Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab: Perbedaan antara revisi

| name = Bahasa Ibrani AlkitabiahAlkitab

| altname = =Bahasa Ibrani Klasik

|nativename nativename = <span dir="rtl"> {{lang|he|שְֹפַת כְּנַעַן}}, {{lang|he|יְהוּדִית}}, {{lang|he|(לָשׁוֹן) עִבְרִית}}, {{lang|he|לְשׁוֹן הַקֹּדֶשׁ}}</span>

| region = {{ubl|[[Kerajaan Israel (kerajaan bersatu)]] <br />|[[Kerajaan Yehuda]] <br />|[[Kerajaan Israel (Samaria)]] <br />|[[Hashmonayim|dinastiDinasti Hashmonayim]]|Seluruh <br /> Globaldunia (sebagai [[:en:liturgicalbahasa languagesakral|bahasa liturgisliturgikal]] bagiuntuk [[Yudaismeagama Yahudi]])}}

| era = adadiperkirakan buktiberasal sejakdari abad ke-10 SMsebelum Masehi; dikembangkanberkembang menjadi [[:en:Mishnaic Hebrew|bahasaBahasa Ibrani MishnahMishnaik]] setelah [[PerangPeperangan Yahudi-RomawiRomawi–Yahudi]] pada kisaran abad pertama MMasehi

| image = Shiloach.jpg

|fam4 fam5 = [[:en:Northwest Semitic languages{{PRBahasa|SemitikSemit Barat Laut]]}}

|fam5 fam6 = [[:en:Canaanite languages{{PRBahasa|Kanaan]]}}

| script = {{ubl|[[Abjad FenisiаProto-Sinai|Abjad Proto-Kanaan / FenisiaProto-Sinai]]<br />|[[AbjadAlfabet Paleo-Ibrani Kuno]]<br />|[[AbjadAlfabet Ibrani]]<br />|[[:en:Samaritan alphabet|Abjad Samaria]]}}

| lc1 = hbo

| ld1 = Ancient Hebrew (bahasaBahasa Ibrani Purba)Alkitab

| lc2 = smp

| ld2 = [[:en:Samaritan Hebrew|Samaritan (bahasaBahasa Ibrani Samaria)]]

| linglist = hbo

| linglist2 = smp

| glotto = anci1244

|glottoname glottoname = Ancient Hebrew

| glotto2 = sama1313

| glottoname2 = Samaritan

| notice = IPA

{{Contains Hebrewspecial textcharacters|Hebrew}}

'''Bahasa Ibrani AlkitabiahAlkitab''' ([[bahasabentuk Ibrani]]jamak: Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah; {{Hebrewlang|he|עִבְרִית מִקְרָאִית|rtl=yes}}, {{Audio|ivritmiqrait.ogg|(''Ivrit Miqra'it'')}} atau {{Hebrewlang|he|לְשׁוֹן הַמִּקְרָא|rtl=yes}}, {{Audio|leshonhamiqra.ogg|(''Leshon ha-Miqra''; {{lang-en|Biblical Hebrew)}}), ''Ancientatau Hebrew'', ''Classical Hebrew''),yang juga disebutdikenal sebagai '''Bahasa Ibrani Klasik''', adalah sebuah bentuk [[wikt:archaic|kuno]] (arkaik)dari [[bahasa Ibrani]], sebuah bahasa dalam rumpun {{PRBahasa|Kanaan}} yang tergolongmerupakan kecabang dalamdari [[rumpun bahasa Semitik]] [[:en:Canaanite languages{{PRBahasa|Kanaan]]Semit}} yangdan dipakaidituturkan oleh [[banibangsa Israel]] dipada wilayah yang disebutdikenal sebagai [[tanahTanah Israel]], yang terutama terletakkira-kira di sisisebelah barat dari [[Sungaisungai YordanYordania]] dan sisidi sebelah timur [[Laut TengahMediterania]]. Istilah "''ivrit'' (Ibrani") taktidak dipakaidigunakan sebagai untuk menamai bahasa dalam [[Alkitab]],<ref name=Barton>{{cite book

