Ras manusia: Perbedaan antara revisi
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[[Berkas:Karl Ernst von Baer Types Principaux des Differents Race Humaines.jpg|jmpl|Jenis utama ras manusia yang berbeda di lima belahan dunia dari Karl Ernst von Baer ]]
'''Ras''' (dari [[bahasa Prancis]] ''[[:fr:race|race]]'', yang sendirinya dari [[bahasa Latin]] ''radix'', "akar") adalah suatu sistem [[klasifikasi]] yang digunakan untuk mengkategorikan [[manusia]] dalam [[Populasi (biologi)|populasi]] atau [[kelompok sosial|kelompok]] besar dan berbeda melalui ciri [[fenotipe]], asal-usul geografis, tampang jasmani dan [[suku|kesukuan]] yang terwarisi. Di awal abad ke-20 istilah ini sering digunakan dalam arti [[biologis]] untuk menunjuk populasi manusia yang beraneka ragam dari segi [[genetik]] dengan anggota yang memiliki [[fenotipe]] (tampang luar) yang sama.<ref name="lie"/> Arti "ras" ini masih digunakan dalam [[antropologi]] [[forensik]] (dalam menganalisis sisa tulang), penelitian [[biomedis]] dan [[kedokteran]] berdasarkan asal-usul.<ref name="gill"/>
Di samping itu, di [[Amerika Serikat]] misalnya, penegak [[hukum]] menggunakan istilah "[[Rasionalisme|ras]]" untuk menentukan profil tersangka dan penggambaran kembali tampang para pelaku kriminal berdasarkan informasi visual dari korban. Pada sistem di masyarakat, pengelompokan berdasarkan "ras" mengikuti pola pelapisan [[sosial]], bagi ilmuwan sosial yang meneliti kesenjangan sosial, "ras" dapat menjadi [[variabel]] yang berarti. Sebagai faktor [[sosiologi]]s, kategori "ras" dapat secara terbatas mencerminkan penjelasan yang subjektif, mengenai jati diri dan lembaga sosial.<ref name="King_workforce2"/><ref name="schaefer"/>
Oleh karena itu, [[paradigma]] "ras" yang digunakan dalam berbagai [[disiplin]] menekan dengan cara yang beraneka pada sifat [[biologi]]s atau pada segi konstruk sosial.
Walau para biologis kadang-kadang menggunakan paham "ras" untuk membuat pembedaan antara kumpulan ciri-ciri yang rancu, [[ilmuwan]] lain mengajukan wawasan bahwa paham "ras" sering digunakan<ref name="Graves01"/> secara naif<ref name = "Lee-Mountain"/> atau terlalu sederhana. "Ras" tidak memiliki arti [[taksonomi]]s untuk manusia: semua manusia adalah anggota dari [[subspesies]] [[hominid]] yang sama yaitu ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]''.<ref name="Keita2004"/><ref name="AAPA"/> Paham sosial dan pengelompokan ras berubah dengan waktu, termasuk [[taksonomi]] awam
<ref name="montagu">''See:''
* {{harvnb|Montagu|1962}}
* {{harvnb|Bamshad|Olson|2003}}</ref> yang menentukan tipe orang yang bersifat [[esensialisme]] berdasarkan ciri-ciri yang terlihat. Para ilmuwan menganggap [[esensialisme]] biologis sudah ketinggalan zaman,<ref name="Sober"/> dan pada umumnya tidak mendukung penjelasan berdasarkan ras untuk pembedaan kelompok, baik dari segi ciri-ciri jasmani maupun kelakuan.<ref name="Lee-Mountain"/><ref name="aaa"/>
Saat orang menentukan dan menggunakan satu paham tertentu untuk "ras", mereka menciptakan suatu kenyataan sosial di mana diterapkan suatu kategorisasi sosial tertentu.<ref name="Lee_judicial"/> Oleh sebab itu "ras" dipandang sebagai konstruk sosial.<ref name="blank"/> Konstruksi tersebut berkembang dalam berbagai konteks hukum, ekonomi dan sosio-politik, dan boleh jadi lebih merupakan akibat daripada sebab dari kenyataan sosial.<ref name="lee"/> Walau banyak ilmuwan berpandangan bahwa "ras" adalah suatu konstruksi sosial, kebanyakan pakar setuju bahwa "ras" memiliki dampak material yang nyata dalam diskriminasi perhunian, proses hukum, praktik politik, pendidikan, dll. Teori Omi dan Winant mengenai pembentukan ras mengatakan bahwa ras adalah suatu konsep yang mengartikan dan melambangkan pertentangan dan kepentingan sosial melalui pengacuan pada tipe jasmani manusia yang berbeda.”<ref>Omi, Michael dan Howard Winant, ''Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s'', New York, Routledge, 1994, halaman 55</ref> Arti dan maksud dari istilah "ras" dihasilkan dan digunakan oleh [[lembaga]] sosial melalui pandangan bersifat kebudayaan. Sejak Omi dan Winant, para akademisi telah menyusun dan meninjau kembali maksud "ras" sebagai konstruksi sosial dengan meneliti cara gambaran, paham dan asumsi mengenai "ras" dirumuskan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Angela Davis,<ref>Davis, Angela. ''Are Prisons Obsolete?'' Toronto: Publishers Group Canada, 2003.</ref> Ruth Gilmore,<ref>Gilmore, Ruth, ''Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California'', Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007</ref> dan Imani Perry<ref>Perry, Imani, ''More Beautiful, More Terrible: The Embrace and Transcendence of Racial Inequality in the United States''</ref> telah menelusuri hubungan antara paham "ras" dari segi sejarah dan sosial production dalam bahasa hukum dan pidana, dan dampaknya atas kebijakan terhadap [[Negro|orang Hitam]] di Amerika, dan jumlah mereka dalam penjara yang sudah tidak proporsional lagi.
