Geologi air bah: Perbedaan antara revisi

{{Kreasionisme}}'''Geologi air bah''' ('''{{lang-en|Flood geology}}''' atau '''''creation geology''''', '''''diluvial geology''''') adalah suatu interpretasi dari sejarah [[geologi]] [[planet]] [[bumi]] dalam hubungannya dengan [[air bah (mitologi)|air bah]] yang melanda seluruh bumi seperti yang digambarkan dalam [[Kitab Kejadian]] [[Kejadian 6| pasal 6]][[Kejadian 9|–9]] dalam [[Alkitab Ibrani]] ataudan [[Perjanjian Lama]] di [[Alkitab]] [[Kristen]]. Pandangan-pandangan serupa berperan penting dalam perkembangan awal ilmu [[geologi]], meskipun setelah kronologi Alkitab yang dikemukakan oleh [[James Ussher]] ditolak oleh mayoritas [[geolog]], yang lebih menerima usia bumi yang jauh lebih lama. Geologi air bah merupakan suatu bidang studi di dalam [[Kreasionisme|"ilmu pengetahuan penciptaan" ("''creation science''")]].{{sfn|Parkinson|2004|pp=24–27}}<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|2009}}</ref>

Suatu air bah yang menutupi seluruh dunia dianggap dapat menjelaskan hal-hal berikut:<ref name=waltbrown>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ Walt Brown: In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513203207/http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ |date=2023-05-13 }}. 8th Edition. December 2008.</ref>

* Kecocokan pinggiran benua (seperti teka-teki jigsaw)

Geologi air bah secara publik dianggap bertentangan dengan pandangan ilmuwan dalam bidang geologi, [[paleontologi]], kimia, fisika, biologi, geofisika, dan stratigrafi,{{sfn|Delgado|2006}}{{sfn|Young|1995}}{{sfn|Isaak|2006}}{{sfn|Morton|2001}}{{sfn|Isaak|2007|p=173}}{{sfn|Stewart|2010|p=123}}<ref>[{{Cite web |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/may04.html |title=The Talk.Origins Archive Post of the Month: May 2004] |access-date=2012-12-04 |archive-date=2021-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716163851/http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/may04.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> dan [[komunitas ilmiah]] menganggapnya sebagai [[pseudosains]].{{sfn|Schadewald|1982|pp=12-17}}{{sfn|Scott|2003}} Meskipun demikian, akhir-akhir ini dunia ilmu mulai menerima hipotesis [[Bumi bola salju|"Bumi bola salju" (''Snowball Earth'')]] di mana ditemukan bukti bahwa seluruh bumi pernah tertutup es (= air beku) pada masa silam (sekitar 650 juta tahun lalu), yang sekalipun tidak berkaitan langsung dengan geologi air bah, memberikan argumen yang mirip bahwa bumi pernah sama sekali tertutup air.<ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/327/5970/1241 Calibrating the [[Cryogenian]], Abstract only:] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916054407/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/327/5970/1241 |date=2010-09-16 }} "Ice ... implies that the Sturtian glaciation was global in extent". 5 March 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100304142228.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:%20sciencedaily%20%28ScienceDaily:%20Latest%20Science%20News%29&utm_content=Google%20Feedfetcher Snowball Earth: New Evidence Hints at Global Glaciation 716.5 Million Years Ago] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205095700/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100304142228.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:%20sciencedaily%20(ScienceDaily:%20Latest%20Science%20News)&utm_content=Google%20Feedfetcher |date=2023-02-05 }} Geologists have found evidence that sea ice extended to the equator 716.5 million years ago. 5 March 2010.</ref>

[[FileBerkas:Noahs Ark.jpg|thumbjmpl|Hewan-hewan memasuki [[Bahtera Nuh]] (Edward Hicks, lukisan tahun 1846)]]

Dalam zaman penerangan (''Age of Enlightenment''), para naturalis mulai mengusulkan penyebab alamiah untuk menjelaskan mujizat-mujizat yang tertulis di Alkitab. Penjelasan alamiah untuk air bah global diberikan oleh [[:en:John Woodward (naturalist)|John Woodward]] (1695) dan muridnya, [[William Whiston]] (1696).{{sfn|Porter|2003|p= [[John Woodward (naturalist)|John Woodward]], (1695), ''An Essay Toward a Natural History of the Earth'' and [[William Whiston]], (1696), ''New Theory of the Earth''.}}

Ilmu pengetahuan geologi modern dimulai di Eropa pada abad ke-18.<ref>Perkumpulan geolog profesional tertua di dunia adalah [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/society/bicentenary Geological Society of London] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513043846/http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/society/bicentenary |date=2007-05-13 }}, dibentuk pada tahun 1807; istilah "geologi" sendiri dipopulerkan malalui penggunaannya dalam ''Encyclopedie'' tahun 1751.</ref> Para pakar bidang ini berusaha memahami sejarah dan pembentukan bumi melalui bukti-bukti fisik yang ditemukan dalam batu-batuan dan mineral. Banyak geolog mula-mula juga pemimpin gereja, sehingga mereka berusaha mencari hubungan sejarah geologi dunia sesuai yang tertulis di Alkitab. Teori kuno bahwa fosil itu merupakan pembentukan alamiah dari bahan-bahan tanah yang mengalami tekanan plastis sudah ditinggalkan, dengan pengakuan bahwa fosil merupakan peninggalan makhluk-makhluk yang pernah hidup sebelumnya. Hal ini menimbulkan pertanyaan: bagaimana fosil makhluk laut dapat ditemukan di daratan, atau bahkan di puncak-puncak gunung?

