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{{Kreasionisme}}'''Geologi air bah''' ('''{{lang-en|Flood geology}}''' atau '''''creation geology''''' atau, '''''diluvial geology''''') adlahadalah suatu interpretasi dari sejarah [[geologi]] [[planet]] [[bumi]] dalam hubungannya dengan [[air bah (mitologi)|air bah]] yang melanda seluruh bumi seperti yang digambarkan dalam [[Kitab Kejadian]] [[Kejadian 6| pasal 6]][[Kejadian 9|–9]] dalam [[Alkitab Ibrani]] ataudan [[Perjanjian Lama]] di [[Alkitab]] [[Kristen]]. Pandangan-pandangan serupa berperan penting dalam perkembangan awal ilmu [[geologi]], meskipun setelah kronologi Alkitab yang dikemukakan oleh [[James Ussher]] ditolak oleh mayoritas [[geolog]], yang lebih menerima usia bumi yang jauh lebih lama. Geologi air bah merupakan suatu bidang studystudi di dalam [[Kreasionisme|"ilmu pengetahuan penciptaan" ("''creation science''")]].{{sfn|Parkinson|2004|pp=24–27}}<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|2009}}</ref>
 
Suatu air bah yang menutupi seluruh dunia dianggap dapat menjelaskan hal-hal berikut:<ref name=waltbrown>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ Walt Brown: In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513203207/http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ |date=2023-05-13 }}. 8th Edition. December 2008.</ref>
* Kepunahan dinosaurus
* Kepunahan banyak binatang/tumbuhan raksasa yang sekarang tidak ada
* Asal terbentuknya Grand Canyon dan ngarai-ngarai besar lain
* Adanya ''mid-Oceanic ridge'' (potongan tengah samudera)
* Pembentukan ''continental shelves'' (rak-rak benua)
* Pembentukan ''ocean trenches'' (jurang-jurang laut)
* Variasi magnetik dasar lautan
* Pembentukan ''submarine canyons''
* Pembentukan [[batu bara]] dan [[minyak]]
* Adanya mamut beku
* Pembentukan pegunungan-pegunungan besar
* Gejala lapisan batuan sejajar
* Kecocokan pinggiran benua (seperti teka-teki jigsaw)
 
Geologi air bah secara publik dianggap bertentangan dengan pandangan ilmuwan dalam bidang geologi, [[paleontologi]], kimia, fisika, biologi, geofisika, dan stratigrafi,{{sfn|Delgado|2006}}{{sfn|Young|1995}}{{sfn|Isaak|2006}}{{sfn|Morton|2001}}{{sfn|Isaak|2007|p=173}}{{sfn|Stewart|2010|p=123}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/may04.html |title=The Talk.Origins Archive Post of the Month: May 2004 |access-date=2012-12-04 |archive-date=2021-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716163851/http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/may04.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> dan [[komunitas ilmiah]] menganggapnya sebagai [[pseudosains]].{{sfn|Schadewald|1982|pp=12-17}}{{sfn|Scott|2003}} Meskipun demikian, akhir-akhir ini dunia ilmu mulai menerima hipotesis [[Bumi bola salju|"Bumi bola salju" (''Snowball Earth'')]] di mana ditemukan bukti bahwa seluruh bumi pernah tertutup es (= air beku) pada masa silam (sekitar 650 juta tahun lalu), yang sekalipun tidak berkaitan langsung dengan geologi air bah, memberikan argumen yang mirip bahwa bumi pernah sama sekali tertutup air.<ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/327/5970/1241 Calibrating the [[Cryogenian]], Abstract only:] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916054407/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/327/5970/1241 |date=2010-09-16 }} "Ice ... implies that the Sturtian glaciation was global in extent". 5 March 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100304142228.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:%20sciencedaily%20%28ScienceDaily:%20Latest%20Science%20News%29&utm_content=Google%20Feedfetcher Snowball Earth: New Evidence Hints at Global Glaciation 716.5 Million Years Ago] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205095700/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100304142228.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:%20sciencedaily%20(ScienceDaily:%20Latest%20Science%20News)&utm_content=Google%20Feedfetcher |date=2023-02-05 }} Geologists have found evidence that sea ice extended to the equator 716.5 million years ago. 5 March 2010.</ref>
 
== Sejarah perkembangan ==
[[FileBerkas:Noahs Ark.jpg|thumbjmpl|Hewan-hewan memasuki [[Bahtera Nuh]] (Edward Hicks, lukisan tahun 1846)]]
 
=== Air bah dalam sejarah geologi ===
Banyak orang [[Kristen]] mula-mula, termasuk [[Tertullian]], [[ChrysostomYohanes Krisostomus]] dan [[Augustinus]], percaya bahwa fosil adalah bekas peninggalan hewan-hewan yang terbunuh dan terkubur selama waktu singkat dari air bah raksasa yang tertulis dalam Alkitab.{{sfn|Berry|2003|p=5}} Keanehan geologis di Eropa utara, yaitu permukaannya ditutupi oleh lapisan-lapisan ''[[:en:loam|loamgeluh]] (''loam'') dan [[gravelkerikil]] (''gravel'') serta batu-batu besar yang disebut ''erratic boulders'' terdampar ratusan kilometer dari tempat asalnya memberi dukungan pandangan tersebut. Para geolog mula-mula menafsirkan ciri-ciri ini sebagai akibat banjir besar. Pada pertengahan abad ke-19 para geolog menerima bahwa hal itu dibentuk oleh glasiasi pada zaman es (''ice age glaciations'').{{sfn|McCann|2008|pp=1288–1318}} Air bah raksasa dihubungkan dengan penjulangan geografik masif (''massive geographical upheavals''), yang menyebabkan benua-benua lama tenggelam dan benua-benua baru muncul ke permukaan, sehingga mengubah dasar laut purba menjadi puncak-puncak gunung.{{sfn|Dana|1863|pp=642, 659, 767}}{{sfn|Shrock|1977|p=30}}
 
Dalam zaman penerangan (''Age of Enlightenment''), para naturalis mulai mengusulkan penyebab alamiah untuk menjelaskan mujizat-mujizat yang tertulis di Alkitab. Penjelasan alamiah untuk air bah global diberikan oleh [[:en:John Woodward (naturalist)|John Woodward]], (1695), dan muridmuridnya, Woodward,[[William Whiston]], (1696).{{sfn|Porter|2003|p= [[John Woodward (naturalist)|John Woodward]], (1695), ''An Essay Toward a Natural History of the Earth'' and [[William Whiston]], (1696), ''New Theory of the Earth''.}}
 
Ilmu pengetahuan geologi modern dimulai di Eropa pada abad ke-18.<ref>Perkumpulan geolog profesional tertua di dunia adalah [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/society/bicentenary Geological Society of London] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513043846/http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/society/bicentenary |date=2007-05-13 }}, dibentuk pada tahun 1807; istilah "geologi" sendiri dipopulerkan malalui penggunaannya dalam ''Encyclopedie'' tahun 1751.</ref> Para pakar bidang ini berusaha memahami sejarah dan pembentukan bumi melalui bukti-bukti fisik yang ditemukan dalam batu-batuan dan mineral. Banyak geolog mula-mula juga pemimpin gereja, sehingga mereka berusaha mencari hubungan sejarah geologi dunia sesuai yang tertulis di Alkitab. Teori kuno bahwa fosil itu merupakan pembentukan alamiah dari bahan-bahan tanah yang mengalami tekanan plastis sudah ditinggalkan, dengan pengakuan bahwa fosil merupakan peninggalan makhluk-makhluk yang pernah hidup sebelumnya. Hal ini menimbulkan pertanyaan: bagaimana fosil makhluk laut dapat ditemukan di daratan, atau bahkan di puncak-puncak gunung?
 
