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{{Abouttentang|komik atau novel grafik yang dibuat di Jepang}}
{{bukan|Mangga}}
{{Infobox comics nationality<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics-->
| bodyclass = hlist
| image = Manga in Jp.svg
| imagesize = 150
| caption = Huruf [[kanji]] untuk "manggamanga" dari ''Seasonal Passersby'' (''Shiki no Yukikai''), 1798, karya [[Santō Kyōden]] dan [[Kitao Shigemasa]].
| alt =
| date =
Baris 49 ⟶ 50:
* [[La nouvelle manga]]
* [[Manga orisinal berbahasa Inggris|Manga OEL]]
}}{{Comics navbar}}{{Nihongo|'''Manga'''|漫画||lead=yes}} adalah [[komik]] atau [[novel grafik]] yang dibuat di [[Jepang]] atau menggunakan [[bahasa Jepang]], sesuai dengan gaya yang dikembangkan di sana pada akhir abad ke-19.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lent|2001|pp=3–4}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}</ref> Manga memiliki sejarah awal yang panjang dan kompleks dalam [[seni Jepang]] terdahulu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kern|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Ito|2005}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref>▼
}}{{Comics navbar}}{{Anime and manga|Manga}}
▲{{Nihongo|'''Manga'''|漫画||lead=yes}} adalah [[komik]] atau [[novel grafik]] yang dibuat di [[Jepang]] atau menggunakan [[bahasa Jepang]], sesuai dengan gaya yang dikembangkan di sana pada akhir abad ke-19.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lent|2001|pp=3–4}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}</ref> Manga memiliki sejarah awal yang panjang dan kompleks dalam [[seni Jepang]] terdahulu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kern|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Ito|2005}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref>
 
Istilah ''manga'' ([[kanji]]: {{lang|ja|漫画}}; [[hiragana]]: {{lang|ja|まんが}}; [[katakana]]: {{lang|ja|マンガ}}; {{Audio|Ja-Manga.oga|dengarkan}}; {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|m|æ|ŋ|ɡ|ə}} atau {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɑː|ŋ|ɡ|ə}}) di Jepang adalah kata yang digunakan untuk merujuk kepada komik dan [[kartun]]. Di luar Jepang, kata "manga" digunakan untuk merujuk pada komik yang aslinya diterbitkan di Jepang.<ref name="Merriam-Webster">{{Harvnb|Merriam-Webster|2009}}</ref>
 
Di Jepang, orang-orang dari segala kelompok usia membaca manga. Manga mencakup karya-karya dalam berbagai genre: diantaranya [[Fiksi laga|laga]], [[Fiksi petualangan|petualangan]], bisnis dan perdagangan, [[komedi]], [[Fiksi detektif|detektif]], [[drama]], [[Fiksi sejarah|sejarah]], [[Fiksi horor|horor]], [[Fiksi misteri|misteri]], [[Novel romantis|romantis]], [[fiksi ilmiah]] dan [[fantasi]], erotika, [[Novel olahraga|olahraga]] dan permainan, dan cerita seru.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mit.edu/~rei/manga-list.html|title=Manga/Anime topics|website=MIT|access-date=22 Juni 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Brenner|first=Robin E.|url=http://books.google.com/?id=uY8700WJy_gC&pg=PA78|title=Understanding Manga and Anime|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|date=30 Juni 2007|language=en|isbn=9780313094484}}</ref> Sudah banyak manga yang diterjemahkan ke bahasa lainnya.<ref name="Gravett">{{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}</ref> Sejak tahun 1950-an, manga telah menjadi bagian utama dari industri penerbitan Jepang.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kinsella|2000}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1996}}</ref> Pada tahun 1995, pasar manga di Jepang bernilai {{JPY|586.4 miliar|link=yes}} ({{US$|6{{ndash}}7 miliar|long=no|link=yes}}),<ref>{{cite book|last=Schodt|first=Frederik|authorlink=Frederik L. Schodt|url=<!--http://books.google.com/books?id=Z0yDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20-->|title=Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga|title-link=Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga|publisher=Stone Bridge Press|location=Berkeley, CA|year=1996|isbn=978-1-880656-23-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/liang.dreamlandjapanwr0000scho_d1o1/page/19 19]-20}}</ref> dengan penjualan tahunan sekitar 1,9{{nbsp}}miliar untuk manga dan [[majalah manga]] di Jepang (setara dengan 15{{nbsp}}edisi per orang).<ref name="Indianapolis">{{cite news|url=http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/107097112/|title=Manga, anime rooted in Japanese history|website=[[The Indianapolis Star]]|language=en|date=2 Agustus 1997}}</ref> Manga juga memiliki khalayak penikmat yang cukup signifikan di seluruh dunia.<ref name="Wong 2006">{{Harvnb|Wong|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Patten|2004}}</ref> Pada tahun 2008, pasar manga bernilai $175 juta di AS dan Kanada. Manga mencapai angka 38% dalam pasar komik Prancis, yang setara dengan sekitar sepuluh kali lipat dari angka untuk Amerika Serikat.