[[J. Laurence Kulp]], seorang geolog yang tergabung dalam [[Plymouth Brethren]], bergabung bersama sarjana-sarjana Kristen lain termasuk geolog, arkeolog, anthropolog, dan biolog yang pekerjaannya berhubungan dengan penanggalan radioaktif, untuk menghimbau organisasi Kristen, [[American Scientific Affiliation]] (ASA), untuk tidak secara resmi mendukung geologi air bah tetapi mengizinkan anggotanya untuk menerima pandangan ilmiah saat itu.{{sfn|Yang|1993}} Kulp juga menulis kritik detail mengenai Geologi air bah, berjudul ''Deluge Geology'', yang diterbitkan dalam ''Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation'' pada tahun 1950.{{sfn|Kulp|1950|pp=1-15}} Ketika ASA menolak mengikuti geologi air bah, generasi baru ''Young Earth creationists'' terbentuk, sebagian besar terorganisasi dalam [[Institute for Creation Research]] yang didirikan oleh Dr. Morris. Penelitian oleh [[Creation Research Society]] telah mengamati dan menganalisamenganalisis formasi geologis, di dalam kerangka geologi air bah, termasuk [[La Brea Tar Pits]],{{sfn|Weston|2003|pp=25-33}} ''Tavrick Formation'' ([[Tauric]] Formation, Bahasa Rusia: "Tavricheskaya formatsiya") di [[Crimean Peninsula]]{{sfn|Lalomov|2001|pp=118-124}} dan [[Stone Mountain]], negara bagian [[Georgia (negara bagian)|Georgia]].{{sfn|Froede|1995|p=214}} Umumnya, pendukung teori penciptaan (''creationist'') menyatakan bahwa interpretasi geologi air bah memiliki penjelasan yang lebih luas daripada penjelasan ''uniformitarian'' (satu lapisan). "Creation Research Society" menyatakan bahwa "uniformitarianism is wishful thinking" (uniformitarianisme adalah suatu angan-angan).{{sfn|Reed|Woodmoreappe|2002}}

[[FileBerkas:Cole Thomas The Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge 1829.jpg|thumbjmpl| Cole Thomas - ''The Subsiding of the Waters of the Deluge'' (Surutnya air setelah air bah) - 1829, lukisan minyak pada kanvas]]

Geologi air bah didasarkan pada penafsiran harafiah dari kisah air bah di dalam [[Kitab Kejadian]] [[Kejadian 6| pasal 6]][[Kejadian 9|–9]]. Kisahnya dimulai dengan keputusan Allah untuk mendatangkan air bah guna memusnakan segala yang hidup dari muka bumi kecuali mereka yang diselamatkan dalam [[Bahtera Nuh]]. Dalam tahun ke-600 usia [[Nuh]], Allah membuka "tingkap-tingkap di langit" dan "mata air di kedalaman" dan menyebabkan hujan turun selama 40 hari 40 malam di muka bumi. Air bah meluap sampai 150 hari dan menutupi "semua puncak-puncak gunung di kolong langit." Kemudian air surut selama 150 hari dimana kemudian bahtera itu terdampar di pegunungan [[Ararat]]. Bumi menjadi kering, kemudian Nuh dan keluarganya serta hewan-hewan dan burung-burung keluar dari bahtera untuk memulai kehidupan di muka bumi.{{sfn|Genesis|6-9}}

Kolom geologis dan catatan fosil digunakan sebagai bukti-bukti utama dalam penjelasan ilmiah mengenai perkembangan dan evolusi kehidupan di bumi serta dipakai untuk menentukan usia bumi. Pakar penciptaan "bumi muda" seperti Morris dan Whitcomb dalam buku mereka, ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' (1961), menunjukkan bahwa usia fosil tergantung dari jumlah waktu yang diterakan pada kolom geologis, yang mereka nyatakan sekitar 1 tahun. Beberapa geolog air bah menggugat kolom geologis karena menggunakan fosil indeks yang kemudian dipakai untuk menentukan strata terisolasi dari strata lain dalam peta. Fosil seringkalisering kali ditentukan waktunya dari jarak mereka dengan strata yang mengandung fosil indeks yang usianya ditentukan dari lokasinya di kolom geologis. Oard{{sfn|Oard|Reed|2006|p=99}} dan lain-lain mengatakan bahwa identifikasi fosil sebagai fosil indeks banyak menimbulkan kesalahan sehingga fosil indeks tidak dapat dipercaya penuh untuk membuat korelasi semacam itu, atau untuk menentukan waktu pembentukan strata setempat dengan menggunakan skala geologis yang digabung-gabungkan.