Pada permulaan abad ke-19 sudah dipikirkan bahwa usia bumi lebih lama dari yang diusulkan dari pembacaan literal Alkitab. [[Benoît de Maillet]] (1732) memperkirakan usia bumi sekitar 2,4 milyarmiliar tahun,{{sfn|Dalrymple|2004|p=205}}{{sfn|Van Till|Snow|Stek|Young|1990|p=47}} bukannya 6.000 tahun seperti yang diusulkan dari kronologi yang dibuat oleh Uskup [[James Ussher]]. Pada tahun 1823 pendeta [[William Buckland]], profesor geologi pertama di [[Oxford University]], menafsirkan fenomena geologis sebagai ''Reliquiae Diluvianae'' (''air bah keagamaan''); bekas-bekas dari air bah ''Attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge'' ("menyatakan aksi dari air bah universal"). Pandangannya didukung oleh pemimpin-pemimpin gereja Inggris pada zamannya, termasuk [[Adam Sedgwick]] yang berpengaruh, tetapi ide ini digugat oleh geolog dari daratan Eropa dan pada tahun 1830 Sedgwick diyakinkan oleh penemuannya sendiri bahwa bukti-bukti hanya mendukung air bah setempat (''local floods'').{{sfn|Herbert|1991|pp=171–174}}
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[[Charles Lyell]]'s promotion of [[James Hutton]]'s ideas of [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]] advocated the principle that geological changes that occurred in the past may be understood by studying present-day phenomena. In common with [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], Hutton assumed that the world-system had been in a steady state since the day of creation, but unlike Newton he included in this vision not only the motion of celestial bodies and processes like chemical change on earth, but also processes of geological change. Christopher Kaiser writes:
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=== Kemunculan kembali ===
 
Geologi air bah dikembangkan lagi pada abad ke-20 oleh [[George McCready Price]], penganut [[Gereja Masehi AdvenAdvent Hari Ketujuh]] dan geolog amatir {{sfn|Numbers|2006|p=106}} yang menulis sebuah makalah pada tahun 1923 untuk memberikan perspektif geologi pada gerejanya.{{sfn|Price|1926}}{{sfn|Numbers|2006}} Karya Price kemudian diadaptasi dan dikembangkan oleh [[Henry M. Morris]] dan [[John C. Whitcomb, Jr.]] dalam buku mereka ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' pada tahun 1961. Whitcomb termotivasi menulis setelah membaca ''The Christian View of Science and Scripture'' (1954) oleh teolog [[Bernard Ramm]]. Ramm mendukung pandangan bahwa pakar-pakar Kristen dapat menerima interpretasi alternatif selain yang dikemukakan Price, yang alkitabiah dan sesuai dengan bukti ilmiah saat itu.{{sfn|Yang|1993}}{{sfn|Spradley|1992}} Morris dan Whitcomb berpendapat bahwa bumi secara geologis belum lama terbentuk, dan kejatuhan manusia ke dalam dosa ([[Kejadian 3]]) menyebabkan mulainya [[hukum termodinamika kedua]], dan bahwa air bah raksasa telah menyebabkan terbentuknya sebagian besar strata geologis dalam waktu satu tahun.
 
[[J. Laurence Kulp]], seorang geolog yang tergabung dalam [[Plymouth Brethren]], bergabung bersama sarjana-sarjana Kristen lain termasuk geolog, arkeolog, anthropolog, dan biolog yang pekerjaannya berhubungan dengan penanggalan radioaktif, untuk menghimbau organisasi Kristen, [[American Scientific Affiliation]] (ASA), untuk tidak secara resmi mendukung geologi air bah tetapi mengizinkan anggotanya untuk menerima pandangan ilmiah saat itu.{{sfn|Yang|1993}} Kulp juga menulis kritik detail mengenai Geologi air bah, berjudul ''Deluge Geology'', yang diterbitkan dalam ''Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation'' pada tahun 1950.{{sfn|Kulp|1950|pp=1-15}} Ketika ASA menolak mengikuti geologi air bah, generasi baru ''Young Earth creationists'' terbentuk, sebagian besar terorganisasi dalam [[Institute for Creation Research]] yang didirikan oleh Dr. Morris. Penelitian oleh [[Creation Research Society]] telah mengamati dan menganalisamenganalisis formasi geologis, di dalam kerangka geologi air bah, termasuk [[La Brea Tar Pits]],{{sfn|Weston|2003|pp=25-33}} ''Tavrick Formation'' ([[Tauric]] Formation, Bahasa Rusia: "Tavricheskaya formatsiya") di [[Crimean Peninsula]]{{sfn|Lalomov|2001|pp=118-124}} dan [[Stone Mountain]], negara bagian [[Georgia (negara bagian)|Georgia]].{{sfn|Froede|1995|p=214}} Umumnya, pendukung teori penciptaan (''creationist'') menyatakan bahwa interpretasi geologi air bah memiliki penjelasan yang lebih luas daripada penjelasan ''uniformitarian'' (satu lapisan). "Creation Research Society" menyatakan bahwa "uniformitarianism is wishful thinking" (uniformitarianisme adalah suatu angan-angan).{{sfn|Reed|Woodmoreappe|2002}}
 
== Dasar alkitabiah ==
[[FileBerkas:Cole Thomas The Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge 1829.jpg|thumbjmpl| Cole Thomas - ''The Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge'' (Surutnya air setelah air bah) - 1829, oillukisan minyak onpada canvaskanvas]]
Geologi air bah didasarkan pada penafsiran harafiah dari kisah air bah di dalam [[Kitab Kejadian]] [[Kejadian 6| pasal 6]][[Kejadian 9|–9]]. Kisahnya dimulai dengan keputusan Allah untuk mendatangkan air bah guna memusnakan segala yang hidup dari muka bumi kecuali mereka yang diselamatkan dalam [[Bahtera Nuh]]. Dalam tahun ke-600 usia [[Nuh]], Allah membuka "tingkap-tingkap di langit" dan "mata air di kedalaman" dan menyebabkan hujan turun selama 40 hari 40 malam di muka bumi. Air bah meluap sampai 150 hari dan menutupi "semua puncak-puncak gunung di kolong langit." Kemudian air surut selama 150 hari dimana kemudian bahtera itu terdampar di pegunungan [[Ararat]]. Bumi menjadi kering, kemudian Nuh dan keluarganya serta hewan-hewan dan burung-burung keluar dari bahtera untuk memulai kehidupan di muka bumi.{{sfn|Genesis|6-9}}
 