Faktor sosio dan ekonomi berakibatkan penderitaan yang sangat besar di dalam kelompok yang telantar.<ref name="morgan"/> [[Diskriminasi]] rasial sering bertepatan dengan pola pikir yang [[Rasisme|rasis]], di mana para individu dan ideologi satu kelompok melihat anggota dari kelompok lain sebagai suatu "ras" tertentu yang lebih rendah secara moral.<ref name="lee1"/> Alhasil, kelompok yang tidak banyak berkuasa sering terasing atau tertindas, sedangkan individu dan [[lembaga]] yang dominan dituduh bersikap rasis.<ref name="sivanandan"/> Rasisme mengakibatkan banyak contoh tragedi, termasuk [[perbudakan]] dan [[genosida]].<ref name="owens"/>
Sementara ilmuwan Eropa sebagian besar telah meninggalkan klasifikasi rasial, konsep tersebut menjadi arus utama oleh ilmuwan non-Eropa. Baru-baru ini, beberapa penelitian pada tahun 2019 dan 2020 dari "Central South University" (CSU; 中南 大学), telah menyajikan bukti kuat untuk asal muasal multiregional manusia. Bukti genetik menunjukkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (orang Asia Timur, orang Siberia, orang Asia Tengah, orang Asia Tenggara, orang Polinesia, dan orang Amerika Pribumi) secara genetik berbeda dari orang Eropa atau Afrika. Mereka selanjutnya menyarankan bahwa bukti ini bertentangan dengan migrasi keluar dari Afrika. Mereka menyimpulkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (juga dikenal sebagai ras Mongoloid) berasal dari suatu tempat di Asia Timur (Tiongkok selatan).<ref name="Yuan 101410">{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Dejian|last2=Lei|first2=Xiaoyun|last3=Gui|first3=Yuanyuan|last4=Wang|first4=Mingrui|last5=Zhang|first5=Ye|last6=Zhu|first6=Zuobin|last7=Wang|first7=Dapeng|last8=Yu|first8=Jun|last9=Huang|first9=Shi|date=2019-06-09|title=Modern human origins: multiregional evolution of autosomes and East Asia origin of Y and mtDNA|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/101410v6|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=101410|doi=10.1101/101410}}</ref><ref name="Chen 2020.03.10.986042">{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Hongyao|last2=Zhang|first2=Ye|last3=Huang|first3=Shi|date=2020-03-11|title=Ancient Y chromosomes confirm origin of modern human paternal lineages in Asia rather than Africa|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.10.986042v1|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=2020.03.10.986042|doi=10.1101/2020.03.10.986042}}</ref>
Rata-rata jarak genetik Fst antara populasi manusia adalah sekitar 0,125. Lewontin berargumen bahwa ini mewakili variasi ras yang kecil.<ref>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_14</ref> Harpending, di sisi lain, berargumen bahwa jarak tersebut mengimplikasikan hubungan kekerabatan antara individu dari populasi yang sama setara dengan hubungan kekerabatan antara saudara tiri dalam populasi yang kawin secara acak, dan bahwa seseorang dari populasi tertentu secara genetik lebih dekat dengan individu yang tidak terkait dari populasi yang sama daripada dengan saudara tiri dari ras campuran.<ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/27503827</ref>
== Paham modern pertama tentang "ras" ==
[[Berkas:Meyers b11 s0476a.jpg|jmpl|300px|Tiga "ras" besar menurut buku ''Meyers Konversationslexikon'' dari Jerman tahun 1885-90. Subtipe "[[ras Mongoloid]]" ditandai dengan warna kuning dan jingga, "[[ras Kaukasoid]]" dalam warna keabu-abuan dan "[[ras Negroid]]" dalam warna coklat. [[Bangsa Dravida|Orang Dravida]] dan [[Sri Lanka|Singhala]] diwarnai hijau zaitun dan klasifikasi mereka dinyatakan sebagai kurang menentu. "Ras Mongoloid" adalah yang terluas penyebarannya, termasuk kedua [[Amerika]], [[Asia Utara]], [[Asia Timur]], [[Asia Tenggara]] dan keseluruhan [[Arktik]] yang dihuni manusia.]]
Boleh jadi kelompok manusia dari dulu selalu menentukan diri sendiri sebagai berbeda dari kelompok lain. Namun, perbedaan tersebut belum tentu selalu dipandang sebagai sesuatu yang alami, tak terubahkan dan menyeluruh. Pandang seperti ini merupakan ciri-ciri khas paham "ras" yang digunakan pada masa kini.<ref name="Marks2008"/>
Pada awalnya, kata "ras" dipakai untuk menunjuk suatu [[bangsa]] atau [[kelompok etnis]]. [[Marco Polo]] misalnya, dalam bukunya yang ditulis pada abad ke-13, menguraikan "ras [[Persia]]".<ref name="Polo"/> Paham "ras" masa kini baru muncul pada abad ke-17.<ref name="smedley"/>
Paham Eropa tentang "ras", sejalan dengan sejumlah paham yang sekarang dikaitkan dengan istilah tersebut, muncul pada saat [[revolusi ilmiah]], di mana penelitian alam dimulai dan diutamakan, dan masa [[imperialisme]] dan [[kolonialisme]] Eropa yang menciptakan hubungan politik antara orang Eropa dan bangsa yang memiliki tradisi kebudayaan dan politik yang berbeda.<ref name="Marks2008" /><ref name="smedley1999"/> Dengan bertemunya orang Eropa dengan bangsa dari berbagai bagian dunia, mereka membahas perbedaan jasmani, sosial, dan kebudayaan di antara berbagai kelompok manusia. Munculnya perniagaan budak di Atlantik, yang secara berangsur menggantikan perniagaan budak yang lebih lama di seluruh dunia, makin mendorong untuk mengkategorikan kelompok manusia demi membenarkan ditundukkannya budak asal Afrika.<ref name="meltzer"/> Dengan mengacu kepada sumber [[Klasik]] mereka dan hubungan antar bangsa Eropa sendiri — misalnya, permusuhan bebuyutan antara [[Inggris]] dan [[Prancis]] sangat berpengaruh atas pemikiran Eropa awal mengenai perbedaan antar bangsa<ref name="takaki"/> — orang Eropa mulai mengotakkan mereka sendiri dan bangsa lain dalam kelompok berdasarkan tampang jasmani, dan melekatkan pada individu dalam kelompok tersebut, perilaku dan kemampuan yang dianggap mengakar dalam-dalam. Berkembanlah sejumlah [[kepercayaan]] yang mengaitkan perbedaan jasmani antar kelompok yang terwarisi, dengan sifat [[intelektual]], perilaku, dan [[moral]] yang juga dikira terwarisi.<ref name="banton"/> Paham serupa ditemukan pada kebudayaan lain,<ref name="lewis"/> misalnya di [[Tiongkok]], di mana suatu konsep yang diterjemahkan dengan istilah "ras" dikaitkan dengan yang dipercayai adalah keturunan bersama dari [[Kaisar Kuning]], dan digunakan untuk menegaskan kesatuan para [[kelompok etnis]] di Tiongkok China. Pertikaian penuh kekerasan antar kelompok etnis sempat terjadi di sepanjang sejarah dan di seluruh dunia.<ref name="REGWG"/>