Para pakar yang menerima adanya kolom geologis percaya bahwa kolom itu mengindikasikan runtunan peristiwa yang terjadi selama air bah global. Pendekatan ini diambil oleh sarjana di [[Institute for Creation Research]] seperti [[Andrew Snelling]], [[Steven A. Austin]] dan [[Kurt Wise]], serta [[Creation Ministries International]]. Mereka mengutip [[letusan Kambrium]] &mdash;— munculnya fosil dalam jumlah melimpah pada periode ''upper [[Ediacaran]]'' (''Vendian'') dan periode ''lower [[Kambrium]]'' &mdash;— sebagai batas "sebelum" dan "sesudah" air bah (''pre-Flood/Flood boundary''),{{sfn|Hunter|2000|pp=60-74}} adanya sedimen fosil semacam itu yang tidak terjadi di kemudian hari pada catatan geologis sebagai bagian dari [[biota]] sebelum air bah yang punah{{sfn|Wise|1995|pp=216-222}} dan ketiadaan organisme dalam bentuk fosil yang muncul kemudian, seperti [[Tumbuhan berbunga|angiospermia]] dan [[mammalia]], diakibatkan oleh erosi sedimen sebagai deposit oleh air bah ketika air menyurut.{{sfn|Austin|Baumgardner|Humphreys|Snelling|1994}} Para pakar mengatakan bahwa pembentukan fosil hanya dapat terjadi ketika organisme itu terkubur cepat sehingga mayatnya terlindung dari kerusakan oleh pemangsa atau dekomposisi.{{sfn|Whitcomb|Morris|1961|pp=128&ndash;129128–129}} Catatan fosil merupakan bukti dari satu kali air bah raksasa (''single cataclysmic flood'') dan bukan catatan perubahan perlahan-lahan yang terakumulasi selama berjuta-juta tahun.{{sfn|Brown|2008|p=}}

Geolog air bah mengemukakan sejumlah hipotesahipotesis untuk menyesuaikan urutan bukti fosil dalam kolom fosil dengan kisah air bah Nuh di Alkitab. Whitcomb dan Morris mengajukan 3 faktor yang mungkin terjadi:

# ekologis (''ecological''), di mana organisme yang diam di dasar laut mati terlebih dahulu dan yang diam di atas ketinggian paling terakhir.

# anatomis dan perilaku (''anatomical and behavioral''), di mana urutan teratur dari kolom fosil dihasilkan oleh respons yang berbeda dari jenis organisme yang berbeda-beda terhadap naiknya air bah, tergantung dari mobilitas dan habitat asal yang beraneka ragam.{{sfn|Gould|1984|p=132}}

Isaac Vail (1840–1912), seorang guru sekolah [[Quaker]], dalam karyanya ''The Earth's Annular System'' (1912), mengekstrapolasi dari hipotesahipotesis nebular apa yang disebutnya sistem cincin tahunan (''annular system'') sejarah bumi, di mana bumi asalnya dikelilingi oleh lingkaran cincin yang mirip dengan planet [[Saturnus]], atau kubah-kubah dari uap air. Kubah-kubah ini satu per satu jatuh ke bumi, mengakibatkan "bencana besar yang terus menerus, dipisahkan oleh jangka waktu yang berbeda" mengubur fosil-fosil. Air bah raksasa di kitab Kejadian dianggap berasal dari bagian terakhir kubah ini. Meskipun air bah terakhir secara geologis signifikan, dihipotesakan kurang dari catatan fosil yang disebut oleh George McCready Price.{{sfn|Numbers|2006|pp=347-348}}

HipotesaHipotesis ini mendapat pendukung dari kalangan [[Saksi Yehovah]]{{sfn|Numbers|2006|pp=347-348}} dan [[Gereja Masehi Advent Hari Ketujuh]], antara lain ahli fisika Robert W. Woods,{{sfn|Numbers|2006|p=501.(footnote 47)}} sebelum disebut berulang di buku ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' (1961).{{sfn|Numbers|2006|p=229}}

[[FileBerkas:Hutton Unconformity , Jedburgh.jpg|thumbjmpl|uprightlurus|rightka|Pada abad ke-18, penemuan-penemuan seperti [[:en:Hutton's Unconformity|Hutton's Unconformity]] menunjukkan lapisan-lapisan yang terjungkir, tererosi dan bertumpuk, menunjukkan "abyss of time" pada [[skala waktu geologi]].]]

Geologi modern dan cabang-cabangnya menggunakan metode sains untuk menganalisis geologi bumi. Prinsip kunci geologi air bah ditolak oleh kebanyakan analisis ilmiah dan tidak didukung sebagian besar komunitas sains.{{sfn|Delgado|2006}}{{sfn|Young|1995}}{{sfn|Isaak|2006}}{{sfn|Morton|2001}}{{sfn|Isaak|2007|p=173}}{{sfn|Stewart|2010|p=123}} [[Geologi]] modern bersandar pada sejumlah prinsip yang sudah tersusun, salah satu yang terpenting di antaranya adalah prinsip dari [[Charles Lyell]] mengenai [[:en:uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianisme]]. Dalam kaitan dengan kekuatan-kekuatan geologis dikatakan bahwa pembentukan bumi terjadi dari kekuatan berlangsung lambat yang dapat dilihat sekarang. Dengan mengaplikasikan prinsip-prinsip ini para geolog dapat menentukan bahwa usia bumi adalah sekitar 4,5 miliar tahun. Mereka mempelajari [[litosfer]] bumi untuk mendapatkan informasi sejarah planet ini. Geolog membagi sejarah bumi dalam ''[[eon|kurun (''eon'')]]'', [[:en:Era (geology)|era]], [[:en:Period (geology)|periode]], [[Kala (geologi)|kala (''epoch'')]], dan [[:en:faunal stages|tingkatan fauna]] yang ditandai dengan potongan-potongan terdefinisi baik dalam [[:en:fossil record|catatan fosil]] (lihat [[skala waktu geologi]]).{{sfn|Lutgens|Tarbuck|Tasa|2005}}{{sfn|Tarbuck|Lutgens|2006}} Pada umumnya, belum cukup bukti dari efek di atas yang dikemukakan oleh pendukung geologi air bah, sehingga tidak mendapat dukungan serius dari para ilmuwan.{{sfn|Isaak|1998}}

