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[[Berkas:Karl Ernst von Baer Types Principaux des Differents Race Humaines.jpg|jmpl|Jenis utama ras manusia yang berbeda di lima belahan dunia dari Karl Ernst von Baer ]]
'''Ras''' (dari [[bahasa Prancis]] ''[[:fr:race|race]]'', yang sendirinya dari [[bahasa Latin]] ''radix'', "akar") adalah suatu sistem [[klasifikasi]] yang digunakan untuk mengkategorikan [[manusia]] dalam [[Populasi (biologi)|populasi]] atau [[kelompok sosial|kelompok]] besar dan berbeda melalui ciri [[fenotipe]], asal-usul geografis, tampang jasmani dan [[suku|kesukuan]] yang terwarisi. Di awal abad ke-20 istilah ini sering digunakan dalam arti [[biologis]] untuk menunjuk populasi manusia yang beraneka ragam dari segi [[genetik]] dengan anggota yang memiliki [[fenotipe]] (tampang luar) yang sama.<ref name="lie"/> Arti "ras" ini masih digunakan dalam [[antropologi]] [[forensik]] (dalam menganalisis sisa tulang), penelitian [[biomedis]] dan [[kedokteran]] berdasarkan asal-usul.<ref name="gill"/>
Di samping itu, di [[Amerika Serikat]] misalnya, penegak [[hukum]] menggunakan istilah "[[Rasionalisme|ras]]"
Oleh karena itu, [[paradigma]] "ras" yang digunakan dalam berbagai [[disiplin]] menekan dengan cara yang beraneka pada sifat [[biologi]]s atau pada segi konstruk sosial.
Walau para biologis kadang-kadang menggunakan paham "ras" untuk membuat pembedaan antara kumpulan ciri-ciri yang rancu, [[ilmuwan]] lain mengajukan wawasan bahwa paham "ras" sering digunakan<ref name="Graves01"/> secara naif<ref name = "Lee-Mountain"/> atau terlalu sederhana. "Ras" tidak memiliki arti [[taksonomi]]s untuk manusia: semua manusia adalah anggota dari [[subspesies]] [[hominid]] yang sama yaitu ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]''.<ref name="Keita2004"/><ref name="AAPA"/> Paham sosial dan pengelompokan ras berubah dengan waktu, termasuk [[taksonomi]] awam
<ref name="montagu">''See:''
* {{harvnb|Montagu|1962}}
* {{harvnb|Bamshad|Olson|2003}}</ref>
Saat orang menentukan dan menggunakan satu paham tertentu untuk "ras", mereka menciptakan suatu kenyataan sosial di mana diterapkan suatu kategorisasi sosial tertentu.<ref name="Lee_judicial"/> Oleh sebab itu "ras" dipandang sebagai
Faktor sosio dan ekonomi berakibatkan penderitaan yang sangat besar di dalam kelompok yang telantar.<ref name="morgan"/> [[Diskriminasi]] rasial sering bertepatan dengan pola pikir yang [[Rasisme|rasis]], di mana para individu dan ideologi satu kelompok melihat anggota dari kelompok lain sebagai suatu "ras" tertentu yang lebih rendah secara moral.<ref name="lee1"/> Alhasil, kelompok yang tidak banyak berkuasa sering terasing atau tertindas, sedangkan individu dan [[lembaga]] yang dominan dituduh bersikap rasis.<ref name="sivanandan"/> Rasisme mengakibatkan banyak contoh tragedi, termasuk [[perbudakan]] dan [[genosida]].<ref name="owens"/>
Sementara ilmuwan Eropa sebagian besar telah meninggalkan klasifikasi rasial, konsep tersebut menjadi arus utama oleh ilmuwan non-Eropa. Baru-baru ini, beberapa penelitian pada tahun 2019 dan 2020 dari "Central South University" (CSU; 中南 大学), telah menyajikan bukti kuat untuk asal muasal multiregional manusia. Bukti genetik menunjukkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (orang Asia Timur, orang Siberia, orang Asia Tengah, orang Asia Tenggara, orang Polinesia, dan orang Amerika Pribumi) secara genetik berbeda dari orang Eropa atau Afrika. Mereka selanjutnya menyarankan bahwa bukti ini bertentangan dengan migrasi keluar dari Afrika. Mereka menyimpulkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (juga dikenal sebagai ras Mongoloid) berasal dari suatu tempat di Asia Timur (Tiongkok selatan).