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bouissou|first=Jean-Marie|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00972716/document|title=JAPAN'S GROWING CULTURAL POWER: THE EXAMPLE OF MANGA IN FRANCE|date=2006|access-date=24 Mei 2019}}</ref> Di Prancis, pasar manga dihargai sekitar {{€|460 juta}} (${{To USD|460|FRA|year=2011|round=yes}}{{nbsp}}juta) pada tahun 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasiam.com/english/art/art_vocation_manga.php|title=The Manga Market : Eurasiam – Japanese art & communication School|website=Eurasiam|language=en|access-date=22 Juni 2017}}</ref> Di Eropa dan Timur Tengah, pasar manga bernilai sekitar $250 juta pada tahun 2012.<ref name="Danica Davidson">{{cite web|last=Davidson|first=Danica|url=http://geekout.blogs.cnn.com/2012/01/26/manga-in-the-heart-of-europe/|title=Manga grows in the heart of Europe|website=[[CNN]]|publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting System, Inc.]]|date=26 Januari 2012|access-date=29 Januari 2012|archive-date=2021-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024122838/https://geekout.blogs.cnn.com/2012/01/26/manga-in-the-heart-of-europe/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
 
Cerita dalam sebuah manga biasanya dicetak dalam warna [[hitam dan putih]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Katzenstein|Shiraishi|1997}}</ref> meskipun ada beberapa manga yang sepenuhnya berwarna (seperti ''[[Colorful (manga)|Colorful]]''). Di Jepang, manga biasanya dimuat berseri dalam majalah manga populer—sering kali berisi banyak cerita, dan masing-masing manga dimuat dalam satu bab dan bersambung ke edisi berikutnya. Bab-bab yang dibundel biasanya diterbitkan ulang dalam bentuk volume ''[[tankōbon]]'', dan terkadang dalam bentuk [[trade paperback (komik)|buku bersampul tipis]].<ref name="GravettSchodt">{{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref> Seorang ilustrator manga (''[[mangaka]]'' dalam bahasa Jepang) biasanya bekerja dibantu beberapa asisten di sebuah studio kecil dan berhubungan dengan editor kreatif dari perusahaan penerbit komersial.<ref name="Kinsella">{{Harvnb|Kinsella|2000}}</ref> Jika sebuah seri manga cukup populer, manga itu bisa dijadikan [[anime]] setelah ceritanya tamat atau selama masih berlanjut.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kittelson|1998}}</ref> Terkadang, sebuah manga dibuat berdasarkan dari film [[laga hidup]] (''live–action'') atau film animasi lain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnston-O'Neill|2007}}</ref>
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Peran gadis dan wanita dalam manga yang dibuat untuk pembaca pria telah berkembang dari waktu ke waktu, seperti menampilkan gadis cantik lajang (''[[bishōjo]]'')<ref>{{Harvnb|Perper|Cornog|2002|pp=60–63}}</ref> layaknya [[Belldandy]] dari ''[[Oh My Goddess! (manga)|Oh My Goddess!]]''. Kemudian ada cerita yang membuat para gadis dan wanita semacam itu mengelilingi sang pahlawan, seperti dalam ''[[Negima!: Magister Negi Magi|Negima]]'' dan ''[[Hanaukyo Maid Team]]'', atau kelompok prajurit wanita yang bersenjata lengkap (''sentō bishōjo'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardner|2003}}</ref>
 
Dengan berkurangnya penyensoran di Jepang pada tahun 1990-an, bermacam-macam materi seksual eksplisit muncul dalam manga yang ditujukan untuk pembaca pria, dan dengan demikian berlanjut ke terjemahan bahasa Inggrisnya.<ref name="PCmono">{{Harvnb|Perper|Cornog|2002}}</ref> Namun pada tahun 2010, [[Pemerintah Metropolitan Tokyo]] mengeluarkan undang-undang untuk membatasi konten seperti itu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T101213003771.htm|title=Tokyo moves a step closer to manga porn crackdown|website=The Yomiuri Shimbun|date=14 Desember 2010|access-date=14 Agustus 2019|archive-url=https://archive.istoday/20101216082233/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T101213003771.htm|archive-date=2010-12-16|dead-url=no}}</ref>
 
Gaya penceritaan ''[[gekiga]]''—yang muram secara tematis, berorientasi pada orang dewasa, dan kadang-kadang sangat kejam—berfokus pada realitas kehidupan sehari-hari yang suram, sering kali digambar dengan cara kasar dan tanpa sentuhan bagus.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rosenbaum|first=Roman|url=http://imrc.jp/images/upload/lecture/data/06ROSENBAUM_Cologne.pdf|title=Gekiga as a site of Intercultural Exchange|website=Kyoto Seika University|access–date=14 Agustus 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–73}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2006}}</ref> Cerita ''Gekiga'' seperti ''Kronik Pencapaian Militer Ninja'' atau ''Ninja Bugeichō'' (1959–1962) karya [[Sampei Shirato]] muncul pada akhir tahun 1950-an dan 1960-an, sebagian berasal dari mahasiswa sayap kiri dan aktivisme politik kelas pekerja<ref name="SchodtG">{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–73}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|pp=38–42}}, {{Harvnb|Isao|2001}}</ref> dan sebagian lainnya berasal dari ketidakpuasan estetika para mangaka muda seperti [[Yoshihiro Tatsumi]] dengan manga yang ada.<ref>{{Harvnb|Isao|2001|pp=147–149}}, {{Harvnb|Nunez|2006}}</ref>