Klasifikasi pasca-[[klasik]] yang pertama manusia dalam "ras" diketahui adalah ''Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent'' ("Pembagian baru Bumi oleh spesies atau ras yang menghuninya") oleh [[François Bernier]] dari Prancis, yang diterbitkan tahun 1684.<ref name="todorov"/> Pada abad ke-18, perbedaan antara kelompok manusia menjadi bahan penyelidikan ilmiah. Namun klasifikasi ilmiah mengenai variasi [[fenotipe]] sering disertai gagasan [[rasisme|rasis]] mengenai kemampuan yang dianggap melekat pada berbagai kelompok, yang selalu memberi ciri-ciri yang paling bagus kepada orang Eropa atau [[orang Kulit putih]], dan memperingkatkan "ras" lain dalam suatu kontinuum ciri-ciri yang secara berangsur menjadi kurang bagus. Klasifikasi [[Carolus Linnaeus]], pencipta [[taksonomi]] zoologis, tahun 1755 membagi ras manusia [[Homo Sapiens]] dalam varietas "''Europaeus''", "''Asiaticus''", "''Americanus''" dan "''Afer''", yang masing-masing dikaitkan dengan watak yang berbeda: "''sanguine''", "melancolis", "''choleric''" dan "''bilious''".<ref name="brace2"/> ''Homo Sapiens Europeaus'' dikatakan aktif, cerdas dan petualang, sedangkan ''Homo Sapiens Afer'' dikatakan licik, pemalas dan sembrono.<ref name="Graves, Joseph 2001. p.39"/>
Dalam bukunya berjudul ''The Natural Varieties of Mankind'', [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] yang diterbitkan tahun 1775 mengajukan lima kelompok besar: "[[ras Kaukasoid]]", "[[ras Mongoloid]]", "ras Etiopia" (yang kemudian dinamakan "[[ras Negroid]]"), "[[suku Indian|ras Indian]]" dan "[[ras Melayu]]", namun dia tidak mengusulkan peringkatan apa pun antara para ras.<ref name="Graves, Joseph 2001. p.39"/>
Dari abad ke-17 sampai 19, pelemburan kepercayaan orang awam mengenai perbedaan antar kelompok, dengan penjelasan ilmiah mengenai perbedaan ini, menghasilkan apa yang oleh salah satu pakar disebut "[[ideologi]] tentang ras".<ref name="smedley1999"/> Menurut ideologi ini, ras adalah mendasar, alami, lestari dan terpisah. Di [[Amerika Serikat]], teori ras [[Thomas Jefferson]] berpengaruh. Dia melihat orang Afrika lebih rendah daripada orang Kulit putih, khususnya dari segi kecerdasan, dan memiliki nafsu seks yang kelebihan, tetapi menganggap [[Suku Indian|orang Indian]] setara dengan orang Kulit putih.<ref name="graves"/>
Di dua dasawarsa terakhir abad ke-18[[poligenisme]], yaitu kepercayaan bahwa "ras" yang berbeda telah berkembang secara terpisah di setiap benua dan tidak memiliki moyang yang sama,<ref name="stocking"/> diajukan di Inggris oleh sejarawan [[Edward Long]] dan anatomis [[Charles White]], di Jerman oleh etnograf [[Christoph Meiners]] dan [[Georg Forster]], di Prancis oleh Julien Virey dan di Amerika Serikat oleh [[Samuel Morton]], [[Josiah Nott]] dan [[Louis Agassiz]]. Poligenisme popular dan paling menyebar pada abad ke-19, dan memuncak dengan didirikannya [[Anthropological Society of London]] selama [[American civil war]], bertentangan denga [[Ethnological Society of London]] yang anti-perbudakan.<ref name="desmond"/>
== Perdebatan kini ==
=== Model [[evolusi manusia]] ===
{{See also|Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika|Asal-usul multiregional manusia modern}}
Dalam suatu artikel pada tahun 1995, [[Leonard Lieberman]] dan [[Fatimah Jackson]] menyatakan bahwa dukungan baru mana pun untuk suatu paham biologis tentang "ras" kemungkinan besar akan datang dari penelitian tentang evolusi manusia. Menurut mereka, pertanyaannya adalah mengenai akibat model evolusi manusia yang ada sekarang atas paham "ras" yang berdasarkan biologi.<ref name="Lieberman1995"/>
Saat ini semua manusia diklasifikasi sebagai anggota dari [[spesies]] ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' dan [[subspesies]] ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]''. Namun manusia bukan spesies ''[[homininae]]'' pertama. Spesies pertama dari [[genus]] ''[[Homo]]'' adalah ''[[Homo habilis]]'', yang diperkirakan muncul di Afrika Timur paling sedikit 2 juta tahun lalu. Anggota dari spesies ini menghuni berbagai bagian Afrika dalam waktu yang agak singkat. ''[[Homo erectus]]'' diteorikan berkembang lebih dari 1,8 juta tahun silam, dan sekitar 1,5 juta tahun silam bersebar di Eropa dan Asia. Hampir semua antropolog fisik setuju bahwa ''Homo sapiens'' berkembang dari ''Homo erectus'' Afrika ((''sensu lato'') atau[[Homo ergaster]]).<ref>Camilo J. Cela-Conde and Francisco J. Ayala, ''Human Evolution Trails from the Past'', 2007 Oxford University Press, halaman 195</ref><ref>Lewin, Roger, ''Human Evolution an illustrated introduction'', terbitan ke-5, 2005, halaman 159, Blackwell</ref>
Kebanyakan antropolog berpikir bahwa ''Homo sapiens'' berkembang di Afrika Timur, dan kemudian bermigrasi keluar dari Afrika, menggantikan populasi ''H. erectus'' di Eropa dan Asia (model "[[asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika]]). Recent [[Human evolutionary genetics]] ( Jobling, Hurles and Tyler-Smith, 2004) support this “[[Out of Africa]]” model, however the recent sequencing of the [[Neanderthal]] and [[Denisovan]] genomes shows some admixture <ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 21944045 | doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005 | volume=89 | issue=4 | title=Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania | year=2011 | month=October | author=Reich D, Patterson N, Kircher M, ''et al.'' | journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. | pages=516–28}}</ref>
Baru-baru ini, beberapa penelitian pada tahun 2019 dan 2020 dari "Central South University" (CSU; 中南 大学), telah menyajikan bukti kuat untuk asal muasal multiregional manusia. Bukti genetik menunjukkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (orang Asia Timur, orang Siberia, orang Asia Tengah, orang Asia Tenggara, orang Polinesia, dan orang Amerika Pribumi) secara genetik berbeda dari orang Eropa atau Afrika. Mereka selanjutnya menyarankan bahwa bukti ini bertentangan dengan migrasi keluar dari Afrika. Mereka menyimpulkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (juga dikenal sebagai ras Mongoloid) berasal dari suatu tempat di Asia Timur (Tiongkok selatan).<ref name="Yuan 101410"/><ref name="Chen 2020.03.10.986042"/>
=== Ringkasan berbagai definisi biologis untuk "ras" ===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|+ Biological definitions of race {{harv|Long|Kittles|2003}}''
! Concept || Reference || Definition
|-
| Esentialis || {{harvtxt|Hooton|1926}} || "A great division of mankind, characterized as a group by the sharing of a certain combination of features, which have been derived from their common descent, and constitute a vague physical background, usually more or less obscured by individual variations, and realized best in a composite picture."