<ref name="Yuan 101410">{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Dejian|last2=Lei|first2=Xiaoyun|last3=Gui|first3=Yuanyuan|last4=Wang|first4=Mingrui|last5=Zhang|first5=Ye|last6=Zhu|first6=Zuobin|last7=Wang|first7=Dapeng|last8=Yu|first8=Jun|last9=Huang|first9=Shi|date=2019-06-09|title=Modern human origins: multiregional evolution of autosomes and East Asia origin of Y and mtDNA|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/101410v6|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=101410|doi=10.1101/101410}}</ref><ref name="Chen 2020.03.10.986042">{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Hongyao|last2=Zhang|first2=Ye|last3=Huang|first3=Shi|date=2020-03-11|title=Ancient Y chromosomes confirm origin of modern human paternal lineages in Asia rather than Africa|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.10.986042v1|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=2020.03.10.986042|doi=10.1101/2020.03.10.986042}}</ref>
Rata-rata jarak genetik Fst antara populasi manusia adalah sekitar 0,125. Lewontin berargumen bahwa ini mewakili variasi ras yang kecil.<ref>https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_14</ref> Harpending, di sisi lain, berargumen bahwa jarak tersebut mengimplikasikan hubungan kekerabatan antara individu dari populasi yang sama setara dengan hubungan kekerabatan antara saudara tiri dalam populasi yang kawin secara acak, dan bahwa seseorang dari populasi tertentu secara genetik lebih dekat dengan individu yang tidak terkait dari populasi yang sama daripada dengan saudara tiri dari ras campuran.<ref>https://www.jstor.org/stable/27503827</ref>
== Paham modern pertama tentang "ras" ==
[[Berkas:Meyers b11 s0476a.jpg|jmpl|300px|Tiga "ras" besar menurut buku ''Meyers Konversationslexikon'' dari Jerman tahun 1885-90. Subtipe "[[ras Mongoloid]]" ditandai dengan warna kuning dan jingga, "[[ras Kaukasoid]]" dalam warna keabu-abuan dan "[[ras Negroid]]" dalam warna coklat. [[Bangsa Dravida|Orang Dravida]] dan [[Sri Lanka|Singhala]] diwarnai hijau zaitun dan klasifikasi mereka dinyatakan sebagai kurang menentu. "Ras Mongoloid" adalah yang terluas penyebarannya, termasuk kedua [[Amerika]], [[Asia Utara]], [[Asia Timur]], [[Asia Tenggara]] dan keseluruhan [[Arktik]] yang dihuni manusia.]]
Boleh jadi kelompok manusia dari dulu selalu menentukan diri sendiri sebagai berbeda dari kelompok lain. Namun, perbedaan tersebut belum tentu selalu dipandang sebagai sesuatu yang alami, tak terubahkan dan menyeluruh. Pandang seperti ini merupakan ciri-ciri khas paham "ras" yang digunakan pada masa kini.<ref name="Marks2008"/>
Pada awalnya, kata "ras" dipakai untuk menunjuk suatu [[bangsa]] atau [[kelompok etnis]]. [[Marco Polo]] misalnya, dalam bukunya yang ditulis pada abad ke-13, menguraikan "ras [[Persia]]".<ref name="Polo"/> Paham "ras" masa kini baru muncul pada abad ke-17.<ref name="smedley"/>
Paham Eropa tentang "ras", sejalan dengan sejumlah paham yang sekarang dikaitkan dengan istilah tersebut, muncul pada saat [[revolusi ilmiah]], di mana penelitian alam dimulai dan diutamakan, dan masa [[imperialisme]] dan [[kolonialisme]] Eropa yang menciptakan hubungan politik antara orang Eropa dan bangsa yang memiliki tradisi kebudayaan dan politik yang berbeda.<ref name="Marks2008" /><ref name="smedley1999"/> Dengan bertemunya orang Eropa dengan bangsa dari berbagai bagian dunia, mereka membahas perbedaan jasmani, sosial, dan kebudayaan di antara berbagai kelompok manusia. Munculnya perniagaan budak di Atlantik, yang secara berangsur menggantikan perniagaan budak yang lebih lama di seluruh dunia, makin mendorong untuk mengkategorikan kelompok manusia demi membenarkan ditundukkannya budak asal Afrika.