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=== Manga web ===
Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, jumlah manga yang dirilis secara digital mengalami peningkatan. [https://duniagames.co.id/discover/article/inilah-10-tempat-baca-manga-online-terbaik-buat-kamu-yang-ingin-cepat-update-manga[komik digital|Manga web]]—sebagaimana mereka dikenal di Jepang, telah mengalami peningkatan berkat kemunculan situs web ''hosting'' gambar tempat siapa saja dapat mengunggah bagian dari karya mereka secara gratis. Meskipun dirilis secara digital, hampir semua manga web tetap menggunakan format hitam putih konvensional, meskipun beberapa di antaranya tidak pernah diterbitkan dalam bentuk fisik. [[Pixiv]] adalah situs paling populer yang berisi sejumlah karya amatir dan profesional. Situs ini telah berkembang menjadi situs yang paling banyak dikunjungi untuk karya seni di Jepang.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schonfeld|first=Erick|url=http://techcrunch.com/2011/12/13/pixiv-manga-girl-japan-redesign/|title=How Pixiv Built Japan's 12th Largest Site With Manga-Girl Drawings (Redesign Sneak Peek And Invites)|date=13 Desember 2011|access-date=27 Mei 2019}}</ref> [[Twitter]] juga menjadi tempat yang populer untuk manga web, ditandai dengan banyaknya seniman yang merilis komik strip setiap minggu di akun pribadi mereka dengan harapan karya tersebut diambil atau diterbitkan secara profesional. Salah satu contoh terbaik dari karya amatir yang beralih menjadi profesional adalah [[One-Punch Man]] yang dirilis secara daring dan kemudian mendapat ''remake'' profesional yang dirilis secara digital, diikuti oleh adaptasi anime tak lama setelahnya.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chapman|first=Paul|url=http://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2015/03/07-1/one-punch-man-anime-greenlit|title="One-Punch Man" Anime Greenlit|website=[[Crunchyroll]]|date=7 Maret 2015|access-date=27 Mei 2019}}</ref>
 
Kebanyakan penerbit besar juga telah merilis majalah khusus digital dan situs web tempat manga web diterbitkan bersama dengan serialisasinya dalam majalah. Misalnya, Shogakukan yang memiliki dua situs web, ''[[Sunday Webry]]'' dan ''[[Ura Sunday]]'', merilis bab-bab terbaru setiap minggu untuk manga web dan bahkan menawarkan kontes bagi mangaka untuk mengirimkan karya mereka.<ref>{{cite web|last=Komatsu|first=Mikikazu|url=http://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2017/12/28/watch-hayate-the-combat-butler-manga-authors-drawing-video-of-nagi|title=Watch "Hayate the Combat Butler" Manga Author's Drawing Video of Nagi|website=Crunchyroll|date=28 Desember 2017|access-date=27 Mei 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Chapman|first=Paul|url=http://www.crunchyroll.com/anime-news/2017/12/06/brawny-battling-manga-kengan-ashura-makes-the-leap-to-anime|title=Brawny Battling Manga "Kengan Ashura" Makes the Leap to Anime|website=Crunchyroll|date=6 Desember 2017|access-date=27 Mei 2019}}</ref> Baik Sunday Webry dan Ura Sunday telah menjadi salah satu situs web manga top di Jepang. Beberapa di antaranya bahkan telah merilis aplikasi yang mengajarkan cara menggambar manga secara profesional dan belajar bagaimana cara membuatnya. ''[[Weekly Shōnen Jump]]'' merilis ''Jump Paint'', sebuah aplikasi yang memandu penggunanya tentang cara membuat manga mereka sendiri dari membuat ''storyboard'' hingga penintaan garis secara digital. Aplikasi tersebut juga menawarkan lebih dari 120 jenis tip pena dan lebih dari 1.000 warna bagi para pengguna untuk belajar.<ref name="auto2"/> [[Kodansha]] juga menggunakan popularitas manga web untuk meluncurkan lebih banyak seri dan juga menawarkan distribusi yang lebih baik dari karya-karya terjemahan resmi mereka di bawah [[Kodansha Comics]], sebagian berkat judul-judul yang dirilis secara digital terlebih dahulu sebelum diterbitkan dalam bentuk fisik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press-release/2018-04-27/kodansha-comics-may-digital-first-debuts/.130955|title=Kodansha Comics May Digital-First Debuts|website=Anime News Network|date=27 April 2018|access-date=27 Mei 2019}}</ref>
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Beberapa penerbit Jepang mulai menargetkan pasar AS pada pertengahan tahun 1990-an karena pasar domestik untuk manga sedang stagnan.<ref name=Brienza2009>{{cite journal|last=Brienza|first=Casey E.|title=Books, Not Comics: Publishing Fields, Globalization, and Japanese Manga in the United States|journal=Publishing Research Quarterly|year=2009|volume=25|issue=2|pages=101–117|doi=10.1007/s12109-009-9114-2}}</ref> Pada pertengahan tahun 1990-an, pasar manga AS mengalami peningkatan dengan munculnya versi anime dan manga dari ''[[Ghost in the Shell (manga)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' karya Masamune Shirow (diterjemahkan oleh [[Frederik L. Schodt]] and [[Toren Smith]]) yang sangat populer di kalangan penggemar.