|-
| Taksonomis || {{harvtxt|Mayr|1969}} || "A subspecies is an aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species, inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the range of a species, and differing taxonomically from other populations of the species."
|-
| Populasi || {{harvtxt|Dobzhansky|1970}} || "Races are genetically distinct Mendelian populations. They are neither individuals nor particular genotypes, they consist of individuals who differ genetically among themselves."
|-
| Lineage || {{harvtxt|Templeton|1998}} || "A subspecies (race) is a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species. This definition requires that a subspecies be genetically differentiated due to barriers to genetic exchange that have persisted for long periods of time; that is, the subspecies must have historical continuity in addition to current genetic differentiation." ("Suatu subspesies (ras) adalah suatu garis evolusi yang berbeda dalam suatu spesies. Definisi ini menentukan bahwa suatu subspesies berbeda secara genetis karena kendala dalam pertukaran genetis yang sudah bertahan selama jangka waktu yang panjang. Artinya, subspesies tersebut harus memiliki kesinambungan sejarah di samping pembedaan genetis masa kini")
|-
|Population genetic correlation structure || {{harvtxt|Edwards|2003}} || "most of the information that distinguishes populations is hidden in the correlation structure of the data and not simply in the variation of the individual factors." ("Kebanyakan informasi yang membedakan populasi tersembunyi dalam struktur korelasi data, bukan hanya dalam variasi faktor individu")
|}
=== "Ras" sebagai konstruksi sosial ===
{{Main|Social interpretations of race|Rasisme}}
Para [[antropolog]] dan ilmuwan [[evolusi]] lain sudah beralih dari istilah "ras" ke istilah "[[populasi]]" untuk membahas perbedaan [[genetika]]. Para [[sejarawan]], antropolog kebudayaan dan ilmuwan sosial memahamkan kembali istilah "ras" sebagai kategori kebudayaan atau [[konstruksi]] sosial, suatu cara tertentu orang bicara tentang mereka sendiri dan tentang orang lain.
Banyak ilmuwan sosial sudah menggantikan istilah "ras" dengan kata "[[kelompok etnik]]" untuk menunjuk kelompok yang mengidentifikasi diri sendiri berdasarkan kepercayan mereka mengenai kebudayaan, asal-usul dan sejarah bersama. Selain masalah empiris dan konseptual yang dibawa paham "ras," setelah [[Perang Dunia Kedua]], para ilmuwan di bidang [[evolusi]] dan sosial sangat menyadari betapa kepercayaan mengenai "ras" diperalat untuk membenarkan diskriminasi, [[apartheid]], perbudakan dan [[genosid]]. Pertanyaan ini bertambah ramai pada tahun 1960-an dengan gerakan hak sipil di Amerika Serikat dan munculnya banyak gerakan anti-kolonial di seluruh dunia. Para ilmuwan akhirnya mulai berpikir bahwa "ras" adalah suatu [[konstruksi sosial]], suatu paham yang orang percaya adalah suatu kenyataan obyectif tetapi sebetulnya mendapat kepercayaan karena fungsi sosialnya.<ref name="Gordon64"/>
Tahun 2000, Craig Venter dan Francis Collins dari National Institute of Health (lembaga kesehatan nasional) fi Amerika Serikat mengumumkan bersama suatu pemetaan dari [[genom]] manusia. Setelah meneliti data dari pemetaan genom tersebut, Venter melihat bahwa walau besaran variasi genetik dalam [[spesies]] manusia adalah sekitar 1–3% (yaitu lebih dari 1% yang diperkirakan semula), tipe variasi tersebut tidak mendukung paham "ras" dalam arti genetik. Venter mengatakan bahwa "Ras adalah suatu konsep sosial. Buka konsep ilmiah. Tidak ada garis yang jelas (yang akan muncul), seandainya kita membandingkan semua genom bersekuensi dari semua orang di atas planet ini." "Bila kita coba menerapkan ilmu untuk mencoba menyusun perbedaan sosial tersebut, runtuh semuanya."<ref name="New Ideas, New Fuels: Craig Venter at the Oxonian"/>
Stephan Palmié menegaskan bahwa "ras" "bukan suatu benda tetapi suatu hubungan sosial";<ref name="Palmie2007"/> atau, dengan kata[[Katya Gibel Mevorach]], "suatu metonim," "suatu karangan manusia yang kriteria pembedaannya tidak universal dan tidak tetap, tetapi selalu digunakan untuk mengatur perbedaan."<ref name="Mevorach07"/> Dengan demikian, penggunaan kata "ras" sendiri perlu dianalisis. Lebih dari itu, Palmié dan Mevorach mengatakan bahwa biologi tidak akan dapat menjelaskan mengapa atau bagaimana orang menggunakan paham "ras". Yang akan menjelaskannyua adalah sejarah dan tatanan sosial.