Kitab Kejadian juga memuat suatu kronologi yang dengan penafsiran literal menempatkan air bah pada tahun ke-1656 setelah penciptaan dalam teks [[Alkitab Ibrani]] standar ([[Teks Masoret]]; sementara teks lain memberikan sedikit perbedaan tahun kronologi). Penyesuaian penanggalan dengan kalender modern ternyata tidak mudah, dengan ratusan pendapat yang berkisar antara tahun 2304{{sfn|Wright|2012}} sampai 6934 SM{{sfn|Catholic encyclopedia|1913}} — tetapi geologi air bah modern sering mencoba menyesuaikan dengan teori "Young Earth Creationism" (penciptaan bumi muda).
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Kisah air bah di Alkitab ini mirip dengan mitos Mesopotamia kuno seperti [[Epos Atrahasis]] dan [[Epos Gilgames]]. Ada pakar yang menafsirkan bahwa dalam keseluruhan naratif Kitab Kejadian, kisah air bah ini merupakan cerminan secara terbalik dari kisah penciptaan pada [[Kejadian 1]]. Dikisahkan bahwa Allah menciptakan bumi yang baik, tetapi kemudian menjadi rusak dengan kekerasan, sampai pada [[Kejadian 6]] Allah memutuskan memusnakan segala yang hidup. Hal itu dilakukan dengan membuka "tingkap-tingkap di langit" dan "sumber-sumber air di kedalaman", dan memasukkan air dari kosmos ke dalam dunia. Kronologi dari air bah merupakan pengulangan kronologi tujuh hari penciptaan: dimulai dari bulan ke-2, yang dianggap setara dengan hari ke-2 penciptaan, di mana cakrawala diciptakan; permukaan air bah naik selama 150 days (5 bulan, yang masing-masing terdiri dari 30 hari), sampai di akhir bulan ke-6 (ditafsirkan setara dengan 6 hari penciptaan) bahtera Nuh terdampar di puncak gunung tertinggi. Menggaris-bawahi pandangan ini, nama "[[Nuh]]" dalam [[bahasa Ibrani]] berarti "istirahat". Setelah sebulan beristirahat (setara dengan hari ke-7 penciptaan di mana Allah beristirahat/berhenti bekerja), air turun selama 150 hari (= 5 bulan) di mana dunia "diciptakan kembali": pada bulan ke-6 Nuh menunggu dan pada bulan ke-7 ia dan semua hewan keluar dari bahtera serta mengucapkan syukur kepada Allah.{{sfn|Wenham|2008|pp=9–188}}
 
== Bukti-bukti yang dipakai untuk mendukung ==
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=== Fosil ===
== Evidence cited to support a global flood ==
Kolom geologis dan catatan fosil digunakan sebagai bukti-bukti utama dalam penjelasan ilmiah mengenai perkembangan dan evolusi kehidupan di bumi serta dipakai untuk menentukan usia bumi. Pakar penciptaan "bumi muda" seperti Morris dan Whitcomb dalam buku mereka, ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' (1961), menunjukkan bahwa usia fosil tergantung dari jumlah waktu yang diterakan pada kolom geologis, yang mereka nyatakan sekitar 1 tahun. Beberapa geolog air bah menggugat kolom geologis karena menggunakan fosil indeks yang kemudian dipakai untuk menentukan strata terisolasi dari strata lain dalam peta. Fosil sering kali ditentukan waktunya dari jarak mereka dengan strata yang mengandung fosil indeks yang usianya ditentukan dari lokasinya di kolom geologis. Oard{{sfn|Oard|Reed|2006|p=99}} dan lain-lain mengatakan bahwa identifikasi fosil sebagai fosil indeks banyak menimbulkan kesalahan sehingga fosil indeks tidak dapat dipercaya penuh untuk membuat korelasi semacam itu, atau untuk menentukan waktu pembentukan strata setempat dengan menggunakan skala geologis yang digabung-gabungkan.
=== Fossils ===
The [[geologic timescale|geologic column]] and the [[fossil]] record are used as major pieces of evidence in the modern scientific explanation of the development and [[evolution]] of life on Earth as well as a means to establish the [[age of the Earth]]. [[Young Earth Creationists]] such as Morris and Whitcomb in their 1961 book, ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'', say that the age of the fossils depends on the amount of time credited to the geologic column, which they ascribe to be about one year. Some flood geologists dispute geology's assembled global geologic column since index fossils are used to link geographically isolated strata to other strata across the map. Fossils are often dated by their proximity to strata containing index fossils whose age has been determined by its location on the geologic column. Oard{{sfn|Oard|Reed|2006|p=99}} and others say that the identification of fossils as index fossils has been too error prone for index fossils to be used reliably to make those correlations, or to date local strata using the assembled geologic scale.
 
OtherPara creationistspakar acceptyang themenerima existenceadanya ofkolom thegeologis geologicalpercaya columnbahwa andkolom believeitu thatmengindikasikan itruntunan indicatesperistiwa ayang sequenceterjadi ofselama eventsair that might have occurred during thebah global flood. ThisPendekatan isini thediambil approacholeh takensarjana bydi [[Institute for Creation Research]] creationists such asseperti [[Andrew Snelling]], [[Steven A. Austin]] anddan [[Kurt Wise]], as well asserta [[Creation Ministries International]]. They citeMereka themengutip [[Cambrianletusan explosionKambrium]] &mdash; themunculnya appearancefosil ofdalam abundantjumlah fossilsmelimpah inpada theperiode ''upper [[Ediacaran]]'' (''Vendian'') Perioddan andperiode ''lower [[Cambrian PeriodKambrium]]'' &mdash;sebagai asbatas the"sebelum" dan "sesudah" air bah (''pre-Flood/Flood boundary''),{{sfn|Hunter|2000|pp=60-74}} theadanya presencesedimen infosil suchsemacam sedimentsitu ofyang fossilstidak thatterjadi dodi notkemudian occurhari laterpada incatatan thegeologis geologicalsebagai recordbagian asdari part[[biota]] ofsebelum aair pre&ndash;flood biotabah thatyang perishedpunah{{sfn|Wise|1995|pp=216-222}} anddan theketiadaan absenceorganisme ofdalam fossilizedbentuk organismsfosil thatyang appearmuncul laterkemudian, such asseperti [[angiospermTumbuhan berbunga|angiospermia]]s anddan [[mammalmammalia]]s, asdiakibatkan dueoleh toerosi erosionsedimen ofsebagai sediments deposited by the flooddeposit asoleh watersair recededbah offketika theair landmenyurut.{{sfn|Austin|Baumgardner|Humphreys|Snelling|1994}} CreationistsPara saypakar thatmengatakan [[Fossilization#Rarity of fossils|fossilization]] canbahwa onlypembentukan takefosil placehanya whendapat theterjadi organismketika isorganisme burieditu quicklyterkubur tocepat protectsehingga themayatnya remainsterlindung fromdari destructionkerusakan byoleh scavengerspemangsa oratau decompositiondekomposisi.{{sfn|Whitcomb|Morris|1961|pp=128&ndash;129128–129}} TheyCatatan sayfosil thatmerupakan thebukti fossildari recordsatu iskali evidenceair ofbah araksasa (''single cataclysmic flood'') anddan notbukan thecatatan recordperubahan ofperlahan-lahan ayang seriesterakumulasi ofselama slow changes accumulating over millions ofberjuta-juta yearstahun.{{sfn|Brown|2008|p=}}
 
Geolog air bah mengemukakan sejumlah hipotesis untuk menyesuaikan urutan bukti fosil dalam kolom fosil dengan kisah air bah Nuh di Alkitab. Whitcomb dan Morris mengajukan 3 faktor yang mungkin terjadi:
Flood geologists have proposed numerous hypotheses to reconcile the sequence of fossils evident in the fossil column with the literal account of Noah's flood in the Bible. Whitcomb and Morris proposed three possible factors. One is hydrological, wherein the relative buoyancies of the remains based on the organisms' shapes and densities determined the sequence in which their remains settled to the bottom of the flood waters. The second factor they proposed was ecological, suggesting organisms living at the ocean bottom succumbed first in the flood and those living at the highest altitudes last. The third factor was anatomical and behavioral, the ordered sequence in the fossil column resulting from the very different responses to the rising waters between different kinds of organisms due to their diverse mobilities and original habitats.{{sfn|Gould|1984|p=132}} In a scenario put forth by Morris, the remains of marine life were the first to settle to the bottom, followed by the slower moving lowland reptiles, and culminating with mankind whose superior intelligence and ability to flee enabled them to reach higher elevations before they were overcome by the flood waters.{{sfn|Schadewald|1982|pp=12-17}}
# hidrologis (''hydrological''), di mana keterapungan relatif (''relative buoyancy'') dari mayat-mayat berdasarkan bentuk dan berat jenis tiap organisme menentukan urutan terbenamnya mayat-mayat itu di dasar lapisan akibat air bah.
# ekologis (''ecological''), di mana organisme yang diam di dasar laut mati terlebih dahulu dan yang diam di atas ketinggian paling terakhir.
# anatomis dan perilaku (''anatomical and behavioral''), di mana urutan teratur dari kolom fosil dihasilkan oleh respons yang berbeda dari jenis organisme yang berbeda-beda terhadap naiknya air bah, tergantung dari mobilitas dan habitat asal yang beraneka ragam.{{sfn|Gould|1984|p=132}}
Dalam skenario yang dikemukakan oleh Morris, mayat-mayat hewan laut adalah yang pertama-tama terbenam di dasar, diikuti oleh reptil darat yang bergerak pelan, dan diakhiri dengan manusia yang memiliki intelegensi paling tinggi serta kemampuan untuk melarikan diri sehingga mampu mencapai tempat-tempat paling tinggi sebelum tenggelam dalam air bah.{{sfn|Schadewald|1982|pp=12-17}}
 