[[FileBerkas:Siccar point SE cliff.jpg|thumbjmpl|uprightlurus|leftkiri|[[:en:Unconformity|Angular unconformity]] yang ditemukan oleh [[James Hutton]] pada tahun 1788 di [[:en:Siccar Point|Siccar Point]] menunjukkan waktu yang ditempuh oleh erosi batu terjungkir dan deposisi lapisan-lapisan bertumpuk.]]

Geologi air bah belum dapat menjelaskan formasi geologi seperti [[:en:Unconformity|angular unconformities]], di mana batuan sedimentari terjungkir dan tererosi kemudian lebih banyak lapisan lagi bertumpuk di atasnya, membutuhkan waktu lama untuk proses semacam ini. Juga dibutuhkan waktu lama untuk erosi lembah pada pegunungan batu sedimen. Contoh lain, jika air bah terjadi, maka efek ini tentunya tersebar luas dan dalam skala besar di seluruh dunia. Erosi seharusnya tersebar merata, tetapi kenyataannya ada perbedaan besar antara erosi di [[:en:Appalachian Mountains|pegunungan Appalachian]] dan [[Rocky Mountains]].{{sfn|Isaak|1998}}

[[FileBerkas:CarmelHdgd.jpg|thumbjmpl|rightka|Tanah keras karbonat [[Jurasik]] ini menunjukkan generasi-generasi [[oysters]] dan bioerosi ekstensif, ciri-ciri yang dianggap tidak kompatible dengan kondisi dan waktu yang diduga pada waktu terjadinya air bah.{{sfn|Morton|2001}}]]

[[FileBerkas:CalciteAragonite.jpg|thumbjmpl|rightka|Alternasi laut kalsit dan aragonit di sepanjang waktu geologi.{{sfn|Sandberg|1983|pp=19-22}}]]

[[Geokronologi]] (''[[:en:Geochronology|Geochronology]]'') adalah cabang ilmu yang menentukan usia absolut batu-batuan, fosil dan sedimen dengan berbagai teknik. Metode ini mengindikasikan bahwa bumi secara keseluruhan berusia sedikitnya 4,5 miliar tahun, dan bahwa starat yang menurut geologi air bah terbentuk pada waktu air bah 6000 tahun lalu sebenarnya didepositkan secara berhadap dalam kurun waktu jutaan tahun.

Jika air bah menyebabkan fosilisasi, maka semua hewan yang sekarang menjadi fosil tentunya hidup bersama di bumi sesaat sebelum datangnya air bah. Berdasarkan perkiraan jumlah bekas-bekas yang terkubur dalam [[:en:Karoo Supergroup|formasi fosil Karoo]] di [[Afrika]], ini bersesuaian dengan kepadatan tinggi yang tidak normal dari vertebrata di seluruh dunia, hampir 2100 per acre.{{sfn|Schadewald|1982|pp=12-17}} Para pendukung [[kreasionisme]] berargumen bahwa bukti dari [[:en:Geologic time scale|kolom geologi]] adalah sepotong-sepotong (''fragmentary''), dan semua lapisan kompleks kapur terjadi mendekati hari ke-150 air bah zaman [[Nuh]].{{sfn|Wilson|2001}}{{sfn|Mathews|2009}} Namun, kolom geologi ditemukan pada beberapa tempat dan menunjukkan ciri-ciri beragam, termasuk bukti erosi dan penyusupan ke dalam lapisan-lapisan lebih tua, yang tidak dapat dijelaskan dalam skala waktu singkat. Tanah keras karbonat (''carbonate hardground'') dan fosil yang berkaitan menunjukkan apa yang disebut "sedimen air bah" mencakup bukti deposisi yang berhenti lama yang tidak konsisten dengan dinamika maupun waktu air bah.{{sfn|Morton|2001}}

Pendukung geologi air bah mendapat kesulitan menjelaskan alternasi antara ''[[:en:calcite sea|calcite sea]]'' dan ''[[:en:aragonite sea|aragonite sea]]'' sepanjang era Phanerozoik. Pola bersiklus ''[[:en:carbonate hardgrounds|carbonate hardgrounds]]'', ooid kalsitik dan aragonitik, serta fauna bercangkang kalsit nampaknyatampaknya dikontrol oleh kecepatan penyebaran dasar lautan (''[[:en:seafloor spreading|seafloor spreading]]'') rates and pembilasan air laut melalui ''[[:en:hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal vent]]'' yang mengubah rasio Mg/Ca.{{sfn|Stanley|Hardie|1999|pp1-7}}

* [[Kejadian 6]][[Kejadian 7|, 7]][[Kejadian 8|, 8]] [[Kejadian 9| sampai 9]].