== Catatan ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
<ref name = "Sober">{{harvnb|Sober|2000}}</ref>
<ref name = "Lee-Mountain">{{harvnb|Lee|Mountain|Koenig|Altman|2008}}: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores"</ref>
<ref name = "Graves01">{{harvnb|Graves|2001}}</ref>
<ref name="Keita2004">{{harvnb|Keita|Kittles|Royal|Bonney|2004}}</ref>
<ref name="AAPA">{{harvnb|AAPA|1996}} "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."-p.714</ref>
<ref name = "Lee_judicial">{{harvnb|Lee|1997}}</ref>
<ref name = "King_workforce2">{{harvnb|King|2007}}: For example, "the association of blacks with poverty and welfare ... is due, not to race per se, but to the link that race has with poverty and its associated disadvantages"–p.75.</ref>
<ref name="Marks2008">{{harvnb|Marks|2008|page=28}}</ref>
<ref name="Polo">{{harvnb|Polo|2007}}</ref>
<ref name="Graves, Joseph 2001. p.39">{{harvnb|Graves|2001|page=39}}</ref>
<ref name="Marks1995">{{harvnb|Marks|1995}}</ref>
<ref name="Lieberman1995">{{harvnb|Lieberman|Jackson|1995}}</ref>
<ref name="Gordon64">{{harvnb|Gordon|1964}}{{Page needed|date=August 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="New Ideas, New Fuels: Craig Venter at the Oxonian">{{Cite web |url=http://fora.tv/2008/07/30/New_Ideas_New_Fuels_Craig_Venter_at_the_Oxonian#chapter_17 |title=New Ideas, New Fuels: Craig Venter at the Oxonian |publisher=FORA.tv |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2009-04-18 |archive-date=2009-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122071534/http://fora.tv/2008/07/30/New_Ideas_New_Fuels_Craig_Venter_at_the_Oxonian#chapter_17 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>
<ref name="Palmie2007">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.205 |title=Genomics, divination, 'racecraft' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-ethnologist_2007-05_34_2/page/205 |date=May 2007 |last1=Palmié |first1=Stephan |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=34 |pages=205–22 |issue=2}}</ref>
<ref name="Mevorach07">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.238 |title=Race, racism, and academic complicity |year=2007 |last1=Mevorach |first1=Katya Gibel |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=34 |pages=238–241 |issue=2}}</ref>
<ref name="REGWG">{{Cite journal|author=Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group |title=The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=519–32 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16175499 |pmc=1275602 |doi=10.1086/491747}}</ref>
<ref name="REGWG">{{harvnb|Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group|2005}}</ref>
<ref name="aaa">{{harvnb|AAA|1998}}: ''For example, "Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic 'racial' groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them."''</ref>
<!-- <ref name="anthropology9">{{cite journal | last1 = Lieberman | first1 = Leonard | last2 = Hampton | first2 = Raymond E. | last3 = Littlefield | first3 = Alice | last4 = Hallead | first4 = Glen | year = 1992 | title = Race in Biology and Anthropology: A Study of College Texts and Professors | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-research-in-science-teaching_1992-03_29_3/page/301| journal = Journal of Research in Science Teaching | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 301–21 |bibcode = 1992JRScT..29..301L |doi = 10.1002/tea.3660290308 }}</ref> -->
<ref name="blank">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Blank|Dabady|Citro|2004}}
*{{harvnb|Smaje|1997}}</ref>
<ref name="brace">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Brace|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Gill|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Lee|1997}}: "The very naturalness of 'reality' is itself the effect of a particular set of discursive constructions. In this way, discourse does not simply reflect reality, but actually participates in its construction"</ref>
<ref name="banton">{{harvnb|Banton|1977}}</ref>
<ref name="brace2">{{harvnb|Brace|2005|page=27}}</ref>
<ref name="graves">{{harvnb|Graves|2001|pages=42–43}}</ref>
<ref name="desmond">{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|2009|pages=332–341}}</ref>
<ref name="gill">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Gill|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Armelagos|Smay|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Risch|Burchard|Ziv|Tang|2002}}
*{{harvnb|Bloche|2004}}</ref>
<!-- <ref name="keita6">{{harvnb|Keita|Kittles|Royal|Bonney|2004}} , {{harvnb|Bamshad|Wooding|Salisbury|Stephens|2004}} , {{harvnb|Tishkoff|Kidd|2004}} , {{harvnb|Jorde|Wooding2004}}</ref>
<ref name="krulwich">{{harvnb|Krulwich|2009}}</ref>-->
<ref name="lie">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Lie|2004}}
*{{harvnb|Thompson|Hickey|2005}}
*{{harvnb|Gordon|1964}} {{Page needed|date=August 2010}}
*{{harvnb|AAA|1998}}
*{{harvnb|Palmié|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Mevorach|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Segal|1991}}
*{{harvnb|Bindon|2005}}</ref>
<ref name="lee">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Lee|1997}}
*{{harvnb|Nobles|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Morgan|1975}} as cited in {{harvnb|Lee|1997|page=407}}</ref>
<ref name="morgan">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Morgan|1975}} as cited in {{harvnb|Lee|1997|page=407}}
*{{harvnb|Smedley|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Sivanandan|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Crenshaw|1988}}
*{{harvnb|Conley|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Winfield|2007}}: "It was [[Aristotle]] who first arranged all animals into a single, graded scale that placed humans at the top as the most perfect iteration. By the late 19th century, the idea that inequality was the basis of [[Natural order (philosophy)|natural order]], known as the ''[[great chain of being]]'', was part of the common [[lexicon]]."</ref>
<ref name="lee1">{{harvnb|Lee|1997}} citing {{harvnb|Morgan|1975}} and {{harvnb|Appiah|1992}}</ref>
<ref name="owens">{{harvnb|Owens|King|1999}}</ref>
<ref name="meltzer">{{harvnb|Meltzer|1993}}</ref>
<ref name="lewis">''For examples see:''
*{{harvnb|Lewis|1990}}
*{{harvnb|Dikötter|1992}}</ref>
<!--<ref name="relethford">{{harvnb|Relethford|2002}}</ref> this reference is not used in the text-->
<ref name="sivanandan">''See:'' *{{harvnb|Sivanandan|2000}} *{{harvnb|Muffoletto|2003}} *{{harvnb|McNeilly|Anderson|Armstead|Clark|1996}}: psychiatric instrument called the "Perceived Racism Scale" "provides a measure of the frequency of exposure to many manifestations of racism ... including individual and institutional"; also assesses motional and behavioral coping responses to racism. *{{harvnb|Miles|2000}}</ref>