Sejumlah pakar percaya bahwa cadangan [[minyak]] dan [[batu bara]] dibentuk cepat dalam lapisan sedimentari ketika gunung-gunung berapi atau air bah meratakan hutan-hutan dan mengubur bekas-bekasnya. Diyakini bahwa vegetasi mengalami dekomposisi cepat menjadi minyak atau batu bara karena panas air subterranean ketika keluar dari dasar bumi pada waktu air bah atau karena suhu tinggi yang dihasilkan ketika bekas-bekas itu ditekan oleh air dan sedimen.{{sfn|Snelling|2006}}
Some creationists believe that [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[coal]] deposits formed rapidly in sedimentary layers as volcanoes or flood waters flattened forests and buried the debris. They believe the vegetation decomposed rapidly into oil or coal due to the heat of the subterranean waters as they were unleashed from the Earth during the flood or by the high temperatures created as the remains were compressed by water and sediment.{{sfn|Snelling|2006}}
 
=== Kisah-kisah air bah yang tersebar luas ===
[[creationism|Creationists]] continue to search for evidence in the natural world that they consider to be consistent with the above description, such as evidence of rapid formation. For example, there have been claims of raindrop marks and water ripples at layer boundaries, sometimes associated with the claimed fossilized footprints of men and dinosaurs walking together. Such footprint evidence has been debunked{{sfn|Schadewald|1986|pp=1-9}} and some have been shown to be fakes.{{sfn|Kuban|1996}}
Pendukung geologi air bah menyatakan bahwa "cerita-cerita tentang air bah dari berbagai tempat dapat digolongkan sebagai sejarah atau legenda hampir di semua daerah di dunia." "Kisah-kisah air bah ini sering dihubungkan dengan elemen yang sama yang paralel dengan cerita di Alkitab termasuk peringatan akan datangnya air bah, pembuatan kapal sebelumnya, penyimpanan binatang, penyelamatan satu keluarga, dan pelepasan burung-burung untuk menentukan apakah air sudah benar-benar surut." Disimpulkan bahwa "konsistensi yang begitu banyak ditemukan dalam legenda-legenda air bah di tempat-tempat jauh di bumi mengindikasikan bahwa mereka diturunkan dari sumber yang sama, tetapi penyampaian lisan telah mengubah sejumlah detail seiring dengan waktu."{{sfn|Northwest Creation Network}}
 
=== Widespread flood stories ===
Proponents of Flood Geology state that "native global flood stories are documented as history or legend in almost every region on earth." "These flood tales are frequently linked by common elements that parallel the Biblical account including the warning of the coming flood, the construction of a boat in advance, the storage of animals, the inclusion of family, and the release of birds to determine if the water level had subsided." They suggest that "the overwhelming consistency among flood legends found in distant parts of the globe indicates they were derived from the same origin, but oral transcription has changed the details through time."{{sfn|Northwest Creation Network}}
 
Anthropologist Patrick Nunn rejects this view and highlights the fact that much of the human population lives near water sources such as rivers and coasts, where unusually severe floods can be expected to occur occasionally and will be recorded in tribal mythology.{{sfn|Nunn|2001|pp125-138}}
 
== Proposed mechanisms of flood geology ==
=== Runaway subduction ===
In the last two decades, most proposed flood mechanisms involve "runaway [[subduction]]", the rapid movement of [[tectonic plates]], in one form or another.
 
== Usulan mekanisme ==
=== "Runaway subduction" ===
Dalam dua dekade terakhir, mekanisme yang paling sering diusulkan melibatkan "runaway subduction", yaitu pergerakan cepat dari plat tektonik, dalam satu bentuk atau yang lain.
<!--
One specific form of runaway subduction is called "catastrophic plate tectonics", proposed by geophysicist [[John Baumgardner]] and supported by the [[Institute for Creation Research]] and [[Answers in Genesis]].{{sfn|Snelling|2007}} This holds the rapid plunge of former oceanic plates into the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] caused by an unknown trigger mechanism which increased local mantle pressures to the point that its viscosity dropped several magnitudes according to known properties of mantle silicates. Once initiated, sinking plates caused the spread of low viscosity throughout the mantle resulting in runaway mantle convection and catastrophic [[tectonic]] motion as continents were dragged across the surface of the earth. Once the former ocean plates, which are thought to be denser than the mantle, reached the bottom of the mantle an equilibrium was reached. Pressures dropped, viscosity increased, runaway mantle convection stopped, leaving the surface of the earth rearranged. Proponents point to subducted slabs in the mantle which are still relatively cool, which they regard as evidence that they have not been there for millions of years of temperature equilibration.{{sfn|Baumgardner|2003}}
 
Baris 71 ⟶ 87:
 
Conventional plate tectonics accounts for the geological evidence already, including innumerable details that catastrophic plate tectonics cannot, such as why there is gold in California, silver in Nevada, salt flats in Utah, and coal in Pennsylvania, without requiring any extraordinary mechanisms to do so.{{sfn|Isaak|2007|p=173 [http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CD/CD750.html Creationist claim CD750]}}{{sfn|McPhee|1998}}
-->
=== Kubah uap/air ("vapor/water canopy") ===
Isaac Vail (1840–1912), seorang guru sekolah [[Quaker]], dalam karyanya ''The Earth's Annular System'' (1912), mengekstrapolasi dari hipotesis nebular apa yang disebutnya sistem cincin tahunan (''annular system'') sejarah bumi, di mana bumi asalnya dikelilingi oleh lingkaran cincin yang mirip dengan planet [[Saturnus]], atau kubah-kubah dari uap air. Kubah-kubah ini satu per satu jatuh ke bumi, mengakibatkan "bencana besar yang terus menerus, dipisahkan oleh jangka waktu yang berbeda" mengubur fosil-fosil. Air bah raksasa di kitab Kejadian dianggap berasal dari bagian terakhir kubah ini. Meskipun air bah terakhir secara geologis signifikan, dihipotesakan kurang dari catatan fosil yang disebut oleh George McCready Price.{{sfn|Numbers|2006|pp=347-348}}
 
Hipotesis ini mendapat pendukung dari kalangan [[Saksi Yehovah]]{{sfn|Numbers|2006|pp=347-348}} dan [[Gereja Masehi Advent Hari Ketujuh]], antara lain ahli fisika Robert W. Woods,{{sfn|Numbers|2006|p=501.(footnote 47)}} sebelum disebut berulang di buku ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' (1961).{{sfn|Numbers|2006|p=229}}
=== Vapor/water canopy ===
Isaac Vail (1840–1912), a [[Quaker]] schoolteacher, in his 1912 work ''The Earth's Annular System'', extrapolated from the [[nebular hypothesis]] what he called the annular system of earth history, with the earth being originally surrounded by rings resembling [[Saturn's rings|those of Saturn]], or canopies of [[water vapor]]. These were hypothesised to have, one by one, collapsed on the earth, resulting in a "succession of stupendous cataclysms, separated by unknown periods of time" burying fossils. The Genesis flood was thought to have been caused by "the last remnant" of this vapor. Although this final flood was geologically significant, it was hypothesized to account for far less of the fossil record than [[George McCready Price]] attributed to it.{{sfn|Numbers|2006|pp=347-348}}
 