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LtD4Xomh4XgC&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false

| quote = Interestingly, the term 'Hebrew' (ibrit) is not used of the language in the biblical text ({{lang-id|Menariknya, istilah 'Ibrani' (ibrit) tidak digunakan untuk bahasa tersebut dalam teks Alkitab}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:<!-- right; margin-left -->left: 20px; text-align: center;"

! NameNama

! [[:en:Samaritan Hebrew alphabet|Samaria]]

! PhoneticNilai<br />valuefonetik<br />(PrePra-ExilicPembuangan)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=6,69}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997}}</ref><br />([[helpBantuan:IPA|IPA]])

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - Alaph.png|55px|Alef]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - Beth.png|Beth]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - gimmel.png|Gimel]]

! [[Dalet|Daleth]]h

| [[FileBerkas:DalethFIXED.png|Daleth]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - heh.png|Heh]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - vav.png|Waw]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - zayin.png|Zayin]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - khet.png|Heth]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - tet.png|Teth]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - yud.png|Yodh]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - khof.png|Kaph]]

! [[Lamed|Lamedh]]h

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - lamed.png|Lamedh]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - mem.png|Mem]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - nun.png|Nun]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - samekh.png|Samekh]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - ayin.png|Ayin]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - pey.png|Pe]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - tzadi.png|Sadhe]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - quf.png|Qoph]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - resh.png|Resh]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - shin.png|Shin]]

| [[FileBerkas:Early Aramaic character - tof.png|Taw]]

Tulisan bahasa Ibrani tertua yang pernah ditemukan telah digali di [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]], bertarikh abad ke-10&nbsp;SM.<ref name="eurekalert.org"/> [[Ostrakon]] [[:en:sherd|pecahan]] tembikar berbentuk trapesium berukuran 15&nbsp;cm x 16.5&nbsp;cm (5.9&nbsp;in x 6.5&nbsp;in) itu memuat lima baris tulisan dengan tinta dalam huruf-huruf [[:en:Proto-Canaanite alphabet|abjad Proto-Kanaan]] (bentuk kuknokuno [[abjad Fenisia]]).<ref name="eurekalert.org" /><ref name="bar">{{Harvcoltxt|Shanks|2010}}</ref> Lempengan atau "tablet" itu ditulis dari kiri ke kanan, menunjukkan bahwa saat itu tulisan Ibrani masih dalam tahap pembentukan (formatif).<ref name="bar" />

Suku-suku Israel yang menempati tanah Israel mengadopsi [[abjad Fenisia|huruf-huruf Fenisia]] sekitar abad ke-12&nbsp;SM, sebagaimana ditemukan dalam [[Kalender Gezer]] (sekitar abad ke-10&nbsp;SM).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|p=15}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hanson|2011}}</ref> Abjad ini berkembang menjadi [[abjad Ibrani Kuno|abjad Ibrani Kuno (''Paleo-Hebrew'')]] pada abad ke-10 atau ke-9&nbsp;SM.<ref name="y">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=13,15,17}}</ref><ref name="tscript" /><ref name="s17" /> [[Abjad Ibrani Kuno]] mempunyai perbedaan utama dengan [[abjad Fenisia]] dalam hal "pelengkungan ke kiri goresan ke bawah pada aksara-aksara "berkaki panjang"... penggunaan konsisten huruf "[[Waw (huruf Ibrani)|Waw]]" dengan atas melengkung ke dalam (konkaf), [dan] "[[Taw]]" berbentuk "x"."<ref name="y" /><ref group="nb">Pada suatu waktu orang Moab, Amon, Edom, dan Filistin juga menggunakan abjad Ibrani Kuno. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|p=25}}</ref> Inkripsi tertua dalam abjad Ibrani Kuno bertarikh sekitar pertengahan abad ke-9&nbsp;SM, yang paling terkenal adalah [[Prasasti Mesa|Prasasti Mesa (''Mesha Stele'')]] yang ditulis dalam [[:en:Moabite language|bahasa Moab]] (yang dapat dianggap sebagai suatu dialek bahasa Ibrani).<ref name="yheb">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=17–25}}</ref><ref name="bmoab" /> Abjad Ibrani purba digunakan terus menerus sampai awal abad ke-6&nbsp;SM, yaitu akhir masa Bait Suci Pertama.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=23}}</ref> Pada masa Bait Suci Kedua, abjad Ibrani Kuno lambat laun tidak dipakai dan sama sekali ditinggalkan di antara orang Yahudi setelah kegagalan [[Perang Bar Kokhba|pemberontakan Bar Kokhba]].<ref name="tscript" /><ref name="yb">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=18,24–25}}</ref> Orang Samaria masih mempertahankan abjad Ibrani purba, yang berkembang menjadi [[:en:Samaritan alphabet|abjad Samaria]] modern.<ref name="tscript">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=218–220}}</ref><ref name="yb" />