* [[PrePra-AdamiteAdamit]]

* {{cite book| last = Berry| first = Robert James| title = God's book of works: the nature and theology of nature|url = https://archive.org/details/godsbookofworksn0000berr|year = 2003| publisher = T & T Clark| location = London| isbn = 0-567-08876-6| ref = harv}}

* {{cite book| last = Brown| first = Walt|authorlink authorlink= Walt Brown (creationist)| title = In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood| publisher = Center for Scientific Creation| edition = 8th| year = 2008|isbn = 978-1-878026-09-5| chapter = Chapter 21: Rapid Burial| url = http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/LifeSciences25.html| ref = harv|access-date = 2012-11-07|archive-date = 2023-01-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230127055627/http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/LifeSciences25.html|dead-url = no}}

* {{cite book|last=Buckland|first=William|authorlink=William Buckland|title=Geology and Mineralogy Considered With Reference to Natural Theology (History of Paleontology)|publisher=Ayer Company Publishing|year=1980|isbn=978-0-405-12706-9|ref=harv}}

* {{Cite book| last = Dalrymple| first = G. Brent| authorlink = Brent Dalrymple| title=Ancient Earth, ancient skies: the age of Earth and its cosmic surroundings|url = https://archive.org/details/ancientearthanci0000dalr|year=2004| publisher=Stanford University Press| location=Stanford, Calif.| isbn=0-8047-4933-7| pages= 264| ref = harv}}

* {{Cite book| last=Dana| first=James Dwight| authorlink=James Dwight Dana| url=http://books.google.com/?id=-7kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Manual+of+geology+Dana#v=onepage&q&f=false| title=Manual of geology: treating of the principles of the science with special reference to American geological history, for the use of colleges, academies, and schools of science| year=1863| publisher=Theodore Bliss & Co.| location= Philadelphia| pages=798| ref=harv|access-date=2012-11-07|archive-date=2023-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731130408/https://books.google.com/books?id=-7kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Manual+of+geology+Dana&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false|dead-url=no}}

* {{Cite book|author=Dillow, J.C.|title=The Waters Above|year=1981|publisher=Moody Press, Chicago|ref=harv}}

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* {{Cite news|last =Herbert| first = Sandra| publication-date = 1991| title =Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author| periodical =British Journal for the History of Science| issue = 24| pages =159–192| url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=1| accessdate =2009-01-24|archive-date =2009-02-08|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090208160735/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=1|dead-url =no}}

* {{cite book| last = Imbrie| first = John| first2 = Katherine Palmer| last2 = Imbrie| title = Ice ages: solving the mystery|url = https://archive.org/details/iceagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3|year = 1986| publisher = Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge, Mass.| isbn = 0-674-44075-7| pages = [https://archive.org/details/iceagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3/page/224| 224]|ref = harv}}

* {{Cite book| last = Isaak| first = Mark| title = The Counter Creationism Handbook|chapter chapter= Creationist claim CD750| chapterurl = http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CD/CD750.html| publisher = University of California Press| publication-date = 2007| location = Berkeley and Los Angeles, California| pages = 330| isbn = 978-0-520-24926-4|ref = harv|access-date = 2012-11-07|archive-date = 2004-04-17|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040417091150/http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CD/CD750.html|dead-url = no}}

* {{cite book|last=Kaiser|first= Christopher B.|year=1997|title=Creational Theology and the History of Physical Science: The Creationist Tradition from Basil to Bohr|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=90-04-10669-3|pages=449|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book|title=Essentials of Geology|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofgeol0000lutg_l5l1|last=Lutgens|first= FK|last2= Tarbuck|first2= EJ|last3= Tasa|first3= D|year=2005|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn= 978-0-13-149749-8|ref=harv}}

* {{Cite book| last = McCann| first = T. (Tom)| title = The Geology of Central Europe: Mesozoic and Cenozoic| year = 2008| volume = 2| publisher = Geological Society of London| location = Bath| isbn = 1-86239-265-X| pages = 736| ref = harv}}

* {{cite book|last=McPhee|first= John|year= 1998 |title=Annals of the Former World|url=https://archive.org/details/annalsofformerwo00mcph|location= New York|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux.|ref=harv}}

* {{Cite book| last = Numbers| first = Ronald L.| authorlink = Ronald Numbers| title = [[The Creationists]]: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, Expanded Edition| publisher = Harvard University Press| year = 2006| pages = 624| ref=harv| isbn = 0-674-02339-0}}