<ref>{{cite book|ref=gho|last=Kwok Wah Lau|first=Jenny|year=2003|chapter=4|title=Multiple modernities: cinemas and popular media in transcultural East Asia|page=78|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Temple University Press}}</ref> Salah satu manga dan anime yang sangat sukses yang kemudian diterjemahkan dan disulih suarakan dalam bahasa Inggris pada pertengahan 1990-an adalah ''[[Sailor Moon]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Patten|2004|pp=50, 110, 124, 128, 135}}, {{Harvnb|Arnold|2000}}</ref> Pada periode tahun 1995 hingga 1998, manga ''[[Sailor Moon (manga)|Sailor Moon]]'' telah diekspor ke lebih dari 23 negara, termasuk Tiongkok, Brasil, Meksiko, Australia, Amerika Utara, dan sebagian besar negara Eropa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|p=95}}</ref> Pada tahun 1997, Mixx Entertainment mulai menerbitkan ''Sailor Moon'' bersama dengan ''[[Magic Knight Rayearth]]'' karya [[Clamp (mangaka)|CLAMP]], ''[[Parasyte]]'' karya [[Hitoshi Iwaaki]], dan ''[[Ice Blade]]'' karya [[Tsutomu Takahashi]] dalam majalah manga bulanan bertajuk ''[[MixxZine]]''. Dua tahun kemudian, ''MixxZine'' berganti nama menjadi ''Tokyopop'' sebelum tidak dilanjutkan lagi pada tahun 2011. Mixx Entertainment yang kemudian berganti nama menjadi [[Tokyopop]], juga menerbitkan manga dengan format ''[[trade paperback (komik)|trade paperback]]''. Tokyopop—sama seperti Viz, memulai strategi pemasaran manga secara agresif untuk demografi anak laki-laki dan anak perempuan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Arnold|2000}}, {{Harvnb|Farago|2007}}, {{Harvnb|Bacon|2005}}</ref>
 
Manga menjadi semakin populer pada tahun-tahun berikutnya, dan sejumlah penerbit baru memasuki pasar penerbitan manga sementara penerbit yang sudah mapan semakin meningkatkan katalog mereka.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|pp=308–319}}</ref> Edisi pertama manga ''[[Daftar manga Pokémon manga|Pokémon]]'' ''[[Electric Tale of Pikachu]]'' terjual lebih dari 1{{nbsp}}juta kopi di Amerika Serikat, menjadikannya [[buku komik]] tunggal terlaris di Amerika Serikat sejak tahun 1993.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/batman-vs-pokemon-last-million-selling.html|title=The last million-selling comic book in North America? It's Batman vs. Pokémon for the title|website=Comichron|date=8 Mei 2014|access-date=20 Agustus 2019|archive-date=2021-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509012448/https://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/batman-vs-pokemon-last-million-selling.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pada tahun 2008, pasar manga AS dan Kanada menghasilkan $175 juta pada penjualan tahunan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reid|2009}}</ref> Bersamaan dengan itu, media arus utama AS mulai membahas manga, dengan munculnya berbagai artikel di ''[[The New York Times]]'', majalah ''[[Time (majalah)|Time]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', dan majalah ''[[Wired (majalah)|Wired]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Glazer|2005}}, {{Harvnb|Masters|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Bosker|2007}}, {{Harvnb|Pink|2007}}</ref> Pada tahun 2017, distributor manga [[Viz Media]] adalah penerbit [[novel grafik]] dan buku komik terbesar di Amerika Serikat, dengan pangsa pasar mencapai 23%.<ref>{{cite news|last=Magulick|first=Aaron|url=http://goboiano.com/viz-manga-sales-are-destroying-dc-marvel-in-comic-market/|title=Viz Manga Sales are Destroying DC, Marvel in Comic Market|website=GoBoiano|date=8 Oktober 2017|access-date=20 Agustus 2019|archive-date=2017-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010022449/http://goboiano.com/viz-manga-sales-are-destroying-dc-marvel-in-comic-market/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
 
== Lokalisasi manga ==
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== Pendidikan di universitas ==
[[Universitas Kyoto Seika]] di Jepang memiliki jurusan manga yang sangat kompetitif sejak tahun 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://passnavi.evidus.com/search_univ/3940/bairitsu1.html#マンガ|script-title=ja:京都精華大学、入試結果 (倍率)、マンガ学科。|publisher=Obunsha Co., Ltd.|language=ja|date=18 Juli 2014|access-date=18 Juli 2014|archive-date=2014-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717165416/http://passnavi.evidus.com/search_univ/3940/bairitsu1.html#マンガ|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=17 Bahasa Jepang yang Populer|url=httphttps://www.kyoto-seikaayosemarang.ac.jpcom/engumum/edu/mangapr-772249477/|title=Kyoto Seika University, Faculty of Manga17-bahasa-jepang-yang-populer-karena-anime-otaku-pasti-sudah-tahu|website=Kyoto Seika Universityayosemarang.com|language=ja|accessarchive-dateurl=18 Juli 2014|archive-date=2014-07-17|archivedead-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717164445/http://www.kyoto-seika.ac.jp/eng/edu/manga/|deadaccess-urldate=no24 Juli 2023}}</ref> Kemudian, beberapa universitas dan [[sekolah kejuruan]] ({{nihongo|''Semmon gakkou''|門 学校||lead=yes}}) menyusul dengan mendirikan suatu .
 