<ref name="meltzer"/> Dengan mengacu kepada sumber [[Klasik]] mereka dan hubungan antar bangsa Eropa sendiri — misalnya, permusuhan bebuyutan antara [[Inggris]] dan [[Prancis]] sangat berpengaruh atas pemikiran Eropa awal mengenai perbedaan antar bangsa<ref name="takaki"/> — orang Eropa mulai mengotakkan mereka sendiri dan bangsa lain dalam kelompok berdasarkan tampang jasmani, dan melekatkan pada individu dalam kelompok tersebut, perilaku dan kemampuan yang dianggap mengakar dalam-dalam. Berkembanlah sejumlah [[kepercayaan]] yang mengaitkan perbedaan jasmani antar kelompok yang terwarisi, dengan sifat [[intelektual]], perilaku, dan [[moral]] yang juga dikira terwarisi.<ref name="banton"/> Paham serupa ditemukan pada kebudayaan lain,<ref name="lewis"/> misalnya di [[Tiongkok]], di mana suatu konsep yang diterjemahkan dengan istilah "ras" dikaitkan dengan yang dipercayai adalah keturunan bersama dari [[Kaisar Kuning]], dan digunakan untuk menegaskan kesatuan para [[kelompok etnis]] di Tiongkok China. Pertikaian penuh kekerasan antar kelompok etnis sempat terjadi di sepanjang sejarah dan di seluruh dunia.<ref name="REGWG"/>
Klasifikasi pasca-[[klasik]] yang pertama manusia dalam "ras" diketahui adalah ''Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent'' ("Pembagian baru Bumi oleh spesies atau ras yang menghuninya") oleh [[François Bernier]] dari Prancis, yang diterbitkan tahun 1684.<ref name="todorov"/> Pada abad ke-18, perbedaan antara kelompok manusia menjadi bahan penyelidikan ilmiah. Namun klasifikasi ilmiah mengenai variasi [[fenotipe]] sering disertai gagasan [[rasisme|rasis]] mengenai kemampuan yang dianggap melekat pada berbagai kelompok, yang selalu memberi ciri-ciri yang paling bagus kepada orang Eropa atau [[orang Kulit putih]], dan memperingkatkan "ras" lain dalam suatu kontinuum ciri-ciri yang secara berangsur menjadi kurang bagus. Klasifikasi [[Carolus Linnaeus]], pencipta [[taksonomi]] zoologis, tahun 1755 membagi ras manusia [[Homo Sapiens]] dalam varietas "''Europaeus''", "''Asiaticus''", "''Americanus''" dan "''Afer''", yang masing-masing dikaitkan dengan watak yang berbeda: "''sanguine''", "melancolis", "''choleric''" dan "''bilious''".<ref name="brace2"/> ''Homo Sapiens Europeaus'' dikatakan aktif, cerdas dan petualang, sedangkan ''Homo Sapiens Afer'' dikatakan licik, pemalas dan sembrono.<ref name="Graves, Joseph 2001. p.39"/>
Dalam bukunya berjudul ''The Natural Varieties of Mankind'', [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] yang diterbitkan tahun 1775 mengajukan lima kelompok besar: "[[ras Kaukasoid]]", "[[ras Mongoloid]]", "ras Etiopia" (yang kemudian dinamakan "[[ras Negroid]]"), "[[suku Indian|ras Indian]]" dan "[[ras Melayu]]", namun dia tidak mengusulkan peringkatan apa pun antara para ras.<ref name="Graves, Joseph 2001. p.39"/>
Dari abad ke-17 sampai 19, pelemburan kepercayaan orang awam mengenai perbedaan antar kelompok, dengan penjelasan ilmiah mengenai perbedaan ini, menghasilkan apa yang oleh salah satu pakar disebut "[[ideologi]] tentang ras".<ref name="smedley1999"/> Menurut ideologi ini, ras adalah mendasar, alami, lestari dan terpisah. Di [[Amerika Serikat]], teori ras [[Thomas Jefferson]] berpengaruh. Dia melihat orang Afrika lebih rendah daripada orang Kulit putih, khususnya dari segi kecerdasan, dan memiliki nafsu seks yang kelebihan, tetapi menganggap [[Suku Indian|orang Indian]] setara dengan orang Kulit putih.<ref name="graves"/>
Di dua dasawarsa terakhir abad ke-18[[poligenisme]], yaitu kepercayaan bahwa "ras" yang berbeda telah berkembang secara terpisah di setiap benua dan tidak memiliki moyang yang sama,<ref name="stocking"/> diajukan di Inggris oleh sejarawan [[Edward Long]] dan anatomis [[Charles White]], di Jerman oleh etnograf [[Christoph Meiners]] dan [[Georg Forster]], di Prancis oleh Julien Virey dan di Amerika Serikat oleh [[Samuel Morton]], [[Josiah Nott]] dan [[Louis Agassiz]]. Poligenisme popular dan paling menyebar pada abad ke-19, dan memuncak dengan didirikannya [[Anthropological Society of London]] selama [[American civil war]], bertentangan denga [[Ethnological Society of London]] yang anti-perbudakan.<ref name="desmond"/>