Meskipun tidak banyak yang menerima teori kubah uap air (vapor canopy theory), akhir-akhir ini muncul pembelaan terhadapnya dari Dillow{{sfn|Dillow|1981}} dan Vardiman.{{sfn|Vardiman|2003}} Di antara pendukung yang kuat termasuk [[Kent Hovind]], yang menggunakannya sebagai dasar untuk teorinya yang disebut "Hovind Theory".
This hypothesis gained a following among [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]{{sfn|Numbers|2006|pp=347-348}} and from [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist]] physicist Robert W. Woods,{{sfn|Numbers|2006|p=501.(footnote 47)}} before being given prominent and repeated mention in ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' in 1961.{{sfn|Numbers|2006|p=229}}
 
== Geologi modern dan geologi air bah ==
Though the vapor canopy theory has fallen into disfavour among most creationists, recent defences of the theory have been attempted by Dillow{{sfn|Dillow|1981}} and Vardiman.{{sfn|Vardiman|2003}} Among its more vocal adherents is controversial Young Earth Creationist [[Kent Hovind]], who uses it as the basis for his eponymous [[Kent_Hovind#The "Hovind Theory"|"Hovind Theory"]].
[[Berkas:Hutton Unconformity , Jedburgh.jpg|jmpl|lurus|ka|Pada abad ke-18, penemuan-penemuan seperti [[Hutton's Unconformity]] menunjukkan lapisan-lapisan yang terjungkir, tererosi dan bertumpuk, menunjukkan "abyss of time" pada [[skala waktu geologi]].]]
Geologi modern dan cabang-cabangnya menggunakan metode sains untuk menganalisis geologi bumi. Prinsip kunci geologi air bah ditolak oleh kebanyakan analisis ilmiah dan tidak didukung sebagian besar komunitas sains.{{sfn|Delgado|2006}}{{sfn|Young|1995}}{{sfn|Isaak|2006}}{{sfn|Morton|2001}}{{sfn|Isaak|2007|p=173}}{{sfn|Stewart|2010|p=123}} [[Geologi]] modern bersandar pada sejumlah prinsip yang sudah tersusun, salah satu yang terpenting di antaranya adalah prinsip dari [[Charles Lyell]] mengenai [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianisme]]. Dalam kaitan dengan kekuatan-kekuatan geologis dikatakan bahwa pembentukan bumi terjadi dari kekuatan berlangsung lambat yang dapat dilihat sekarang. Dengan mengaplikasikan prinsip-prinsip ini para geolog dapat menentukan bahwa usia bumi adalah sekitar 4,5 miliar tahun. Mereka mempelajari [[litosfer]] bumi untuk mendapatkan informasi sejarah planet ini. Geolog membagi sejarah bumi dalam ''[[eon|kurun (''eon'')]]'', [[Era (geology)|era]], [[Period (geology)|periode]], [[Kala (geologi)|kala (''epoch'')]], dan [[faunal stages|tingkatan fauna]] yang ditandai dengan potongan-potongan terdefinisi baik dalam [[fossil record|catatan fosil]] (lihat [[skala waktu geologi]]).{{sfn|Lutgens|Tarbuck|Tasa|2005}}{{sfn|Tarbuck|Lutgens|2006}} Pada umumnya, belum cukup bukti dari efek di atas yang dikemukakan oleh pendukung geologi air bah, sehingga tidak mendapat dukungan serius dari para ilmuwan.{{sfn|Isaak|1998}}
 
=== Erosi ===
== Modern geology and flood geology ==
[[Berkas:Siccar point SE cliff.jpg|jmpl|lurus|kiri|[[Unconformity|Angular unconformity]] yang ditemukan oleh [[James Hutton]] pada tahun 1788 di [[Siccar Point]] menunjukkan waktu yang ditempuh oleh erosi batu terjungkir dan deposisi lapisan-lapisan bertumpuk.]]
[[File:Hutton Unconformity , Jedburgh.jpg|thumb|upright|right|In the 18th century, finds such as [[Hutton's Unconformity]] showing layers tilted, eroded, and overlaid, demonstrated the "abyss of time" in the [[Geologic time scale]].]]
Geologi air bah belum dapat menjelaskan formasi geologi seperti [[Unconformity|angular unconformities]], di mana batuan sedimentari terjungkir dan tererosi kemudian lebih banyak lapisan lagi bertumpuk di atasnya, membutuhkan waktu lama untuk proses semacam ini. Juga dibutuhkan waktu lama untuk erosi lembah pada pegunungan batu sedimen. Contoh lain, jika air bah terjadi, maka efek ini tentunya tersebar luas dan dalam skala besar di seluruh dunia. Erosi seharusnya tersebar merata, tetapi kenyataannya ada perbedaan besar antara erosi di [[Appalachian Mountains|pegunungan Appalachian]] dan [[Rocky Mountains]].{{sfn|Isaak|1998}}
Modern geology, its sub-disciplines and other scientific disciplines utilize the [[scientific method]] to analyze the geology of the earth. The key tenets of flood geology are refuted by scientific analysis and do not have any standing in the [[scientific community]].{{sfn|Delgado|2006}}{{sfn|Young|1995}}{{sfn|Isaak|2006}}{{sfn|Morton|2001}}{{sfn|Isaak|2007|p=173}}{{sfn|Stewart|2010|p=123}} Modern [[geology]] relies on a number of established principles, one of the most important of which is [[Charles Lyell]]'s principle of [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]. In relation to geological forces it states that the shaping of the Earth has occurred by means of mostly slow-acting forces that can be seen in operation today. By applying these principles, geologists have determined that the Earth is approximately [[Age of the Earth|4.5 billion years old]]. They study the [[lithosphere]] of the Earth to gain information on the history of the planet. Geologists divide [[History of Earth|Earth's history]] into [[Eon (geology)|eons]], [[Era (geology)|eras]], [[Period (geology)|periods]], [[Epoch (geology)|epochs]], and [[faunal stages]] characterized by well-defined breaks in the [[fossil record]] (see [[Geologic time scale]]).{{sfn|Lutgens|Tarbuck|Tasa|2005}}{{sfn|Tarbuck|Lutgens|2006}} In general, there is a lack of any evidence for any of the above effects proposed by flood geologists and their claims of fossil layering are not taken seriously by scientists.{{sfn|Isaak|1998}}
 
===Erosion Geokronologi ===
[[Berkas:CarmelHdgd.jpg|jmpl|ka|Tanah keras karbonat [[Jurasik]] ini menunjukkan generasi-generasi [[oysters]] dan bioerosi ekstensif, ciri-ciri yang dianggap tidak kompatible dengan kondisi dan waktu yang diduga pada waktu terjadinya air bah.{{sfn|Morton|2001}}]]
[[File:Siccar point SE cliff.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Unconformity|angular unconformity]] found by [[James Hutton]] in 1788 at [[Siccar Point]] demonstrated the time taken for erosion of tilted rock and deposition of overlying layers.]]
[[Berkas:CalciteAragonite.jpg|jmpl|ka|Alternasi laut kalsit dan aragonit di sepanjang waktu geologi.{{sfn|Sandberg|1983|pp=19-22}}]]
The global flood cannot explain geological formations such as [[Unconformity|angular unconformities]], where [[sedimentary rock]]s have been tilted and eroded then more sedimentary layers deposited on top, needing long periods of time for these processes. There is also the time needed for the erosion of valleys in sedimentary rock mountains. In another example, the flood, had it occurred, should also have produced large-scale effects spread throughout the entire world. Erosion should be evenly distributed, yet the levels of erosion in, for example, the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]] and the [[Rocky Mountains]] differ significantly.{{sfn|Isaak|1998}}
[[Geokronologi]] (''Geochronology'') adalah cabang ilmu yang menentukan usia absolut batu-batuan, fosil dan sedimen dengan berbagai teknik. Metode ini mengindikasikan bahwa bumi secara keseluruhan berusia sedikitnya 4,5 miliar tahun, dan bahwa starat yang menurut geologi air bah terbentuk pada waktu air bah 6000 tahun lalu sebenarnya didepositkan secara berhadap dalam kurun waktu jutaan tahun.
 