<ref name="schaefer">{{harvnb|Schaefer|2008}}: "In many parts of Latin America, racial groupings are based less on the biological physical features and more on an intersection between physical features and social features such as economic class, dress, education, and context. Thus, a more fluid treatment allows for the construction of race as an achieved status rather than an ascribed status as is the case in the United States"</ref>
<ref name="smedley">{{harvnb|Smedley|2007}}</ref>
<ref name="smedley1999">{{harvnb|Smedley|1999}}</ref>
<ref name="takaki">{{harvnb|Takaki|1993}}</ref>
<ref name="todorov">{{harvnb|Todorov|1993}}</ref>
<ref name="stocking">{{harvnb|Stocking|1968|pages=38–40}}</ref>
}}
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika]]
* [[Asal-usul multiregional manusia modern]]
* [[Sejarah pemikiran evolusi]]
* [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]]
* [[Jared Diamond]]
* [[Stephen Oppenheimer]]
* [[Ras masa depan]]
== Perpustakaan ==
<!-- GenomeRes14 p1679 from [[Human genetic variation]] [[Race and genetics]] -->
{{refbegin|2}}
<!-- Abizadeh,Arash 2001-->
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Abizadeh | first1 = Arash | year = 2001 | title = Ethnicity, Race, and a Possible Humanity | url = http://www.profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/abizadeh/Ethnicity.htm | journal = World Order | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–34 | ref = harv }}
<!--Abraham, Carolyn 2009-->
* {{cite news|title=Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face|first=Carolyn|last=Abraham|url=http://m.theglobeandmail.com/life/molecular-eyewitness-dna-gets-a-human-face/article888804/?service=mobile&template=shareEmail&tabInside_tab=0&page=1|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|publisher=Phillip Crawley|location=date=2009-04-07|accessdate=2011-02-04|ref=harv|archive-date=2011-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717002110/http://m.theglobeandmail.com/life/molecular-eyewitness-dna-gets-a-human-face/article888804/?service=mobile&template=shareEmail&tabInside_tab=0&page=1|dead-url=yes}}
<!-- AAA 1998-->
* {{Cite web|last=AAA|url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm|title=American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race"|publisher=Aaanet.org|date=1998-05-17|accessdate=2009-04-18|ref=harv}}
<!-- AAPA 1996-->
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.1331010408 | last = AAPA | authorlink = American Association of Physical Anthropologists | year = 1996 | title = AAPA statement on biological aspects of race | url = http://www.virginia.edu/woodson/courses/aas102%20%28spring%2001%29/articles/AAPA_race.pdf | journal = Am J Phys Anthropol | volume = 101 | issue = | pages = 569–570 | ref = harv | access-date = 2012-01-02 | archive-date = 2017-11-17 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171117234458/http://www.virginia.edu/woodson/courses/aas102%20%28spring%2001%29/articles/AAPA_race.pdf | dead-url = yes }}
<!--Amadon D 1949-->
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1364805 | last1 = Amadon | first1 = D. | year = 1949 | title = The seventy-five percent rule for subspecies | journal = Condor | volume = 51 | issue = 6| pages = 250–258 |ref=harv | jstor=1364805}}
<!--Amundson 2005-->
* {{Cite book|last=Amundson|first=Ron|title=Quality of life and human difference: genetic testing, health care, and disability|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521832014|pages=101–24|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9PvWVZIzoTIC&pg=PA107|editor=David T. Wasserman, Robert Samuel Wachbroit, Jerome Edmund Bickenbach|chapter=Disability, Ideology, and Quality of Life: A Bias in Biomedical Ethics|ref=harv}}{{Pranala mati|date=Juni 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
<!--Angier Natalie 2000-->
* {{Cite news|last=Angier|first=Natalie|title=Do Races Differ? Not Really, DNA Shows|url=http://www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/082200sci-genetics-race.html|accessdate=9 August 2010|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=2000-08-22|ref=harv}}
<!--Appiah 1992-->
* {{cite book|title=In My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/inmyfathershous000appi|last=Appiah|first=Kwame Anthony|year=1992|isbn=9780195068528|publisher=Oxford University Press|ref=harv}}
<!--Armelagos Smay 2000-->
* {{Cite journal|doi=10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19|first2=Diana|last2=Smay|first=George|last=Armelagos|title=Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race in forensic anthropolopy|journal=Transforming Anthropology|year=2000|volume=9|pages=19–29|url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf|postscript=<!--None-->|ref=harv|access-date=2012-01-02|archive-date=2018-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818073338/http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
<!--Baker John R. 1974-->
* {{Cite book|last=Baker|first=John R|title=Race|url=https://archive.org/details/race00bake|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London & NY|year=1974|ref=harv}}
<!--Bamshad Olson 2003-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Bamshad |first1=Michael |last2=Olson |first2=Steve E |url=http://schools.tdsb.on.ca/rhking/departments/science/bio/evol_pop_dyn/does_race_exist.pdf |title=Does Race Exist? |journal=Scientific American Magazine |date=2003-11-10 |ref=harv |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614110106/http://schools.tdsb.on.ca/rhking/departments/science/bio/evol_pop_dyn/does_race_exist.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-14 |access-date=2012-01-02 |dead-url=yes }}
<!--Bamshad et all 2004-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Bamshad |first1=M |last2=Wooding |first2=S |last3=Salisbury |first3=BA |last4=Stephens |first4= |title=Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=598–609 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15266342 |doi=10.1038/nrg1401 |url= |ref=harv}}
<!--Bamshad 2005 ??? -->
<!--Banton Michael 1977-->
* {{cite book|last=Banton|first=Michael|year=1977|title=The idea of race|url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofrace0000bant|publisher= Westview Press|location= Boulder|format = paperback|isbn = 0891587195|ref=harv}}
<!--Baum 2006-->
* {{cite book|last=Baum|first=Bruce|title=The rise and fall of the Caucasian race: a political history of racial identity|url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofcaucas0000baum|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/risefallofcaucas0000baum/page/218 218]|isbn=0-8147-9892-6|ref=harv}}