== Perdebatan kini ==
=== Model [[evolusi manusia]] ===
{{See also|Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika|Asal-usul multiregional manusia modern}}
Dalam suatu artikel pada tahun 1995, [[Leonard Lieberman]] dan [[Fatimah Jackson]] menyatakan bahwa dukungan baru mana pun untuk suatu paham biologis tentang "ras" kemungkinan besar akan datang dari penelitian tentang evolusi manusia. Menurut mereka, pertanyaannya adalah mengenai akibat model evolusi manusia yang ada sekarang atas paham "ras" yang berdasarkan biologi.<ref name="Lieberman1995"/>
Saat ini semua manusia diklasifikasi sebagai anggota dari [[spesies]] ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' dan [[subspesies]] ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]''. Namun manusia bukan spesies ''[[homininae]]'' pertama. Spesies pertama dari [[genus]] ''[[Homo]]'' adalah ''[[Homo habilis]]'', yang diperkirakan muncul di Afrika Timur paling sedikit 2 juta tahun lalu. Anggota dari spesies ini menghuni berbagai bagian Afrika dalam waktu yang agak singkat. ''[[Homo erectus]]'' diteorikan berkembang lebih dari 1,8 juta tahun silam, dan sekitar 1,5 juta tahun silam bersebar di Eropa dan Asia. Hampir semua antropolog fisik setuju bahwa ''Homo sapiens'' berkembang dari ''Homo erectus'' Afrika ((''sensu lato'') atau[[Homo ergaster]]).<ref>Camilo J. Cela-Conde and Francisco J. Ayala, ''Human Evolution Trails from the Past'', 2007 Oxford University Press, halaman 195</ref><ref>Lewin, Roger, ''Human Evolution an illustrated introduction'', terbitan ke-5, 2005, halaman 159, Blackwell</ref>
Kebanyakan antropolog berpikir bahwa ''Homo sapiens'' berkembang di Afrika Timur, dan kemudian bermigrasi keluar dari Afrika, menggantikan populasi ''H. erectus'' di Eropa dan Asia (model "[[asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika]]). Recent [[Human evolutionary genetics]] ( Jobling, Hurles and Tyler-Smith, 2004) support this “[[Out of Africa]]” model, however the recent sequencing of the [[Neanderthal]] and [[Denisovan]] genomes shows some admixture <ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 21944045 | doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005 | volume=89 | issue=4 | title=Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania | year=2011 | month=October | author=Reich D, Patterson N, Kircher M, ''et al.'' | journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. | pages=516–28}}</ref>
Baru-baru ini, beberapa penelitian pada tahun 2019 dan 2020 dari "Central South University" (CSU; 中南 大学), telah menyajikan bukti kuat untuk asal muasal multiregional manusia. Bukti genetik menunjukkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (orang Asia Timur, orang Siberia, orang Asia Tengah, orang Asia Tenggara, orang Polinesia, dan orang Amerika Pribumi) secara genetik berbeda dari orang Eropa atau Afrika. Mereka selanjutnya menyarankan bahwa bukti ini bertentangan dengan migrasi keluar dari Afrika. Mereka menyimpulkan bahwa populasi terkait Asia Timur (juga dikenal sebagai ras Mongoloid) berasal dari suatu tempat di Asia Timur (Tiongkok selatan).<ref name="Yuan 101410"/><ref name="Chen 2020.03.10.986042"/>
=== Ringkasan berbagai definisi biologis untuk "ras" ===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|+ Biological definitions of race {{harv|Long|Kittles|2003}}''
Baris 45 ⟶ 66:
|}
=== "Ras" sebagai konstruksi sosial ===
{{Main|Social interpretations of race|
Para [[antropolog]] dan ilmuwan [[evolusi]] lain sudah beralih dari
Banyak ilmuwan sosial sudah menggantikan istilah "ras" dengan kata "[[kelompok etnik]]" untuk menunjuk kelompok yang mengidentifikasi diri sendiri berdasarkan kepercayan mereka mengenai kebudayaan, asal-usul dan sejarah bersama.