===Geochronology Paleontologi ===
Jika air bah menyebabkan fosilisasi, maka semua hewan yang sekarang menjadi fosil tentunya hidup bersama di bumi sesaat sebelum datangnya air bah. Berdasarkan perkiraan jumlah bekas-bekas yang terkubur dalam [[Karoo Supergroup|formasi fosil Karoo]] di [[Afrika]], ini bersesuaian dengan kepadatan tinggi yang tidak normal dari vertebrata di seluruh dunia, hampir 2100 per acre.{{sfn|Schadewald|1982|pp=12-17}} Para pendukung [[kreasionisme]] berargumen bahwa bukti dari [[Geologic time scale|kolom geologi]] adalah sepotong-sepotong (''fragmentary''), dan semua lapisan kompleks kapur terjadi mendekati hari ke-150 air bah zaman [[Nuh]].{{sfn|Wilson|2001}}{{sfn|Mathews|2009}} Namun, kolom geologi ditemukan pada beberapa tempat dan menunjukkan ciri-ciri beragam, termasuk bukti erosi dan penyusupan ke dalam lapisan-lapisan lebih tua, yang tidak dapat dijelaskan dalam skala waktu singkat. Tanah keras karbonat (''carbonate hardground'') dan fosil yang berkaitan menunjukkan apa yang disebut "sedimen air bah" mencakup bukti deposisi yang berhenti lama yang tidak konsisten dengan dinamika maupun waktu air bah.{{sfn|Morton|2001}}
[[File:CarmelHdgd.jpg|thumb|right|This [[Jurassic]] carbonate hardground shows generations of [[oysters]] and extensive [[bioerosion]], features incompatible with the conditions and timing postulated for the Flood.{{sfn|Morton|2001}}]]
[[File:CalciteAragonite.jpg|thumb|right|The alternation of calcite and aragonite seas through [[geologic time]].{{sfn|Sandberg|1983|pp=19-22}}]]
[[Geochronology]] is the science of determining the [[absolute dating|absolute]] age of rocks, fossils, and sediments by a variety of techniques. These methods indicate that the Earth as a whole is at least 4.5 billion years old, and that the strata that, according to flood geology, were laid down during the Flood some 6,000 years ago, were actually deposited gradually over many millions of years.
 
===Paleontology Geokimia ===
Pendukung geologi air bah mendapat kesulitan menjelaskan alternasi antara ''[[calcite sea]]'' dan ''[[aragonite sea]]'' sepanjang era Phanerozoik. Pola bersiklus ''[[carbonate hardgrounds]]'', ooid kalsitik dan aragonitik, serta fauna bercangkang kalsit tampaknya dikontrol oleh kecepatan penyebaran dasar lautan (''[[seafloor spreading]]'') rates and pembilasan air laut melalui ''[[hydrothermal vent]]'' yang mengubah rasio Mg/Ca.{{sfn|Stanley|Hardie|1999|pp1-7}}
If the flood were responsible for fossilization, then all the animals now fossilized must have been living together on the Earth just before the flood. Based on estimates of the number of remains buried in the [[Karoo Supergroup|Karoo fossil formation]] in [[Africa]], this would correspond to an abnormally high density of vertebrates worldwide, close to 2100 per acre.{{sfn|Schadewald|1982|pp=12-17}}
Creationists argue that evidence for the [[Geologic time scale|geological column]] is fragmentary, and all the complex layers of chalk occurred in the approach to the 150th day of Noah's flood.{{sfn|Wilson|2001}}{{sfn|Mathews|2009}} However, the entire geologic column is found in several places, and shows multiple features, including evidence of erosion and burrowing through older layers, which are inexplicable on a short timescale. Carbonate hardgrounds and the fossils associated with them show that the so-called flood sediments include evidence of long hiatuses in deposition that are not consistent with flood dynamics or timing.{{sfn|Morton|2001}}
 
===Geochemistry===
Proponents of Flood Geology also have a difficult time explaining the alternation between [[calcite sea]]s and [[aragonite sea]]s through the Phanerozoic. The cyclical pattern of [[carbonate hardgrounds]], calcitic and aragonitic ooids, and calcite-shelled fauna has apparently been controlled by [[seafloor spreading]] rates and the flushing of seawater through [[hydrothermal vent]]s which changes its Mg/Ca ratio.{{sfn|Stanley|Hardie|1999|pp1-7}}
 
<br style="clear:both" />
-->
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Air bah (mitologi)]]
* [[Air bah (Nuh)]]
* [[Ararat]]
* [[Bahtera Nuh]]
* [[BaraminologyBaraminologi]]
* [[Biologi penciptaan]]
* [[Durupinar]]
*[[International Conference on Creationism]]
* [[Geokronologi]]
* [[Kejadian 6]][[Kejadian 7|, 7]][[Kejadian 8|, 8]][[Kejadian 9| sampai 9]].
* [[International Conference on Creationism]]
*[[Pre-Adamite]]
* [[PolystrateIlmu fossilpenciptaan]]
* [[Kejadian 6]][[Kejadian 7|, 7]][[Kejadian 8|, 8]] [[Kejadian 9|sampai 9]].
*[[Searches for Noah's Ark]]
* [[Kreasionisme]]
*[[Scriptural geologist]]
* [[Pra-Adamit]]
* [[Polystrate fossil]]
* [[Scriptural geologist]]
 
