cite web |title=How English evolved into a global language |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |date=20 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |access-date=9 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|How English evolved into a global language|2010}} |archive-date=2015-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925173407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=How many words are there in the English language? |work=Oxford Dictionaries Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2015 |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |access-date=2 April 2015 |quote='''How many words are there in the English language?''' There is no single sensible answer to this question. It's impossible to count the number of words in a language, because it's so hard to decide what actually counts as a word. |ref={{harvid|HowManyWords|2015}} |archive-date=2011-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130011051/http://oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |dead-url=yes }}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |access-date=10 February 2015 |lay-url=http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~culicove/Publications/CGEL_Review.pdf |lay-date=10 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212000801/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite web |author=International Civil Aviation Organization |title=Personnel Licensing FAQ |url=http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |access-date=16 December 2014 |publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau |date=2011 |at=In which languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency? |quote=Controllers working on stations serving designated airports and routes used by international air services shall demonstrate language proficiency in English as well as in any other language(s) used by the station on the ground. |archive-date=2014-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220003044/http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{Cite book |last=International Phonetic Association |author-link=International Phonetic Association |date=1999 |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000inte |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-65236-0 }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kachru |first=B. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006453 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00645-3 |pages=195–202 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English: World Englishes |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025619/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006453 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |lay-date=26 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |dead-url=no }} The survey of the Germanic branch languages includes chapters by Winfred P. Lehmann, Ans van Kemenade, John Ole Askedal, Erik Andersson, Neil Jacobs, Silke Van Ness, and Suzanne Romaine.

-->* {{cite book |last=König |first=Ekkehard |chapter=17. English |pages=532–562 |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |chapter-url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |lay-date=26 February 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Labov |first=W. |date=2012|title=Dialect Diversity in America: The Politics of Language Change|url=https://archive.org/details/dialectdiversity0000labo |publisher=University of Virginia Press |chapter= 1. About Language and Language Change }}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Labov |first1=William |author-link1=William Labov |last2=Ash |first2=Sharon |last3=Boberg |first3=Charles |date=2006 |title=The Atlas of North American English |location=Berlin |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-016746-7 |url=http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/178229?rskey=eUyN34&result=2 |access-date=2 April 2015 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044744/http://www.degruyter.com/view/product/178229?rskey=eUyN34&result=2 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Lawler |first=J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045739 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04573-9 |pages=290–291 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Punctuation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025558/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045739 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last=Leech |first=G. N. |date=2006 |title=A glossary of English grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryofenglis0000leec |publisher=Edinburgh University Press }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Lim |first1=L. |last2=Ansaldo |first2=U. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017016 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01701-6 |pages=387–389 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Singapore: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025540/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017016 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url=https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |title=Macquarie Dictionary |website=Australia's National Dictionary & Thesaurus Online &#124; Macquarie Dictionary |date=2015 |publisher=Macmillan Publishers Group Australia |access-date=15 February 2015 |url-access=registration |ref={{harvid|Macquarie Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=2019-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721141547/https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Mair |first=Christian |date=2006 |title=Twentieth-century English: History, variation and standardization |url=https://archive.org/details/twentiethcentury0000mair |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Mazrui |first1=Ali A. |last2=Mazrui |first2=Alamin |title=The Power of Babel: Language and Governance in the African Experience |date=1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-51429-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |access-date=15 February 2015 |lay-url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo3618917.html |lay-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200404/https://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=McGuinness |first=Diane |title=Why Our Children Can't Read, and what We Can Do about it: A Scientific Revolution in Reading |author-link=Diane McGuinness |date=1997 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-83161-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |access-date=3 April 2015 |lay-url=http://fee.org/freeman/detail/why-our-children-cant-read-and-what-we-can-do-about-it |lay-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200441/https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Meierkord |first=C. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006416 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00641-6 |pages=163–171 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Lingua Francas as Second Languages |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025639/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006416 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=English |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=26 February 2015 |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |access-date=26 February 2015 |ref={{harvid|Merriam Webster|2015}} |archive-date=2015-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325140932/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/english |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite journal |last=Mesthrie |first=Rajend |title=New Englishes and the native speaker debate |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language-sciences_2010-11_32_6/page/594 |journal=Language Sciences |date=2010 |issn=0388-0001 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2010.08.002 |pages=594–601 |volume=32 |issue=6 }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Mountford |first=J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050185 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05018-5 |pages=156–159 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English Spelling: Rationale |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025550/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050185 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Mufwene |first=S. S. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012918 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01291-8 |pages=613–616 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Language Spread |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025600/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542012918 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{Cite book |last=Nation |first=I. S. P. |title=Learning Vocabulary in Another Language |author-link=Paul Nation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |access-date=4 February 2015 |page=477 |isbn=978-0-521-80498-1 |lay-url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/2001269892.pdf |lay-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200409/https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite web |author=National Records of Scotland |title=Census 2011: Release 2A |series=Scotland's Census 2011 |date=26 September 2013 |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402152137/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Neijt |first=A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045740 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04574-0 |pages=68–71 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Spelling Reform |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025639/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542045740 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last=Northrup |first=David |title=How English Became the Global Language |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-30306-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |access-date=25 March 2015 |lay-url=http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/how-english-became-the-global-language-david-northrup/?K=9781137303066 |lay-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200433/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite web |author=Office for National Statistics |title=Language in England and Wales, 2011 |date=4 March 2013 |periodical=2011 Census Analysis |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115009/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries |url=http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |access-date=25 February 2015 |publisher=Oxford |ref={{harvid|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=2015-02-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209040312/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Patrick |first=P. L. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006a |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017600 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01760-0 |pages=88–90 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Jamaica: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025554/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017600 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Patrick |first=P. L. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006b |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050926 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05092-6 |pages=159–163 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English, African-American Vernacular |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025630/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050926 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last=Phillipson |first=Robert |title=English-Only Europe?: Challenging Language Policy |date=28 April 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-44349-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200434/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Richter |first=Ingo |chapter=Introduction |editor1-last=Richter |editor1-first=Dagmar |editor2-last=Richter |editor2-first=Ingo |editor3-last=Toivanen |editor3-first=Reeta |display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Ulasiuk |editor4-first=Iryna |title=Language Rights Revisited: The challenge of global migration and communication |date=2012 |publisher=BWV Verlag |isbn=978-3-8305-2809-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200439/https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Romaine |first=S. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006465 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00646-5 |pages=584–596 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Language Policy in Multilingual Educational Contexts |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025554/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542006465 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite web |title=The Routes of English |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |date=1 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|The Routes of English}} |access-date=2021-09-15 |archive-date=2015-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024081346/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rowicka |first=G. J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542018484 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01848-4 |pages=194–195 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Canada: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025543/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542018484 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rubino |first=C. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017363 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01736-3 |pages=323–326 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Philippines: Language Situation |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025632/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542017363 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last=Sailaja |first=Pingali |title=Indian English |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-7486-2595-6 |series=Dialects of English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |access-date=5 April 2015 |lay-url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/indian-english-9780748625949?cc=us&lang=en& |lay-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200426/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Schiffrin |first=Deborah |date=1988 |title=Discourse Markers |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-35718-0 |series=Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |access-date=5 April 2015 |lay-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/sociolinguistics/discourse-markers |lay-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Edgar |title=Postcolonial English: Varieties Around the World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-53901-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |access-date=5 April 2015 |lay-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/sociolinguistics/postcolonial-english-varieties-around-world |lay-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200423/https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book |last=Shaywitz |first=Sally E. |title=Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-based Program for Reading Problems at Any Level |date=2003 |publisher=A.A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-375-40012-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |access-date=3 April 2015 |lay-url=http://dyslexia.yale.edu/book_Overcoming.html |lay-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200441/https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite news |last=Sheidlower |first=Jesse |title=How many words are there in English? |newspaper=Slate Magazine |date=10 April 2006 |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2139611/ |access-date=2 April 2015 |quote=The problem with trying to number the words in any language is that it's very hard to agree on the basics. For example, what is a word? |archive-date=2011-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916170635/http://www.slate.com/id/2139611/ |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Manfred|year=1977|title=Der englische Wortschatz [English Vocabulary]|location=Berlin|publisher=E. Schmidt|language=de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GchZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-3-503-01250-3|access-date=2021-09-15|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200424/https://books.google.com/books?id=GchZAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}