Tahun 2000, Craig Venter
Stephan Palmié
== Catatan ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
<ref name = "Sober">{{harvnb|Sober|2000}}</ref>
<ref name = "Lee-Mountain">{{harvnb|Lee|Mountain|Koenig|Altman|2008}}: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores"</ref>
<ref name = "Graves01">{{harvnb|Graves|2001}}</ref>
<ref name="Keita2004">{{harvnb|Keita|Kittles|Royal|Bonney|2004}}</ref>
<ref name="AAPA">{{harvnb|AAPA|1996}} "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."-p.714</ref>
<ref name = "Lee_judicial">{{harvnb|Lee|1997}}</ref>
<ref name = "King_workforce2">{{harvnb|King|2007}}: For example, "the association of blacks with poverty and welfare ... is due, not to race per se, but to the link that race has with poverty and its associated disadvantages"–p.75.</ref>
<ref name="Marks2008">{{harvnb|Marks|2008|page=28}}</ref>
<ref name="Polo">{{harvnb|Polo|2007}}</ref>
<ref name="Graves, Joseph 2001. p.39">{{harvnb|Graves|2001|page=39}}</ref>
<ref name="Marks1995">{{harvnb|Marks|1995}}</ref>
<ref name="Lieberman1995">{{harvnb|Lieberman|Jackson|1995}}</ref>
<ref name="Gordon64">{{harvnb|Gordon|1964}}{{Page needed|date=August 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="New Ideas, New Fuels: Craig Venter at the Oxonian">{{Cite web |url=http://fora.tv/2008/07/30/New_Ideas_New_Fuels_Craig_Venter_at_the_Oxonian#chapter_17 |title=New Ideas, New Fuels: Craig Venter at the Oxonian |publisher=FORA.tv |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2009-04-18 |archive-date=2009-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122071534/http://fora.tv/2008/07/30/New_Ideas_New_Fuels_Craig_Venter_at_the_Oxonian#chapter_17 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>
<ref name="Palmie2007">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.205 |title=Genomics, divination, 'racecraft' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-ethnologist_2007-05_34_2/page/205 |date=May 2007 |last1=Palmié |first1=Stephan |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=34 |pages=205–22 |issue=2}}</ref>
<ref name="Mevorach07">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1525/ae.2007.34.2.238 |title=Race, racism, and academic complicity |year=2007 |last1=Mevorach |first1=Katya Gibel |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=34 |pages=238–241 |issue=2}}</ref>
<ref name="REGWG">{{Cite journal|author=Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group |title=The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=519–32 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16175499 |pmc=1275602 |doi=10.1086/491747}}</ref>
<ref name="REGWG">{{harvnb|Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group|2005}}</ref>
<ref name="aaa">{{harvnb|AAA|1998}}: ''For example, "Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic 'racial' groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them."''</ref>
<!-- <ref name="anthropology9">{{cite journal | last1 = Lieberman | first1 = Leonard | last2 = Hampton | first2 = Raymond E. | last3 = Littlefield | first3 = Alice | last4 = Hallead | first4 = Glen | year = 1992 | title = Race in Biology and Anthropology: A Study of College Texts and Professors | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-research-in-science-teaching_1992-03_29_3/page/301| journal = Journal of Research in Science Teaching | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 301–21 |bibcode = 1992JRScT..29..301L |doi = 10.1002/tea.3660290308 }}</ref> -->
<ref name="blank">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Blank|Dabady|Citro|2004}}
*{{harvnb|Smaje|1997}}</ref>