[[Shūhō Satō|Shuho Sato]], mangaka yang menulis ''[[Umizaru]]'' dan ''Say Hello to Black Jack'', menimbulkan beberapa kontroversi di [[Twitter]]. Sato berkata, "Sekolah manga tidak ada artinya karena sekolah-sekolah tersebut memiliki tingkat keberhasilan yang sangat rendah. Di sisi lain, saya bisa mengajarkan keterampilan yang diperlukan pemula di tempat kerja hanya dalam tiga bulan, sementara para siswa di sekolah itu menghabiskan beberapa juta yen dan empat tahun. Namun demikian, mereka sama sekali tidak punya kemampuan". Dia juga menambahkan: "Pernyataan dari [[Keiko Takemiya]]—yang saat itu menjadi profesor di [[Universitas Kyoto Seika|Universitas Seika]], di Dewan Pemerintahan bahwa 'Seseorang yang benar-benar pemula baru akan dapat memahami di mana lokasi "Tachikiri" ([[Margin (tipografi)|bagian margin]]) selama empat tahun.' Di sisi lain—menurut saya—butuh sekitar tiga puluh menit bagi seseorang untuk dapat sepenuhnya memahami hal itu di tempat kerja".<ref>{{cite web|last=Sato|first=Shūhō|url=http://togetter.com/li/345327|script-title=ja:漫画を学校で学ぶ意義とは|website=Togetter|language=ja|date=26 Juli 2012|access-date=19 Juli 2014|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
 
== Lihat pula ==
{{Portal|Jepang|Anime dan manga|Komik}}
{{Wikipedia books|Anime dan manga}}
* [[Daftar manga terlaris]]
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* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Arnold | first = Adam | year = 2000 | title = Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine | url = http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/00.06/feature/1/index.php3 | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Bacon | first = Michelle | date = 14 April 2005 | title = Tangerine Dreams: Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime | url = http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html | access-date = 1 April 2008 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080304062655/http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html | archivedate = 2008-03-04 | df = dmy-all }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Berger | first = Klaus | year = 1992 | title = Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse | url = https://archive.org/details/japonismeinweste0000berg | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-37321-0 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Boilet| first = Frédéric | year = 2001 | title = Yukiko's Spinach | location = Castalla-Alicante, Spain | publisher = Ponent Mon | isbn = 978-84-933093-4-3}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Boilet| first = Frédéric | last2 = Takahama | first2 = Kan | year = 2004 | title = Mariko Parade | location = Castalla-Alicante, Spain | publisher = Ponent Mon | isbn = 978-84-933409-1-9}}
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* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Bouquillard| first = Jocelyn | last2 = Marquet | first2 = Christophe | date = 1 June 2007 | title = Hokusai: First Manga Master | location = New York | publisher = Abrams | isbn = 978-0-8109-9341-9}}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Brenner | first = Robin E. | year = 2007 | title = Understanding Manga and Anime | url = https://archive.org/details/understandingman0000bren | location = Westport, Connecticut | publisher = Libraries Unlimited/Greenwood | isbn = 978-1-59158-332-5 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Clements| first = Jonathan | last2 = McCarthy | first2 = Helen | year = 2006 | title = The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Revised and Expanded Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/animeencyclopedi00clem_0| location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge Press | isbn = 978-1-933330-10-5}}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Crandol | first = Mike | date = 14 January 2002 | title = The Dirty Pair: Run from the Future | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future | work = Anime News Network | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Cube | date = 18 December 2007 | script-title = ja:2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円―メディアクリエイトが白書 | url = http://www.inside-games.jp/article/2007/12/18/25855.html | publisher = Inside for All Games | access-date = 18 December 2007 | language = Japanese }}
* {{cite press release | publisher = Dark Horse Comics | date = 6 February 2004 | title = Dark Horse buys Studio Proteus | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press-release/2004-02-06/dark-horse-buys-studio-proteus | ref = {{SfnRef|Dark Horse Comics|2004}} }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Drazen| first = Patrick | year = 2003 | title = Anime Explosion! The What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation |url=https://archive.org/details/animeexplosionwh00draz| location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge | isbn = 978-1-880656-72-3}}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Farago | first = Andrew | date = 30 September 2007 | title = Interview: Jason Thompson | url = http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 | publisher = The Comics Journal | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Fishbein | first = Jennifer | date = 26 December 2007 | title = Europe's Manga Mania | url = http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2007/gb20071226_346610.htm | journal = BusinessWeek | access-date = 29 December 2007 }}