<!--ByMenjelang theakhir endmasa ofBait theSuci First Temple period thePertama [[Aramaicbahasa alphabetAram|Aramaictulisan (skrip) scriptAram]], asuatu separateturunan descendantterpisah ofabjad theFenisia, Phoenicianmenluas script,di becameseluruh widespreadwilayah, throughoutlambat thelaun region,menggantikan graduallyIbrani displacing Paleo-HebrewKuno.<ref name="yb" /><!-- The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="ysq">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=42,45,47–50}}</ref> It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script.<ref name="tscript" /> Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the [[tetragrammaton]] and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek biblical translations.<ref name="tscript" /><ref group="nb">Though some of these translations wrote the tetragrammaton in the square script See {{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|p=220}}</ref> While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed.<ref name="ybook">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=65,84–91}}</ref> A number of regional "book-hand" styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes.<ref name="ybook" /> The [[Mizrahi]] and [[Ashkenazi]] book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press.<ref name="ybook" /> The modern [[Hebrew alphabet]], also known as the Assyrian or Square script, is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.<ref name="yb" />-->

Abjad Ibrani asli hanya terdiri dari [[konsonan|huruf mati (konsonan)]], tetapi lambat laun huruf-huruf {{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ה|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|י|rtl=yes}}, juga digunakan untuk mengindikasikan huruf hidup (vokal atau ''vowel''), dikenal sebagai ''matres lectionis'' ketika digunakan dalam fungsi ini.<ref name="s17" /><ref name="to1" /> Diyakini bahwa ini merupakan hasil perkembangan fonetik: misalnya, *bayt ('rumah'; 'bait') bergeser menjadi {{lang|hbo|בֵּית|rtl=yes}} dalam [[:en:construct state|keadaan konstruk]] tetapi mempertahankan ejaannya.<ref name="b6">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=6}}</ref> Tidak ada contoh ortografi Ibrani awal yang ditemukan, tetapi teks [[bahasa Fenisia|Fenisia]] yang lebih tua dan [[:en:Moabite language|bahasa Moab]] menunjukkan bagaimana penulisan bahasa Ibrani masa Bait Suci Pertama.<ref name="to1">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=221–223}}</ref><!-- Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century&nbsp;BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word, for example {{lang|hbo|לפנ|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|ז|rtl=yes}} for later {{lang|hbo|לפני|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|זה|rtl=yes}}, similarly to the Hebrew [[Gezer Calendar]], which has for instance {{lang|hbo|שערמ|rtl=yes}} for {{lang|hbo|שעורים|rtl=yes}} and possibly {{lang|hbo|ירח|rtl=yes}} for {{rtl-lang|he|ירחו}}.<ref name="to1" /> Matres lectionis were later added word-finally, for instance the [[Mesha inscription]] has {{rtl-lang|he|בללה, בנתי}} for later {{rtl-lang|he|בלילה, בניתי}}; however at this stage they were not yet used word-medially, compare [[Siloam inscription]] {{lang|hbo|זדה|rtl=yes}} versus {{lang|hbo|אש|rtl=yes}} (for later {{rtl-lang|he|איש}}).<ref name="to1" /> The relative terms ''defective'' and ''full''/''plene'' are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis, respectively.<ref name="to1" /><ref group="nb">[[Ktiv male]], the Hebrew term for full spelling, has become de rigueur in Modern Hebrew.</ref>