== Referensi ==
{{reflist|2}}
Baris 118 ⟶ 136:
== Pustaka lain ==
;Books
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* {{cite book| last = Brown| first = Walt|authorlink authorlink= Walt Brown (creationist)| title = In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood| publisher = Center for Scientific Creation| edition = 8th| year = 2008|isbn = 978-1-878026-09-5| chapter = Chapter 21: Rapid Burial| url = http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/LifeSciences25.html| ref = harv|access-date = 2012-11-07|archive-date = 2023-01-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230127055627/http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/LifeSciences25.html|dead-url = no}}
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* {{Cite book|author=Dillow, J.C.|title=The Waters Above|year=1981|publisher=Moody Press, Chicago|ref=harv}}
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* {{cite book| last = Imbrie| first = John| first2 = Katherine Palmer| last2 = Imbrie| title = Ice ages: solving the mystery|url = https://archive.org/details/iceagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3|year = 1986| publisher = Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge, Mass.| isbn = 0-674-44075-7| pages = [https://archive.org/details/iceagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3/page/224| 224]|ref = harv}}
* {{Cite book| last = Isaak| first = Mark| title = The Counter Creationism Handbook|chapter chapter= Creationist claim CD750| chapterurl = http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CD/CD750.html| publisher = University of California Press| publication-date = 2007| location = Berkeley and Los Angeles, California| pages = 330| isbn = 978-0-520-24926-4|ref = harv|access-date = 2012-11-07|archive-date = 2004-04-17|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040417091150/http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CD/CD750.html|dead-url = no}}
* {{cite book|last=Kaiser|first= Christopher B.|year=1997|title=Creational Theology and the History of Physical Science: The Creationist Tradition from Basil to Bohr|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=90-04-10669-3|pages=449|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Essentials of Geology|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofgeol0000lutg_l5l1|last=Lutgens|first= FK|last2= Tarbuck|first2= EJ|last3= Tasa|first3= D|year=2005|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn= 978-0-13-149749-8|ref=harv}}
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* {{Cite book | last1 = Stewart | first1 = Melville Y. | title = Science and religion in dialogue|url = https://archive.org/details/sciencereligioni0002unse_n0m1| year = 2010 | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | location = Malden, MA | isbn = 1-4051-8921-5 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/sciencereligioni0002unse_n0m1/page/n13 123]}}
* {{Cite book| first = Howard J.| last = Van Till| first2 = Robert J.| last2 = Snow| first3 = John H.| last3 = Stek| first4 = Davis A.| last4 = Young| authorlink= Howard J. Van Till| authorlink3= John H. Stek| title=Portraits of creation: biblical and scientific perspectives on the world's formation|url = https://archive.org/details/portraitsofcreat0000unse|year=1990| publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.| location=Grand Rapids, Mich.| isbn=0-8028-0485-3| pages=296| ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last = Wenham| first = Gordon| title = Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Pentateuch| series = Exploring the Bible Series| volume = 1| year = 2008| publisher = IVP Academic| isbn = 0-8308-2541-X| pages = 223| ref = harv}}
* {{cite book| last = Whitcomb| first = J.C. Jr.|author1-link=John C. Whitcomb| first2=H.M.| last2=Morris| author2-link = Henry_M._Morris| title = [[The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications]]| publisher = Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co| year = 1961| location = Philadelphia, PA| ref=harv| isbn = 0-87552-338-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Young|first=Davis A.|title=The biblical Flood: a case study of the Church's response to extrabiblical evidence|publisher=Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, Mich|year=1995|pages=340|isbn=0-8028-0719-4|url=http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p82.htm|ref=harv|accessdate=2008-09-16|archive-date=2007-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070331124027/http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p82.htm|dead-url=yes}}
 
;Journals
* {{cite journal |url=http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/pdfs/2006/07282006Record.pdf |title=''Finding the Evolution in Medicine'' |first= Cynthia |last=Delgado |journal= NIH Record |publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]], |volume=LVIII, |issue= 15 |month= July 28 |year= 2006 |ref=harv |access-date=2012-11-07 |archive-date=2011-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718043648/http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/pdfs/2006/07282006Record.pdf |dead-url=yes }}
* {{cite journal|url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/31/31_4b.html|title=Stone Mountain Georgia: A Creation Geologist's Perspective|last=Froede|first=CR|year=1995|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal| volume=31|issue=4|page=214|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2011-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110403204942/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/31/31_4b.html|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite journal| last = Herbert| first = Sandra| year = 1991| title = Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author| periodical = British Journal for the History of Science| volume = 24| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=13| accessdate = 06 Nov. 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2011-11-25| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111125185931/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=13| dead-url = no}}
* {{cite journal|last=Hunter|first=M.J.|url=http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/5016/ |title=The pre-Flood/Flood boundary at the base of the earth's transition zone| journal= Journal of Creation| volume=14|pages=60&ndash;7460–74|year=2000|accessdate=2009-01-24|ref=harv|archive-date=2008-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012032245/http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/5016/|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite journal | last = Kulp | first = J. Laurence | authorlink = J. Laurence Kulp | title = Deluge Geology | journal = Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–15 | publisher = [[American Scientific Affiliation]] | year = 1950 | url = http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1950/JASA3-50Kulp.html | ref = harv | access-date = 2012-11-07 | archive-date = 2011-06-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110607014037/http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1950/JASA3-50Kulp.html | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite journal| url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/38/38_3/Crimean.htm|title=Flood Geology of the Crimean Peninsula Part I: Tavrick Formation| last=Lalomov|first=AV| year=2001|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal|volume=38|issue=3|pages=118–124|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2007-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406110629/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/38/38_3/Crimean.htm|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite journal| last = Lippsett| first = Lonnie| month = March 6|year= 2010| title = Noah's Not-so-big Flood:New evidence rebuts controversial theory of Black Sea deluge| journal = Oceanus| publisher = Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution| ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal| last = Millhauser| first = Milton| title = The Scriptural Geologists: An Episode in the History of Opinion| journal = Osiris| volume = 11| issue = 1| pages = 65–86| publisher = Saint Catherines Press| year = 1954| jstor = 301663| doi = 10.1086/368571| ref = harv}}
* {{cite journal|first=Patrick D|last=Nunn|title=On the convergence of myth and reality: examples from the Pacific Islands|journal=The Geography Journal|year=2001|issue=2|volume=167|pages=125–138|doi=10.1111/1475-4959.00012|ref=harv}}{{subscription}}
* {{cite journal| last1 = O’Connor| first1 = Ralph| year = 2007| title = Young-Earth Creationists in Early Nineteenth-century Britain? Towards a reassessment of ‘Scriptural Geology’ | url = http://www.abdn.ac.uk/staffpages/uploads/his221/young-earth-creationists.pdf| journal = History of Science| volume = 45| issue = 150| pages = 357–403| publisher = Science History Publications Ltd | issn = 0073-2753| ref = harv| access-date = 2012-11-07| archive-date = 2023-07-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230731130355/https://www.abdn.ac.uk/staffpages/uploads/his221/young-earth-creationists.pdf| dead-url = no}}
* {{cite journal |last=Parkinson| first=William|year=2004|month=January–February|title=Questioning 'Flood Geology': Decisive New Evidence to End an Old Debate|journal=NCSE Reports|volume=24|issue=1|publisher=National Center for Science Education| url=http://ncse.com/rncse/24/1/questioning-flood-geology|accessdate=2 November 2010|ref=harv|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000058/http://ncse.com/rncse/24/1/questioning-flood-geology|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite journal| url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/notes/39/39_1/Note0206.htm|title=Surface and Subsurface Errors in Anti-Creationist Geology|year=2002|first=JK|last=Reed|last2=Woodmorappe|first2= J|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal|volume=39|issue=1|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2013-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128125415/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/notes/39/39_1/Note0206.htm|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite journal|last = Sandberg|first= P.A. | year = 1983 | title = An oscillating trend in Phanerozoic non-skeletal carbonate mineralogy | journal = Nature | volume = 305 | pages = 19–22 | doi = 10.1038/305019a0|ref = harv | issue=5929}}
* {{cite journal| last = Schadewald| first = Robert J.| year = 1982| month = Summer| title = Six Flood Arguments Creationists Can't Answer| journal = Creation/Evolution Journal| volume = 3| issue = 3| pages = 12–17| publisher = National Center for Science Education| url = http://ncse.com/cej/3/3/six-flood-arguments-creationists-cant-answer| accessdate = 16 November 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2010-03-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100331062514/http://ncse.com/cej/3/3/six-flood-arguments-creationists-cant-answer| dead-url = no}}
* {{cite journal|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/cre-error.html| last=Schadewald|first=Robert|year=1986|title=Scientific Creationism and Error|journal=Creation/Evolution|volume=6|issue=1|pages=1–9|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2023-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528234339/http://talkorigins.org/faqs/cre-error.html|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite journal| last = Seeley| first = Paul H.| year = 1991| title = The Firmament and the Water Above: The Meaning of ''Raqia'' in Genesis 1:6-8| journal = Westminster Theological Journal| volume = 53| url = http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely-Firmament-WTJ.pdf| format = pdf| accessdate = 13 Nov. 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2009-03-05| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090305132849/http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely-Firmament-WTJ.pdf| dead-url = yes}}
* {{cite journal| last = Seeley| first = Paul H.| year = 1997| title = The Geographical Meaning of 'Earth' and 'Seas' in Genesis 1:10| journal = Westminster Theological Journal| volume = 59| url = http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely_EarthSeas_WTJ.pdf| accessdate = 13 Nov. 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2020-10-16| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201016190009/http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/ted_hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely_EarthSeas_WTJ.pdf| dead-url = yes}}
* {{cite journal | last = Stanley|first= S.M.|last2= Hardie|first2= L.A. | year = 1999 | title = Hypercalcification; paleontology links plate tectonics and geochemistry to sedimentology | journal = GSA Today | volume = 9 | pages = 1–7 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Earth Science|url=https://archive.org/details/earthscience1100tarb|last=Tarbuck|first= EJ |last2= Lutgens|first2= FK|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2006|isbn=978-0-13-125852-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal| url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/40/40_1/LaBrea3.htm| last=Weston|first=W|title=La Brea Tar Pits: Evidence of a Catastrophic Flood|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal|volume=40|issue=1|year=2003|pages=25–33|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2007-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406104153/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/40/40_1/LaBrea3.htm|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite journal| last = Wise | first = D.U.| year = 1998| title = Creationism's Geologic Time Scale| journal = American Scientist| volume = 86| pages = 160–173| url = http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/1998/2/creationisms-geologic-time-scale| accessdate = 2009-01-24| doi = 10.1511/1998.2.160| ref = harv| issue = 2| archive-date = 2016-12-22| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161222134946/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/1998/2/creationisms-geologic-time-scale/| dead-url = no}}{{subscription}}
* {{cite journal|last=Wise|first=K.|authorlink=Kurt Wise|title=Towards a Creationist Understanding of "Transitional Forms"|journal=CEN Tech. J.|volume=9|pages=216&ndash;222216–222|year=1995|format=pdf|url=http://www.bryancore.org/anniversary/04.pdf|accessdate=2009-01-24|ref=harv|archive-date=2010-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714052146/http://www.bryancore.org/anniversary/04.pdf|dead-url=no}}
 