Baris 230:
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Gardner | first = William O. | date = November 2003 | title = Attack of the Phallic Girls | url = http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/review_essays/gardner88.htm | journal = Science Fiction Studies | issue = 88 | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
* {{cite news | ref = harv | last = Glazer | first = Sarah | date = 18 September 2005 | title = Manga for Girls | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/books/review/18glazer.html | newspaper = The New York Times | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Gravett | first = Paul | year = 2004 | title = Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics | url = https://archive.org/details/mangasixtyyearso0000grav | location = New York | publisher = Harper Design | isbn = 978-1-85669-391-2 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Gravett | first = Paul | date = 15 October 2006 | title = Gekiga: The Flipside of Manga | url = http://www.paulgravett.com/index.php/articles/article/gekiga/ | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Griffiths | first = Owen | date = 22 September 2007 | title = Militarizing Japan: Patriotism, Profit, and Children's Print Media, 1894–1925 | url = http://www.japanfocus.org/-Owen-Griffiths/2528 | journal = Japan Focus | access-date = 16 December 2008 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Isao | first = Shimizu | year = 2001 | contribution = Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga | editor-last = Lent | editor-first = John A. | title = Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books | url = https://archive.org/details/illustratingasia0000unse | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | publisher = University of Hawai'i Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2471-6 }}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv| last =Ito| first = Kinko | year = 2004 | title = Growing up Japanese reading manga | journal = International Journal of Comic Art | pages = 392–401 | issue = 6}}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.0022-3840.2005.00123.x | ref = harv | last = Ito | first = Kinko | year = 2005 | title = A history of manga in the context of Japanese culture and society | url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/jpcu/2005/00000038/00000003/art00002 | journal = [[The Journal of Popular Culture]] | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 456–475 | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
Baris 243:
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Kittelson | first = Mary Lynn | year = 1998 | title = The Soul of Popular Culture: Looking at Contemporary Heroes, Myths, and Monsters | url = https://archive.org/details/soulofpopularcul0000unse | location = Chicago | publisher = Open Court | isbn = 978-0-8126-9363-8 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lee | first = William | year = 2000 | contribution = From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan | editor-last = Craig | editor-first = Timothy J. | title = Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture | url = https://archive.org/details/japanpopinsidew00crai | location = Armonk, New York | publisher = M.E. Sharpe | isbn = 978-0-7656-0561-0 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lent | first = John A. | year = 2001 | title = Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books | url = https://archive.org/details/illustratingasia0000unse | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2471-6 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Leonard | first = Sean | date = 12 September 2004 | title = Progress Against the Law: Fan Distribution, Copyright, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation | url = http://web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lone | first = Stewart | year = 2007 | title = Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia: From the Taiping Rebellion to the Vietnam War | url = http://books.google.com/?id=qmSnTIAPnoUC&pg=PA75&lpg=PA75&dq=shonen+sekai | publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] | location = Westport, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-313-33684-3 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | author = Mahousu | date = January 2005 | title = Les editeurs des mangas | url = http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html | archive-url = https://archive.istoday/20120717053952/http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 2012-07-17 | publisher = self-published | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2009}}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv| last =Masters| first = Coco | date = 10 August 2006 | title = America is Drawn to Manga | journal = Time Magazine}}