* {{cite book| last = Oard| first = Michael| last2=Reed| first2=John K| title = The Geological Column: Perspectives within Diluvial Geology| publisher = Creation Research Society Books| year = 2006| location = Chino Valley, AZ, USA| pages = 157| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book|last=Porter|first=R|coauthors=Lindberg, DC & Numbers, RL|year=2003|title=The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 4, Eighteenth-Century Science|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-57243-6|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book| last = Price| first = George McCready| authorlink = George McCready Price|year=1926|title=Evolutionary Geology & the New Catastrophism|publisher=Pacific Press Publishing Association|isbn=978-0-915554-13-3|pages=352|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book | last = Rupke | first = Nicolaas | author-link = Nicolaas Adrianus Rupke | title = The Great Chain of History |url = https://archive.org/details/greatchainofhist0000rupk|publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford | year = 1983 | isbn = 0-19-822907-0 |pages=42–50[https://archive.org/details/greatchainofhist0000rupk/page/42 42]–50|ref=harv}}

* {{Cite book| last=Shrock| first=Robert Rakes| title=Geology at M. I. T., 1865-1965: a history of the first hundred years of geology at Massachusetts Institute of Technology| year=1977| publisher=MIT Press| location=Cambridge, Mass.| isbn=0-262-19211-X| pages=30| ref=harv}}

* {{Cite book | last1 = Stewart | first1 = Melville Y. | title = Science and religion in dialogue|url = https://archive.org/details/sciencereligioni0002unse_n0m1| year = 2010 | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | location = Malden, MA | isbn = 1-4051-8921-5 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/sciencereligioni0002unse_n0m1/page/n13 123]}}

* {{Cite book| first = Howard J.| last = Van Till| first2 = Robert J.| last2 = Snow| first3 = John H.| last3 = Stek| first4 = Davis A.| last4 = Young| authorlink= Howard J. Van Till| authorlink3= John H. Stek| title=Portraits of creation: biblical and scientific perspectives on the world's formation|url = https://archive.org/details/portraitsofcreat0000unse|year=1990| publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.| location=Grand Rapids, Mich.| isbn=0-8028-0485-3| pages=296| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book| last = Wenham| first = Gordon| title = Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Pentateuch| series = Exploring the Bible Series| volume = 1| year = 2008| publisher = IVP Academic| isbn = 0-8308-2541-X| pages = 223| ref = harv}}

* {{cite book| last = Whitcomb| first = J.C. Jr.|author1-link=John C. Whitcomb| first2=H.M.| last2=Morris| author2-link = Henry_M._Morris| title = [[The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications]]| publisher = Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co| year = 1961| location = Philadelphia, PA| ref=harv| isbn = 0-87552-338-2}}

* {{Cite book|last=Young|first=Davis A.|title=The biblical Flood: a case study of the Church's response to extrabiblical evidence|publisher=Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, Mich|year=1995|pages=340|isbn=0-8028-0719-4|url=http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p82.htm|ref=harv|accessdate=2008-09-16|archive-date=2007-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070331124027/http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p82.htm|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite journal |url=http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/pdfs/2006/07282006Record.pdf |title=''Finding the Evolution in Medicine'' |first= Cynthia |last=Delgado |journal= NIH Record |publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]], |volume=LVIII, |issue= 15 |month= July 28 |year= 2006 |ref=harv |access-date=2012-11-07 |archive-date=2011-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718043648/http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/pdfs/2006/07282006Record.pdf |dead-url=yes }}

* {{cite journal|url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/31/31_4b.html|title=Stone Mountain Georgia: A Creation Geologist's Perspective|last=Froede|first=CR|year=1995|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal| volume=31|issue=4|page=214|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2011-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110403204942/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/31/31_4b.html|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite journal| last = Herbert| first = Sandra| year = 1991| title = Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author| periodical = British Journal for the History of Science| volume = 24| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=13| accessdate = 06 Nov. 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2011-11-25| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111125185931/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=13| dead-url = no}}

* {{cite journal|last=Hunter|first=M.J.|url=http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/5016/ |title=The pre-Flood/Flood boundary at the base of the earth's transition zone| journal= Journal of Creation| volume=14|pages=60&ndash;7460–74|year=2000|accessdate=2009-01-24|ref=harv|archive-date=2008-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012032245/http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/5016/|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite journal | last = Kulp | first = J. Laurence | authorlink = J. Laurence Kulp | title = Deluge Geology | journal = Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–15 | publisher = [[American Scientific Affiliation]] | year = 1950 | url = http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1950/JASA3-50Kulp.html | ref = harv | access-date = 2012-11-07 | archive-date = 2011-06-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110607014037/http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1950/JASA3-50Kulp.html | dead-url = yes }}

* {{cite journal| url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/38/38_3/Crimean.htm|title=Flood Geology of the Crimean Peninsula Part I: Tavrick Formation| last=Lalomov|first=AV| year=2001|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal|volume=38|issue=3|pages=118–124|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2007-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406110629/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/38/38_3/Crimean.htm|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite journal| last = Lippsett| first = Lonnie| month = March 6|year= 2010| title = Noah's Not-so-big Flood:New evidence rebuts controversial theory of Black Sea deluge| journal = Oceanus| publisher = Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution| ref = harv}}

* {{cite journal| last = Millhauser| first = Milton| title = The Scriptural Geologists: An Episode in the History of Opinion| journal = Osiris| volume = 11| issue = 1| pages = 65–86| publisher = Saint Catherines Press| year = 1954| jstor = 301663| doi = 10.1086/368571| ref = harv}}