<ref name="brace">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Brace|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Gill|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Lee|1997}}: "The very naturalness of 'reality' is itself the effect of a particular set of discursive constructions. In this way, discourse does not simply reflect reality, but actually participates in its construction"</ref>
<ref name="banton">{{harvnb|Banton|1977}}</ref>
<ref name="brace2">{{harvnb|Brace|2005|page=27}}</ref>
<ref name="graves">{{harvnb|Graves|2001|pages=42–43}}</ref>
<ref name="desmond">{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|2009|pages=332–341}}</ref>
<ref name="gill">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Gill|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Armelagos|Smay|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Risch|Burchard|Ziv|Tang|2002}}
*{{harvnb|Bloche|2004}}</ref>
<!-- <ref name="keita6">{{harvnb|Keita|Kittles|Royal|Bonney|2004}} , {{harvnb|Bamshad|Wooding|Salisbury|Stephens|2004}} , {{harvnb|Tishkoff|Kidd|2004}} , {{harvnb|Jorde|Wooding2004}}</ref>
<ref name="krulwich">{{harvnb|Krulwich|2009}}</ref>-->
<ref name="lie">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Lie|2004}}
*{{harvnb|Thompson|Hickey|2005}}
*{{harvnb|Gordon|1964}} {{Page needed|date=August 2010}}
*{{harvnb|AAA|1998}}
*{{harvnb|Palmié|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Mevorach|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Segal|1991}}
*{{harvnb|Bindon|2005}}</ref>
<ref name="lee">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Lee|1997}}
*{{harvnb|Nobles|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Morgan|1975}} as cited in {{harvnb|Lee|1997|page=407}}</ref>
<ref name="morgan">''See:''
*{{harvnb|Morgan|1975}} as cited in {{harvnb|Lee|1997|page=407}}
*{{harvnb|Smedley|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Sivanandan|2000}}
*{{harvnb|Crenshaw|1988}}
*{{harvnb|Conley|2007}}
*{{harvnb|Winfield|2007}}: "It was [[Aristotle]] who first arranged all animals into a single, graded scale that placed humans at the top as the most perfect iteration. By the late 19th century, the idea that inequality was the basis of [[Natural order (philosophy)|natural order]], known as the ''[[great chain of being]]'', was part of the common [[lexicon]]."</ref>
<ref name="lee1">{{harvnb|Lee|1997}} citing {{harvnb|Morgan|1975}} and {{harvnb|Appiah|1992}}</ref>
<ref name="owens">{{harvnb|Owens|King|1999}}</ref>
<ref name="meltzer">{{harvnb|Meltzer|1993}}</ref>
<ref name="lewis">''For examples see:''
*{{harvnb|Lewis|1990}}
*{{harvnb|Dikötter|1992}}</ref>
<!--<ref name="relethford">{{harvnb|Relethford|2002}}</ref> this reference is not used in the text-->
<ref name="sivanandan">''See:'' *{{harvnb|Sivanandan|2000}} *{{harvnb|Muffoletto|2003}} *{{harvnb|McNeilly|Anderson|Armstead|Clark|1996}}: psychiatric instrument called the "Perceived Racism Scale" "provides a measure of the frequency of exposure to many manifestations of racism ... including individual and institutional"; also assesses motional and behavioral coping responses to racism. *{{harvnb|Miles|2000}}</ref>
<ref name="schaefer">{{harvnb|Schaefer|2008}}: "In many parts of Latin America, racial groupings are based less on the biological physical features and more on an intersection between physical features and social features such as economic class, dress, education, and context. Thus, a more fluid treatment allows for the construction of race as an achieved status rather than an ascribed status as is the case in the United States"</ref>
<ref name="smedley">{{harvnb|Smedley|2007}}</ref>
<ref name="smedley1999">{{harvnb|Smedley|1999}}</ref>
<ref name="takaki">{{harvnb|Takaki|1993}}</ref>
<ref name="todorov">{{harvnb|Todorov|1993}}</ref>
<ref name="stocking">{{harvnb|Stocking|1968|pages=38–40}}</ref>