Sementara tradisi pembacaan Tiberias, Babilonia, dan Palestinia punah, berbagai sistem pelafalan lain berevolusi sejalan waktu, terutama tradisi-tradisi [[:en:Yemenite Hebrew language|Yaman]], [[:en:Sephardi Hebrew language|Sefardi]], [[:en:Ashkenazi Hebrew|Ashkenazi]], dan [[:en:Samaritan Hebrew language|Samaria]]. Pelafalan [[:en:Modern Hebrew|Ibrani modern]] juga digunakan oleh sejumlah orang untuk membaca teks Alkitab. Tradisi pembacaan modern tidak berasal hanya dari sistem Tiberias; misalnya, tradisi Sefardim yang membedakan ''qamatz gadol'' dan ''qatan'' adalah ''pre-Tiberian'' (sebelum Tiberias).<ref name="length">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=110–111}}</ref> Namun, sistem ortografi satu-satunya yang digunakan untuk menandai huruf-huruf hidup adalah vokalisasi Tiberias.

Huruf-huruf mati (''Consonants'') yang <span style="background:#EEE8AA;padding:0px 2px;">yang terhilang</span> dan <span style="background:#CAFF70;padding:0px 2px;">tertambahkan</span> selama perjalanan waktu bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah masing-masing diberi kode warna masing-masing.

! [[:en:LabialKonsonan consonantlabial|Labial]]

! colspan="3" | [[DentalKonsonan consonantdental|Dental]]/<br>[[AlveolarKonsonan consonantalveolar|Alveolar]]

! [[PalatalKonsonan consonantpalatal|Palatal]]

! colspan="2" | [[VelarKonsonan consonantvelar|Velar]]

! [[GlottalKonsonan consonantcelah suara|Glottal]]

! colspan="2" | [[NasalKonsonan stopnasal|NasalsNasal]]

! rowspan="3" | [[Stop consonant|StopsStop]]

! {{small|[[voiceless|tak bersuara]]}}

! {{small|[[emphatic consonant|emphaticemfatik]]}}

! rowspan="3" | [[Fricative consonant|FricativesFrikatif]]

! {{small| [[voiceless|tak bersuara]]}}

! {{small|[[emphatic consonant|emphaticemfatik]]}}

! colspan="2" | [[:en:Approximant consonant|ApproximantsAproksiman]]

! colspan="2" | [[:en:TrillKonsonan consonantgetar|TrillGetar]]

Sifat fonetik sejumlah huruf mati Ibrani Alkitabiah masih diperdebatkan. Apa yang dinamakan "emfatika" ("''emphatics") kemungkinan adalah [[:en:ejective|ejektif]], tetapi bisa jadi ''[[:en:pharyngealized|]]''pharyngealized'']] atau ''velarized''.<ref name="b68">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=68}}</ref><ref name="r73" /> Ada yang berpendapat bahwa {{IPA|/s, z, sʼ/}} adalah ''affricated'' ({{IPA|/ts, dz, tsʼ/}}).<ref name="b68" />

! rowspan="2" | Proto-SemitikSemit

| 'fivelima'<br>'shoutjeritan'

| 'saltgaram'

! [[:en:Ghayn|*ġ]]

| 'ravengagak'<br>'westbarat'

| 'slavebudak'

Sistem huruf hidup (''vowel system'') bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah telah berubah banyak menurut jalannya waktu. Huruf-huruf hidup (''vowels'') berikut direkonstruksi untuk tahapan paling awal bahasa Ibrani, untuk yang dibuktikan dalam ''Secunda'', untuk berbagai tradisi vokalisasi ([[:en:Tiberian vocalization|TiberianTiberias]] serta variasi [[:en:Babylonian vocalization|BabylonianBabilonia]] dan [[:en:Palestinian vocalization|PalestinianPalestina]]), juga untuk tradisi Samaria, dengan huruf-huruf hidup <span style="background:#BBDDEE;padding:0px 2px;">yang hilang</span> dalam sejumlah tradisi diberi kode berwarna.