* {{cite press release | ref = {{SfnRef|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|2007}} | publisher = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan | date = 29 June 2007 | title = First International MANGA Award | url = http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html }}
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* {{cite journal |doi=10.1111/1540-5931.00045 |ref=harv| last =Ōgi| first = Fusami | year = 2004 | title = Female subjectivity and ''shōjo'' (girls) manga (Japanese comics): ''shōjo'' in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics | journal = The Journal of Popular Culture | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 780–803}}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Onoda | first = Natsu | year = 2009 | title = God of Comics: Osamu Tezuka and the Creation of Post-World War II Manga | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=dvaR1-9HE7YC&pg=PA10 | page = 10 | publisher = University Press of Mississippi | isbn = 9781604734782 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Patten| first = Fred |authorlink=Fred Patten | year = 2004 | title = Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews |url=https://archive.org/details/watchinganimerea0000patt| location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge Press | isbn = 978-1-880656-92-1}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s12119-002-1000-4 |ref=harv| last =Perper| first = Timothy | last2 = Cornog | first2 = Martha | year = 2002 | title = Eroticism for the masses: Japanese manga comics and their assimilation into the U.S. | journal = Sexuality & Culture | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–126}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Perper| first = Timothy | last2 = Cornog | first2 = Martha | year = 2003 | contribution = Sex, love, and women in Japanese comics | editor-last =Francoeur| editor-first = Robert T. | editor2-last =Noonan| editor2-first = Raymond J. |editor2-link=| title = The Comprehensive International Encyclopedia of Sexuality |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcomplet0000unse| location = New York | publisher = Continuum | isbn = 978-0-8264-1488-5}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Petersen |first=Robert S. |title=Comics, Manga, and Graphic Novels: A History of Graphic Narratives |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Hr7aZh6oonoC&pg=PA120 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313363306 }}
* {{cite book |ref = harv |last1 = Prohl |first1 = Inken |last2 = Nelson |first2 = John K |year = 2012 |title = Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=uiZi2mgC5a4C&pg=PA596 |page = 596 |publisher = BRILL |isbn = 9789004234352 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Pink | first = Daniel H. | date = 22 October 2007 | title = Japan, Ink: Inside the Manga Industrial Complex | url = http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-11/ff_manga | journal = Wired | volume = 15 | issue = 11 | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}
* {{cite book | last = Poitras | first = Gilles | authorlink = Gilles Poitras | year = 2001 | title = Anime Essentials: Every Thing a Fan Needs to Know | url = https://archive.org/details/animeessentialse0000poit | location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge | isbn = 978-1-880656-53-2 | ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Reid | first = Calvin | date = 28 March 2006 | title = HarperCollins, Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal | url = http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/book-news/comics/article/17182-harpercollins-tokyopop-ink-manga-deal.html | journal = Publishers Weekly | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Reid | first = Calvin | date = 6 February 2009 | title = 2008 Graphic Novel Sales Up 5%; Manga Off 17% | url = http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/1-legacy/24-comic-book-reviews/article/9362-2008-graphic-novel-sales-up-5--manga-off-17-.html | journal = Publishers Weekly | access-date = 7 September 2009 }}
Baris 275:
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Tchiei | first = Go | year = 1998 | title = Characteristics of Japanese Manga | url = http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga2.html | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Thompson | first = Jason | year = 2007 | title = Manga: The Complete Guide | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GvEFDD4rdWMC&pg | location = New York | publisher = Ballantine Books | isbn = 978-0-345-48590-8 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Thorn | first = Matt | authorlink = Matt Thorn | date = July–September 2001 | title = Shôjo Manga—Something for the Girls | url = http://matt-thorn.com/shoujo_manga/japan_quarterly/ | journal = The Japan Quarterly | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | access-date = 5 April 2008 | archive-date = 2011-06-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110606180532/http://www.matt-thorn.com/shoujo_manga/japan_quarterly/ | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Toku | first = Masami | date = Spring 2006 | title = Shojo Manga: Girl Power! | url = http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | publisher = California State University, Chico | journal = Chico Statements | isbn = 978-1-886226-10-4 | access-date = 5 April 2008 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080411053104/http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | archivedate = 2008-04-11 | df = dmy-all }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Vollmar | first = Rob | date = 1 March 2007 | title = Frederic Boilet and the Nouvelle Manga revolution | url = http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-6318937/Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html | journal = World Literature Today | access-date = 14 September 2007 | archive-date = 2011-06-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110615141406/http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-6318937/Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite news | ref = harv | last = Webb | first = Martin | date = 28 May 2006 | title = Manga by any other name is... | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20060528x1.html | newspaper = [[The Japan Times]] | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Wong| first = Wendy Siuyi | year = 2002 | title = Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua |url=https://archive.org/details/hongkongcomicshi0000wong| location = New York | publisher = Princeton Architectural Press | isbn = 978-1-56898-269-4}}
* {{cite news |ref=harv| last =Wong| first = Wendy Siuyi | year = 2006 | title = Globalizing manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond | work = [[Mechademia|Mechademia: an Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts]] | pages = 23–45}}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Wong | first = Wendy | date = September 2007 | title = The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America | url = http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html | journal = Media Digest | access-date = 19 December 2007 | archive-date = 2013-06-21 | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/6HXJ51BC8?url=http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite web | title = About Manga Museum: Current situation of manga culture | url = http://www.kyotomm.com/HP/international/english/about_genjo.html | publisher = Kyoto Manga Museum | access-date = 6 September 2009 | ref = CITEREFManga Museum2009 | archive-date = 2009-05-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090528115502/http://www.kyotomm.com/HP/international/english/about_genjo.html | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite web | title = Correction: World Manga | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga | work = Anime News Network | date = 10 May 2006 | access-date = 19 December 2007 | ref = CITEREFANN 10 May 2006 }}
Baris 301:
* {{cite web | title = Un poil de culture – Une introduction à l'animation japonaise | url = http://www.metalchroniques.fr/guppy/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=437 | date = 11 July 2007 | language = French | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080108163613/http://www.metalchroniques.fr/guppy/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=437 | archivedate = 2008-01-08 | df = dmy-all | access-date = 2019-08-20 }}
* Hattie Jones, "Manga girls: Sex, love, comedy and crime in recent boy's manga and anime," in Brigitte Steger and Angelika Koch (2013 eds): Manga Girl Seeks Herbivore Boy. Studying Japanese Gender at Cambridge. Lit Publisher, pp.&nbsp;24–81.
* {{it icon}} Marcella Zaccagnino and Sebastiano Contrari. "[http://limes.espresso.repubblica.it/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/manga-giapponeallaconquistadelmondo.pdf Manga: il Giappone alla conquista del mondo]" ([http {{Webarchive|url=https://wwwweb.webcitationarchive.org/6P2CA2j7h?url=web/20200823203117/http://limes.espresso.repubblica.it/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/manga-giapponeallaconquistadelmondo.pdf Archive]|date=2020-08-23 }}) ''[[Limes, rivista italiana di geopolitica]]''. 31/10/2007.
* {{Cite journal |last= Unser-Schutz|first=Giancarla |title=Influential or influenced? The relationship between genre, gender and language in manga |journal=[[Gender and Language]] |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=223–254 |doi=10.1558/genl.v9i2.17331 |year=2015 |ref=harv }}
 
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[[Kategori:Ilustrasi]]
[[Kategori:Budaya Jepang]]
[[Kategori:Kata dan frasa Jepang]]
 
[[ja:マンガ学科]]
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Manga"