}}
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Asal-usul manusia modern dari Afrika]]
* [[Asal-usul multiregional manusia modern]]
* [[Sejarah pemikiran evolusi]]
* [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]]
* [[Jared Diamond]]
* [[Stephen Oppenheimer]]
* [[Ras masa depan]]
== Perpustakaan ==
<!-- GenomeRes14 p1679 from [[Human genetic variation]] [[Race and genetics]] -->
{{refbegin|2}}
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* {{Cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02890.x |title=What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity |year=2006 |last1=Waples |first1=Robin S. |last2=Gaggiotti |first2=Oscar |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=15 |pages=1419–39 |pmid=16629801 |issue=6 |ref=harv}}
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{{refend}}
== Pranala luar ==
* {{en}} [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml US Human Genome Project on "Issues of Race"]
* {{en}} [http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/ Is Race "Real"?] - forum organized by the [[Social Science Research Council]], includes a March 2005 op-ed article by A.M. Leroi from the ''New York Times'' advocating biological conceptiosn of race and responses from scholars in a variety of fields.
* {{en}} Steven and Hilary Rose, The Guardian, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050430081407/http://www.politics.guardian.co.uk/life/science/story/0,12996,1455716,00.html "Why we should give up on race"], [[9 April]] [[2005]]
* {{en}} Times Online, [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,8122-1331319,00.html "Gene tests prove that we are all the same under the skin"], [[27 October]] [[2004]].
* {{en}} Catchpenny mysteries of ancient Egypt, [http://www.catchpenny.org/race.html "What race were the ancient Egyptians?"], Larry Orcutt.
* {{en}} Judy Skatssoon, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s1153697.htm "New twist on out-of-Africa theory"], ''ABC Science Online'', Wednesday, [[14 July]] [[2004]].
* {{en}} Michael J. Bamshad, Steve E. Olson [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000 "Does Race Exist?"], ''Scientific American'', December 2003
* {{en}} OMB Statistical Directive 15, [http://www.doi.gov/diversity/doc/racedata.htm "Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031004010836/http://www.doi.gov/diversity/doc/racedata.htm |date=2003-10-04 }}, ''Federal Register'', [[30 October]] [[1997]].
* {{en}} Sandra Soo-Jin Lee, Joanna Mountain, and Barbara A. Koenig, [http://academic.udayton.edu/health/08Research/research01.htm "The Reification of Race in Health Research"]
* {{en}} Michael Root, [http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001094/ "The Use of Race in Medicine as a Proxy for Genetic Differences"]
* {{en}} [[Richard Dawkins]]: [http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=6467 Race and creation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050221132730/http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=6467 |date=2005-02-21 }} (extract from [[The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life]]) - On race, its usage and a theory of how it evolved. ([http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/ Prospect Magazine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004032355/http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/ |date=2018-10-04 }} October 2004) (see also [http://www.amren.com/mtnews/archives/2004/09/race_and_creati.php# longer extract here])
* {{en}} [http://www.bloodbook.com/world-abo.html Racial & Ethnic Distribution of ABO Blood Types] - bloodbook.com
{{Rasmanusia}}{{Sejarah definisi ras}}
[[Kategori:Genetika populasi]]
[[Kategori:Taksonomi]]
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