<!--Bioni et al 1990-->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Biondi |first1=G |last2=Raspe |first2=P |last3=Perrotti |first3=E |last4=Lasker |first4=GW |last5=Mascie-Taylor |first=5CG |title=Relationships estimated by isonymy among the Italo-Greco villages of southern Italy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-biology_1990-10_62_5/page/649 |journal=Human Biology |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=649–63 |year=1990 |month=October |pmid=2227910 |ref=harv }}
<!--Blank Dabady Citro 2004-->
* {{cite book|last=Blank|first=Rebecca M.|last2=Dabady|first2=Marilyn|last3=Citro|first3=Constance Forbes|series=National Research Council (U.S.). Panel on Methods for Assessing Discrimination|publisher=National Adademies Press|year=2004|isbn=9780309091268|pages=317|title=Measuring racial discrimination|chapter=Chapter 2|ref=harv }}
<!--Blindon 2005-->
* {{cite web |last=Bindon |first=Jim |publisher=University of Alabama |url=http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/presentations/POST_WWII.PDF#search=%22stanley%20marion%20garn%22 |title=Post World War II |date=August 28, 2006, 2005 |ref=harv |access-date=2012-01-02 |archive-date=2012-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627064738/http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/presentations/POST_WWII.PDF#search=%22stanley%20marion%20garn%22 |dead-url=yes }}
<!--Bloche 2004-->
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1056/NEJMp048271 | last1 = Bloche | first1 = Gregg M. | year = 2004 | title = Race-Based Therapeutics | url = http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/351/20/2035 | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 351 | issue = 20 | pages = 2035–2037 | pmid = 15533852 | ref = harv }}
<!--Boas Franz 1912-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1525/aa.1912.14.3.02a00080 | last1 = Boas | first1 = Franz| year = 1912 | title = Change in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants | url = | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 14 | issue = | pages = 530–562 |ref=harv}}
<!--Boyd William 1950-->
* {{cite book|last=Boyd|first=William C.|title=Genetics and the races of man: an introduction to modern physical anthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/geneticsracesofm00boyd|year=1950|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|ref=harv|page=[https://archive.org/details/geneticsracesofm00boyd/page/207 207]|location=Boston}}
<!--Brace CLoring 1964-->
* {{cite book|last=Brace|first=CL|year=1964|chapter=A Non-racial Approach Toward the Understanding of Human Diversity|title=The Concept of Race|url=https://archive.org/details/conceptofrace0000mont|editor=Ashley Montagu|ref=harv}}
<!--Brace CLoring 2000-->
* {{cite web |last=Brace |first=CL |year=2000 |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/brace.html |title=Does race exist? An antagonist's perspective |publisher=Pbs.org |accessdate=2010-10-11 |ref=harv }}
<!--Brace CLoring 2005-->
* {{cite book|last=Brace|first=CL|year=2005|title=Race is a four letter word|url=https://archive.org/details/raceisfourletter0000brac|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195173512|pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceisfourletter0000brac/page/326 326]|ref=harv}}
<!--Condit et al 2003-->
* {{cite journal | last1 = Condit | first1 = C | last2 = Templeton | first2 = A| year = 2003 | last3 = Bates | first3 = BR | last4 = Bevan | first4 = JL | last5 = Harris | first5 = TM | title = Attitudinal barriers to delivery of race-targeted pharmacogenomics among informed lay persons | url = | journal = Genetics in Medicine | volume = 5| issue = 5| pages = 385–392 |pmid = 14501834 | doi = 10.1097/01.GIM.0000087990.30961.72 |ref=harv}}
<!--Conley 2007-->
* {{cite book|last=Conley|first=D|year=2007|chapter=Being black, living in the red"|editor=PS Rothenberg|title=Race, Class, and Gender in the United States|edition=7th|pages=350–358|location=New York|publisher=Worth Publishers|ref=harv}}
<!--Cravens Hamilton 2010-->
* {{cite journal |last=Cravens |first=Hamilton |year=2010 |title=What's New in Science and Race since the 1930s?: Anthropologists and Racial Essentialism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historian_summer-2010_72_2/page/299 |journal=The Historian |volume=72 |issue=2 |page=299 |ref=harv }}
<!--Crenshaw 1988-->
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1341398 | last1 = Crenshaw | first1 = KW | author-separator = , | author-name-separator = | year = 1988 | title = Race, reform, and retrenchment: Transformation and legitimation in antidiscrimination law | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_harvard-law-review_1988-05_101_7/page/1331 | journal = Harvard Law Review | volume = 101 | issue = 7 | pages = 1331–1337 | ref = harv | jstor = 1341398 }}
<!--Cooper et al 2003-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1056/NEJMsb022863 | last1 = Cooper | first1 = RS | last2 = Kaufman | first2 = JS | last3 = Ward | first3 = R | year = 2003 | title = Race and genomics | url = | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 348 | issue = 12| pages = 1166–1170 | pmid = 12646675 |ref=harv}}
<!--Currell, Cogdell 2006-->
* {{Cite book|last1 = Currell|first1 = Susan |first2= Christina|last2=Cogdell|title = Popular Eugenics: National Efficiency and American Mass Culture in The 1930s|publisher = [[Ohio University Press]]|year = 2006|location = Athens, OH|page = 203|isbn = 082141691X|ref=harv}}
<!--Desmond Moore 2009-->
* {{citation|last1=Desmond|first1=Adrian|last2=Moore|first2=James|title=Darwin's sacred cause: how a hatred of slavery shaped Darwin's views on human evolution |publisher=Allen Lane, Penguin Books|year=2009|pages=484 |isbn=9781846140358 |ref=harv}}
<!--Dikötter 1992-->
* {{cite book|last=Dikötter|first=Frank|year=1992|title=The discourse of race in modern China|url=https://archive.org/details/discourseofracei0000diko|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford|isbn=9780804719940|ref=harv}}
<!--Dobzhansky 1971-->
* {{cite book|last1=Dobzhansky|first1= T.|year=1970|title=Genetics of the Evolutionary Process|location= New York, NY|publisher= Columbia University Press|isbn=0231028377|ref=harv}}
<!--Dobzhansky 2005-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1110303 | last1 = Dobzhansky | first1 = T. | year = 2005 | title = Race and reification in science | url = | journal = Science | volume = 307 | issue = 5712| pages = 1050–1051 | pmid = 15718453 }}
<!--Edwards 2003-->