;Web
* {{cite web |url=http://www.icr.org/research/index/researchp_as_platetectonicsl/ |title=Catastrophic Plate Tectonics: A Global Flood Model of Earth History | last =Austin | first =Stephen A. | last2=Baumgardner| first2=J.R.|last3= Humphreys|first3= R.D.|last4= Snelling|first4= A.A.|last5= Vardiman|first5= L. |last6=Wise|first6= K.P. |year=1994|publisher= Institute for Creation Research |location=Third International Conference on Creationism, Pittsburgh, PA, July 18&ndash;2318–23, 1994|accessdate=2009-01-24|publication-date=1994|ref=harv|archive-date=2023-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531002551/https://www.icr.org/research/index/researchp_as_platetectonicsl/|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ax/frame.html|publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|last=Ballard|title=Ballard and the Black Sea: the search for Noah's flood|year=1999|accessdate=2007-06-27|ref=harv|archive-date=2007-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704205123/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ax/frame.html|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm |title=Biblical Chronology |publisher= Catholic Encyclopedia |year=1913 |ref={{harvid|Catholic encyclopedia|1913}} |access-date=2012-11-07 |archive-date=2014-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730162813/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/16176 |title=Reason or faith? Darwin expert reflects |first=Gwen |last=Evans |year=2009 |month=Feb 3 |work=UW-Madison News |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |accessdate=2010-06-18 |ref=harv |archive-date=2015-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208223603/http://news.wisc.edu/16176 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite web|url= http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html#CD|title=Index to Creationist Claims, Geology|first=Mark|last=Isaak|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|year= 2006|month=November 5|accessdate =2 November 2010 |ref=harv|archive-date=2003-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031209103049/http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html#CD|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html|title=Problems with a Global Flood|last=Isaak|first=M|year=1998|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|quote=Isaak no a geologist|archive-date=2021-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317033616/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/paluxy/wilker5.html|title=The "Burdick Print"|first=GJ|last=Kuban|year=1996|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2023-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223132501/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/paluxy/wilker5.html|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/geocolumn/|title=The Geologic Column and its Implications for the Flood|first=Glenn|last=Morton|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate =2 November 2010|month=February 17|year= 2001|ref=harv|quote=Morton not a geologist|archive-date=2001-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010317060604/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/geocolumn/|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web|url=http://nwcreation.net/noahlegends.html|title=Flood Legends from Around the World|publisher=[http://nwcreation.net/ Northwest Creation Network]|accessdate=2007-06-27|ref={{harvid|Northwest Creation Network}} |archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317145432/http://www.nwcreation.net/noahlegends.html|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web|url=http://ncse.com/rncse/23/1/my-favorite-pseudoscience |first=Eugenie C. |last=Scott|title=My Favorite Pseudoscience|ref=harv|volume= 23|issue= 1|year=2003|month=January–February|access-date=2012-11-07|archive-date=2016-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426073534/http://ncse.com/rncse/23/1/my-favorite-pseudoscience|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1992/PSCF3-92Spradley.html |title=Changing Views of Science and Scripture: Bernard Ramm and the ASA |last=Spradley |first=Joseph L. |accessdate=2009-01-12 |ref=harv |year=1992 |archive-date=2022-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421205410/https://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1992/PSCF3-92Spradley.html |dead-url=no }}
* {{Cite web|first=Larry |last=Vardiman|title=Temperature Profiles for an optimized Water Vapor Canopy| url=http://www.icr.org/article/temperature-water-vapor-canopy/| year=2003|publisher=ICR|ref=harv|access-date=2012-11-07|archive-date=2023-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528235858/https://www.icr.org/article/temperature-water-vapor-canopy|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1993/PSCF12-93Yang.html |title=Radiocarbon Dating and American Evangelical Christians |last=Yang |first=Seung-Hun |accessdate=2009-01-12 |ref=harv |year=1993 |archive-date=2009-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119021543/http://asa3.org/asa/PSCF/1993/PSCF12-93Yang.html |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite web |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1801 |title=Genesis 6-9 |ref={{harvid|Genesis|6-9}} |access-date=2012-11-07 |archive-date=2011-05-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520205411/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1801 |dead-url=no }}
;Other
* {{cite conference|last=Baumgardner|first=JR|year=2003|url=http://www.globalflood.org/papers/2003ICCcpt.html|title=Catastrophic Plate Tectonics: The Physics Behind the Genesis Flood |booktitle=Fifth International Conference on Creationism|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2016-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106155146/http://www.globalflood.org/papers/2003ICCcpt.html|dead-url=yes}}
 
== Bacaan tambahan ==
 
* {{cite journal | title = The Defeat of Flood Geology by Flood Geology | journal = Reports of the [[National Center for Science Education]] | date = May/June 2001 | first = Phil | last = Senter | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | url = http://reports.ncse.com/index.php/rncse/article/download/44/36 | access-date = 2012-11-07 | archive-date = 2019-02-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190218150243/http://reports.ncse.com/index.php/rncse/article/download/44/36 | dead-url = yes }}
* H. Neuville, “On the Extinction of the Mammoth,” Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1919.
* Patten, Donald W. ''The Biblical Flood and the Ice Epoch'' (Seattle: Pacific Meridian Publishing Company, 1966).
Baris 194 ⟶ 212:
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Flood Geology}}
[[CategoryKategori:Creation science]]
[[CategoryKategori:Flood geology|*]]
[[CategoryKategori:Air bah]]
[[CategoryKategori:Kitab Kejadian]]
[[CategoryKategori:Young Earth creationism]]
[[CategoryKategori:Pseudoscience]]
 
[[en:Flood geology]]
[[nl:Zondvloedgeologie]]
[[fi:Tulvageologia]]
[[pt:Geologia diluviana]]