-->* {{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |title=Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories |date=22 August 2014 |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2018-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726032921/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Swan |first=M. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050586 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05058-6 |pages=149–156 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=English in the Present Day (Since ca. 1900) |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025601/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050586 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last1=Trask |first1=Larry |last2=Trask |first2=Robert Lawrence |title=Why Do Languages Change? |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83802-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |access-date=5 March 2015 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200449/https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Trudgill |first=P. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542015066 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01506-6 |page=14 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Accent |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025601/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542015066 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite book |last=Watts |first=Richard J. |title=Language Myths and the History of English |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532760-1 |url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001/acprof-9780195327601 |access-date=10 March 2015 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001 |lay-url=http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=4544145 |lay-date=10 March 2015 |archive-date=2015-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318165831/http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001/acprof-9780195327601 |dead-url=no }}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wojcik |first=R. H. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050811 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05081-1 |pages=139–142 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Controlled Languages |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025557/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542050811 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

-->* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wolfram |first=W. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of language & linguistics |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Keith |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044299-0 |chapter-url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542042565 |access-date=6 February 2015 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04256-5 |pages=333–341 |lay-url=http://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-language-and-linguistics-14-volume-set/brown/978-0-08-044854-1 |lay-date=6 February 2015 |chapter=Variation and Language: Overview |title=Salinan arsip |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806025635/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542042565 |dead-url=no }}{{Subscription or libraries|sentence|via=[[ScienceDirect]]}}

* {{en}} [http://esl.about.com/cs/writing/ht/ht_essay.htm How To Write an Essay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121061439/http://esl.about.com/cs/writing/ht/ht_essay.htm |date=2016-11-21 }}

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