* {{cite journal|first=Patrick D|last=Nunn|title=On the convergence of myth and reality: examples from the Pacific Islands|journal=The Geography Journal|year=2001|issue=2|volume=167|pages=125–138|doi=10.1111/1475-4959.00012|ref=harv}}{{subscription}}

* {{cite journal| last1 = O’Connor| first1 = Ralph| year = 2007| title = Young-Earth Creationists in Early Nineteenth-century Britain? Towards a reassessment of ‘Scriptural Geology’ | url = http://www.abdn.ac.uk/staffpages/uploads/his221/young-earth-creationists.pdf| journal = History of Science| volume = 45| issue = 150| pages = 357–403| publisher = Science History Publications Ltd | issn = 0073-2753| ref = harv| access-date = 2012-11-07| archive-date = 2023-07-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230731130355/https://www.abdn.ac.uk/staffpages/uploads/his221/young-earth-creationists.pdf| dead-url = no}}

* {{cite journal |last=Parkinson| first=William|year=2004|month=January–February|title=Questioning 'Flood Geology': Decisive New Evidence to End an Old Debate|journal=NCSE Reports|volume=24|issue=1|publisher=National Center for Science Education| url=http://ncse.com/rncse/24/1/questioning-flood-geology|accessdate=2 November 2010|ref=harv|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000058/http://ncse.com/rncse/24/1/questioning-flood-geology|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite journal| url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/notes/39/39_1/Note0206.htm|title=Surface and Subsurface Errors in Anti-Creationist Geology|year=2002|first=JK|last=Reed|last2=Woodmorappe|first2= J|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal|volume=39|issue=1|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2013-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128125415/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/notes/39/39_1/Note0206.htm|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite journal|last = Sandberg|first= P.A. | year = 1983 | title = An oscillating trend in Phanerozoic non-skeletal carbonate mineralogy | journal = Nature | volume = 305 | pages = 19–22 | doi = 10.1038/305019a0|ref = harv | issue=5929}}

* {{cite journal| last = Schadewald| first = Robert J.| year = 1982| month = Summer| title = Six Flood Arguments Creationists Can't Answer| journal = Creation/Evolution Journal| volume = 3| issue = 3| pages = 12–17| publisher = National Center for Science Education| url = http://ncse.com/cej/3/3/six-flood-arguments-creationists-cant-answer| accessdate = 16 November 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2010-03-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100331062514/http://ncse.com/cej/3/3/six-flood-arguments-creationists-cant-answer| dead-url = no}}

* {{cite journal|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/cre-error.html| last=Schadewald|first=Robert|year=1986|title=Scientific Creationism and Error|journal=Creation/Evolution|volume=6|issue=1|pages=1–9|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2023-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528234339/http://talkorigins.org/faqs/cre-error.html|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite journal| last = Seeley| first = Paul H.| year = 1991| title = The Firmament and the Water Above: The Meaning of ''Raqia'' in Genesis 1:6-8| journal = Westminster Theological Journal| volume = 53| url = http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely-Firmament-WTJ.pdf| format = pdf| accessdate = 13 Nov. 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2009-03-05| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090305132849/http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely-Firmament-WTJ.pdf| dead-url = yes}}

* {{cite journal| last = Seeley| first = Paul H.| year = 1997| title = The Geographical Meaning of 'Earth' and 'Seas' in Genesis 1:10| journal = Westminster Theological Journal| volume = 59| url = http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/Ted_Hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely_EarthSeas_WTJ.pdf| accessdate = 13 Nov. 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2020-10-16| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201016190009/http://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/ted_hildebrandt/OTeSources/01-Genesis/Text/Articles-Books/Seely_EarthSeas_WTJ.pdf| dead-url = yes}}

* {{cite journal | last = Stanley|first= S.M.|last2= Hardie|first2= L.A. | year = 1999 | title = Hypercalcification; paleontology links plate tectonics and geochemistry to sedimentology | journal = GSA Today | volume = 9 | pages = 1–7 | ref = harv}}

* {{cite book|title=Earth Science|url=https://archive.org/details/earthscience1100tarb|last=Tarbuck|first= EJ |last2= Lutgens|first2= FK|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2006|isbn=978-0-13-125852-5|ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal| url=http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/40/40_1/LaBrea3.htm| last=Weston|first=W|title=La Brea Tar Pits: Evidence of a Catastrophic Flood|journal=Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal|volume=40|issue=1|year=2003|pages=25–33|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2007-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406104153/http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/articles/40/40_1/LaBrea3.htm|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite journal| last = Wise | first = D.U.| year = 1998| title = Creationism's Geologic Time Scale| journal = American Scientist| volume = 86| pages = 160–173| url = http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/1998/2/creationisms-geologic-time-scale| accessdate = 2009-01-24| doi = 10.1511/1998.2.160| ref = harv| issue = 2| archive-date = 2016-12-22| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161222134946/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/1998/2/creationisms-geologic-time-scale/| dead-url = no}}{{subscription}}