! style="width:25%" | Ibrani Tiberias, Babilonia, dan PalestiniaPalestina<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=105–106, 115–119}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=88–89, 97, 110}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sperber|1959|pp=77,81}}</ref>

! [[Front vowel|FrontDepan]]

! [[Back vowel|BackBelakang]]

! [[Close vowel|CloseTertutup]]

! [[Close-mid vowel|CloseTertutup-midtengah]]

! [[Open vowel|OpenTerbuka]]

! [[Front vowel|FrontDepan]]

! [[Back vowel|BackBelakang]]

! [[Close vowel|CloseTertutup]]

! [[Close-mid vowel|CloseTertutup-midtengah]]

! [[Open vowel|OpenTerbuka]]

! [[Front vowel|FrontDepan]]

! [[Back vowel|BackBelakang]]

! [[Close vowel|CloseTertutup]]

! [[Close-mid vowel|CloseTertutup-midtengah]]

! [[Open-mid vowel|OpenTerbuka-midtengah]]

! [[Open vowel|OpenTerbuka]]

! [[Front vowel|FrontDepan]]

! [[Back vowel|BackBelakang]]

! [[Close vowel|CloseTertutup]]

! [[Mid vowel|MidTengah]]

! [[Open vowel|OpenTerbuka]]

# {{small|possiblykemungkinan pronounceddilafalkan {{IPA|[æ]}}, as thesebagaimana orthographyalternat alternatesortografi {{angle bracket|α}} anddan {{angle bracket|ε}}<ref name="j173">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=173}}</ref><!-- add ref -->}}

# {{small|mergesmelebur withdengan {{IPA|/e/}} indalam thetradisi PalestinianPalestina traditiondan and withdengan {{IPA|/a/}} in thedalam Babyloniantradisi traditionBabilonia}}<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=112}}</ref><ref name="b118-119">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=118–119}}</ref><ref name="seph" group="nb">In this respect the Palestinian tradition corresponds to the modern [[Sephardi Hebrew|Sephardi pronunciation]], and the Babylonian tradition to the modern [[Yemenite Hebrew|Yemenite pronunciation]].</ref><ref group="nb">While the vowels {{IPA|/a e i ɔ o u/}} certainly have phonemic status in the Tiberian tradition, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} has phonemic value in final stressed position but in other positions it may reflect loss of the opposition {{IPA|/a ː i/}}. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=111–112}}</ref>

# {{small|mergesmelebur withdengan {{IPA|/a/}} oratau {{IPA|/o/}} in the Palestinian tradition}}<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="seph" group="nb" /><ref name="y16">{{Harvcoltxt|Yahalom|1997|p=16}}</ref>

# {{small|The Tiberian tradition has the reduced vowel phonemes {{IPA|/ă ɔ̆/}} and marginal {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}}, while Palestinian and Babylonian have one, {{IPA|/ə/}} (pronounced as {{IPA|[ɛ]}} in later Palestinian Hebrew)}}

# {{small|{{IPA|/u/}} anddan {{IPA|/o/}} onlyhanya contrastkontras indalam open post-tonic syllables, e.g.contoh {{lang|hbo|ידו|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jedu/}} ('his hand') {{lang|hbo|ידיו|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jedo/}} ('his hands'), where {{IPA|/o/}} stems from a contracted diphthong.<ref name="bhou">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=44, 48–49}}</ref> In other environments, {{IPA|/o/}} appears in closed syllables and {{IPA|/u/}} in open syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דור|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/dor/}} {{lang|hbo|דורות|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/durot/}}.<ref name="bhou" />}}

# {{small|results from both {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in closed post-tonic syllables<ref name="bh49">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=49}}</ref>}}

*Later, short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables.<ref name="Janssens 1982 56-57">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=56–57}}</ref> <ref group="nb">Parallels to Aramaic syllable structure suggest pretonic lengthening may have occurred in the Second Temple period. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=128–129}}</ref>

===== Reduksi suku-suku kata ''short open stressed'' =====

|+ PossibleKemungkinan derivationderivasi ofsejumlah somebentuk nominal/verbal forms

! 'killingmembunuh/killerpembunuh (masc. sg.)'