* {{cite journal |last=Edwards |first=AW |title=Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy |journal=Bioessays |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=798–801 |year=2003 |month=August |pmid=12879450 |doi=10.1002/bies.10315 |url= |ref=harv}}
<!--Ehrlich Paul; Holm Richard 1962 2003-->
* {{cite book|last1=Ehrlich|first1=Paul|last2=Holm|first2=Richard W.|chapter=A Biological View of Race|title=The Concept of Race|editor=Ashley Montagu|year=1964|publisher=Collier Books|pages=153–179|ref=harv}}
<!--El-Najjar, McWilliams 1978-->
* {{cite book|last1=El-Najjar|first1=M. Y.|last2=McWilliams|first2=K. R.|title=Forensic Anthropology: The Structure, Morphology and Variation of Human Bone and Dentition|url=https://archive.org/details/forensicanthropo0000elna|page=[https://archive.org/details/forensicanthropo0000elna/page/72 72]|publisher=Charles C. Thomas, Springfield|year=1978|isbn=0398036489|ref=harv}}
<!--Gill 2000-->
* {{Cite web |last=Gill |first=G |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html |title=Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective |publisher=Pbs.org |year=2000 |accessdate=2009-04-18 |ref=harv }}
<!--Gitschier 2005-->
* {{cite journal |last=Gitschier |first=Jane |url=http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010014 |title=The Whole Side of It—An Interview with Neil Risch |year=2005 |publisher=PLoS Genet |volume=1(1):e14. |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010014 |ref=harv }}
<!--Gordon 1964-->
* {{Cite book|last=Gordon|first=Milton Myron|title=Assimilation in American life: the role of race, religion, and national origins|url=https://archive.org/details/assimilationinam0000gord|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1964|pages=|isbn=978-0-19-500896-8|ref=harv}}
<!--Graves Joseph L 2001-->
* {{cite book|last=Graves|first=Joseph L|title=The Emperor's New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millenium|url=https://archive.org/details/emperorsnewcloth00grav|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2001|ref=harv}}
<!--Graves Joseph L. 2006-->
* {{cite web |url=http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/ |title=What We Know and What We Don't Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race |format= |work= |accessdate=2011-01-22 |last=Graves |first=Joseph L. |year=2006 |publisher=Social Science Research Council (SSRC) |ref=harv }}
<!--Haig et al 2006-->
* {{Cite journal |last1=Haig |first1=SM |last2=Beever |first2=EA |last3=Chambers |first3=SM |last4=Draheim |first4=HM |last5=et. al. |title=Taxonomic considerations in listing subspecies under the U.S. Endangered Species Act |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_conservation-biology_2006-12_20_6/page/1584 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=1584–94 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17181793 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00530.x |ref=harv }}
<!--Harpending et al 2000-->
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1146/annurev.genom.1.1.361 | last1 = Harpending | first1 = H | last2 = Rogers | first2 = A | year = 2000 | title = Genetic perspectives on human origins and differentiation | url = | journal = Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet | volume = 1 | issue = | pages = 361–385 | pmid = 11701634 }}
<!--Harris Marvin 1980-->
* {{cite book|last=Harris|first=Marvin|title=Patterns of race in the Americas|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn|year=1980|pages=|isbn=0-313-22359-9|ref=harv }}
<!--Herrnstein & Murray 1996 (Second Edition-->
* {{cite book|title=The Bell Curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life|last1=Herrnstein|first1=Richard|last2=Murray|first2=Charles|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1996|ref=harv}}
<!--Human Genome Project 2003-->
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{{refend}}
== Pranala luar ==
* {{en}} [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml US Human Genome Project on "Issues of Race"]
* {{en}} [http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/ Is Race "Real"?] - forum organized by the [[Social Science Research Council]], includes a March 2005 op-ed article by A.M. Leroi from the ''New York Times'' advocating biological conceptiosn of race and responses from scholars in a variety of fields.
* {{en}} Steven and Hilary Rose, The Guardian, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050430081407/http://www.politics.guardian.co.uk/life/science/story/0,12996,1455716,00.html "Why we should give up on race"], [[9 April]] [[2005]]
* {{en}} Times Online, [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,8122-1331319,00.html "Gene tests prove that we are all the same under the skin"], [[27 October]] [[2004]].
* {{en}} Catchpenny mysteries of ancient Egypt, [http://www.catchpenny.org/race.html "What race were the ancient Egyptians?"], Larry Orcutt.
* {{en}} Judy Skatssoon, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s1153697.htm "New twist on out-of-Africa theory"], ''ABC Science Online'', Wednesday, [[14 July]] [[2004]].
* {{en}} Michael J. Bamshad, Steve E. Olson [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000 "Does Race Exist?"], ''Scientific American'', December 2003
* {{en}} OMB Statistical Directive 15, [http://www.doi.gov/diversity/doc/racedata.htm "Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031004010836/http://www.doi.gov/diversity/doc/racedata.htm |date=2003-10-04 }}, ''Federal Register'', [[30 October]] [[1997]].
* {{en}} Sandra Soo-Jin Lee, Joanna Mountain, and Barbara A. Koenig, [http://academic.udayton.edu/health/08Research/research01.htm "The Reification of Race in Health Research"]
* {{en}} Michael Root, [http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001094/ "The Use of Race in Medicine as a Proxy for Genetic Differences"]
* {{en}} [[Richard Dawkins]]: [http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=6467 Race and creation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050221132730/http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=6467 |date=2005-02-21 }} (extract from [[The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life]]) - On race, its usage and a theory of how it evolved. ([http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/ Prospect Magazine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004032355/http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/ |date=2018-10-04 }} October 2004) (see also [http://www.amren.com/mtnews/archives/2004/09/race_and_creati.php# longer extract here])
* {{en}} [http://www.bloodbook.com/world-abo.html Racial & Ethnic Distribution of ABO Blood Types] - bloodbook.com
{{Rasmanusia}}{{Sejarah definisi ras}}
[[Kategori:Genetika populasi]]
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