* {{cite journal|last=Wise|first=K.|authorlink=Kurt Wise|title=Towards a Creationist Understanding of "Transitional Forms"|journal=CEN Tech. J.|volume=9|pages=216&ndash;222216–222|year=1995|format=pdf|url=http://www.bryancore.org/anniversary/04.pdf|accessdate=2009-01-24|ref=harv|archive-date=2010-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714052146/http://www.bryancore.org/anniversary/04.pdf|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web |url=http://www.icr.org/research/index/researchp_as_platetectonicsl/ |title=Catastrophic Plate Tectonics: A Global Flood Model of Earth History | last =Austin | first =Stephen A. | last2=Baumgardner| first2=J.R.|last3= Humphreys|first3= R.D.|last4= Snelling|first4= A.A.|last5= Vardiman|first5= L. |last6=Wise|first6= K.P. |year=1994|publisher= Institute for Creation Research |location=Third International Conference on Creationism, Pittsburgh, PA, July 18&ndash;2318–23, 1994|accessdate=2009-01-24|publication-date=1994|ref=harv|archive-date=2023-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531002551/https://www.icr.org/research/index/researchp_as_platetectonicsl/|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ax/frame.html|publisher=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|last=Ballard|title=Ballard and the Black Sea: the search for Noah's flood|year=1999|accessdate=2007-06-27|ref=harv|archive-date=2007-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704205123/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ax/frame.html|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm |title=Biblical Chronology |publisher= Catholic Encyclopedia |year=1913 |ref={{harvid|Catholic encyclopedia|1913}} |access-date=2012-11-07 |archive-date=2014-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730162813/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm |dead-url=no }}

* {{cite web |url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/16176 |title=Reason or faith? Darwin expert reflects |first=Gwen |last=Evans |year=2009 |month=Feb 3 |work=UW-Madison News |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |accessdate=2010-06-18 |ref=harv |archive-date=2015-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208223603/http://news.wisc.edu/16176 |dead-url=no }}

* {{cite web|url= http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html#CD|title=Index to Creationist Claims, Geology|first=Mark|last=Isaak|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|year= 2006|month=November 5|accessdate =2 November 2010 |ref=harv|archive-date=2003-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031209103049/http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html#CD|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html|title=Problems with a Global Flood|last=Isaak|first=M|year=1998|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|quote=Isaak no a geologist|archive-date=2021-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317033616/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/paluxy/wilker5.html|title=The "Burdick Print"|first=GJ|last=Kuban|year=1996|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2023-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223132501/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/paluxy/wilker5.html|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/geocolumn/|title=The Geologic Column and its Implications for the Flood|first=Glenn|last=Morton|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate =2 November 2010|month=February 17|year= 2001|ref=harv|quote=Morton not a geologist|archive-date=2001-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010317060604/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/geocolumn/|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web|url=http://nwcreation.net/noahlegends.html|title=Flood Legends from Around the World|publisher=[http://nwcreation.net/ Northwest Creation Network]|accessdate=2007-06-27|ref={{harvid|Northwest Creation Network}} |archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317145432/http://www.nwcreation.net/noahlegends.html|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web|url=http://ncse.com/rncse/23/1/my-favorite-pseudoscience |first=Eugenie C. |last=Scott|title=My Favorite Pseudoscience|ref=harv|volume= 23|issue= 1|year=2003|month=January–February|access-date=2012-11-07|archive-date=2016-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426073534/http://ncse.com/rncse/23/1/my-favorite-pseudoscience|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1992/PSCF3-92Spradley.html |title=Changing Views of Science and Scripture: Bernard Ramm and the ASA |last=Spradley |first=Joseph L. |accessdate=2009-01-12 |ref=harv |year=1992 |archive-date=2022-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421205410/https://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1992/PSCF3-92Spradley.html |dead-url=no }}

* {{Cite web|first=Larry |last=Vardiman|title=Temperature Profiles for an optimized Water Vapor Canopy| url=http://www.icr.org/article/temperature-water-vapor-canopy/| year=2003|publisher=ICR|ref=harv|access-date=2012-11-07|archive-date=2023-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528235858/https://www.icr.org/article/temperature-water-vapor-canopy|dead-url=no}}

* {{cite web |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1993/PSCF12-93Yang.html |title=Radiocarbon Dating and American Evangelical Christians |last=Yang |first=Seung-Hun |accessdate=2009-01-12 |ref=harv |year=1993 |archive-date=2009-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119021543/http://asa3.org/asa/PSCF/1993/PSCF12-93Yang.html |dead-url=no }}

* {{cite web |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1801 |title=Genesis 6-9 |ref={{harvid|Genesis|6-9}} |access-date=2012-11-07 |archive-date=2011-05-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520205411/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=1801 |dead-url=no }}

* {{cite conference|last=Baumgardner|first=JR|year=2003|url=http://www.globalflood.org/papers/2003ICCcpt.html|title=Catastrophic Plate Tectonics: The Physics Behind the Genesis Flood |booktitle=Fifth International Conference on Creationism|accessdate=2007-03-29|ref=harv|archive-date=2016-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106155146/http://www.globalflood.org/papers/2003ICCcpt.html|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite journal | title = The Defeat of Flood Geology by Flood Geology | journal = Reports of the [[National Center for Science Education]] | date = May/June 2001 | first = Phil | last = Senter | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | url = http://reports.ncse.com/index.php/rncse/article/download/44/36 | access-date = 2012-11-07 | archive-date = 2019-02-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190218150243/http://reports.ncse.com/index.php/rncse/article/download/44/36 | dead-url = yes }}