! 'theymereka killedmembunuh' ([[pausa]])

! 'youengkau [laki-laki tunggal] (masc. sg.) killmembunuh'

! 'youengkau [perempuan tunggal] (fem. sg.) killmembunuh'

! Proto-Central-SemiticSemit

! PrePra-HebrewIbrani

! TiberianTiberias {{IPA|/aː/}} > {{IPA|/ɔː/}}

The later Jewish traditions (Tiberian, Babylonian, Palestinian) show similar vowel developments. By the Tiberian time, all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened, making vowel length allophonic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=149}}</ref><ref group="nb">In fact, first all stressed vowels were lengthened in pause, see {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=58–59}}. This can be seen by forms like Tiberian {{lang|hbo|כַּף|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/kaf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaf/}}, pausal {{lang|hbo|כָּף|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/kɔf/}} < {{IPA|*/kɔːf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaːf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaf/}}. The shift in Tiberian Hebrew of {{IPA|*/aː/}} > {{IPA|*/ɔː/}} occurred after this lengthening, but before the loss of phonemicity of length (since words like {{lang|hbo|ירחם|rtl=yes}} with allophonically long {{IPA|[aː]}} don't show this shift).</ref><ref name="Blau 2010 82, 110">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=82, 110}}</ref> Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (e.g. {{IPA|/a/}} in {{lang|hbo|יְרַחֵם|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jəraˈħem/}} {{IPA|[jəraːˈħeːm]}} ('he will have mercy') < previously short {{IPA|[jəraˈħeːm]}} < {{IPA|[jəraħˈħeːm]}} by Tiberian degemination of {{IPA|/ħ/}} < PSem {{IPA|*/juraħˈħimu/}}).<ref name="Blau 2010 82, 110" /><ref group="nb">This is attested to by the testimony of Rabbi [[Joseph Qimḥi]] (12th century) and by medieval Arabic transcriptions, see {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54–56}}. There is also possible evidence from the cantillation marks' behavior and Babylonian pataḥ, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=82}}.</ref> The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length.<ref name="length" /><ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="jqimhi">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54–56}}</ref> In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems, {{IPA|*/aː/}} and lengthened {{IPA|*/a/}} become the back vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}}.<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="r77" /> In unaccented closed syllables, {{IPA|*/i u/}} become {{IPA|/ɛ⁓i ɔ⁓u/}} (Tiberian), {{IPA|/a⁓i u/}} (Babylonian), or {{IPA|/e⁓i o⁓u/}} (Palestinian) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates (e.g. {{lang|hbo|לִבִּי|rtl=yes}}) and the first otherwise.<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="y16" /><ref name="r77" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bergstrasser|Daniels|1995|p=53}}</ref><ref group="nb">The Palestinian reflexes of Tiberian {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ({{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}) thus reflect the qamatz gadol-qamatz qatan distinction.</ref> In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda. It does not occur for {{IPA|/*a/}}, but is occasional for {{IPA|/*i/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|מסמְרים|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/masməˈrim/}} 'nails' < {{IPA|*/masmiriːm/}}), and is common for {{IPA|/*u/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|רְחוֹב|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/rəˈħoβ}} 'open place' < {{IPA|*/ruħaːb/}}).<ref name="j120" /><ref name="breduc">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=129,136}}</ref> In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic {{IPA|/*u/}} is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant, e.g. {{lang|hbo|אדֻמּים|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ăðumˈmim/}} ('red' pl.) (cf. {{IPA|/ăˈðom/}} 'red' sg.); this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like {{lang|hbo|אַסִּיר|rtl=yes}}⁓{{lang|hbo|אָסִיר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɔˈsir/⁓/asˈsir/}} ('prisoner').<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=124, 136}}</ref>-->

TheSistem BabylonianBabilonia anddan PalestinianPalestina systemshanya havememiliki onlysatu onefonem reducedhuruf vowelhidup phonemetereduksi {{IPA|/ə/}} like theseperti Secunda, thoughmeskipun indalam PalestinianIbrani HebrewPalestina itdikembangkan developed the pronunciationpelafalan {{IPA|[ɛ]}}.<ref name="j54" /><ref name="b118-119" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=97}}</ref> HoweverNamun, thetradisi TiberianTiberias traditionmemiliki possessestiga threehuruf reducedhidup vowelstereduksi {{IPA|/ă ɔ̆ ɛ̆/}} ofdi whichmana {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}} hasdipertanyakan questionable phonemicityfonemisitasnya.<ref name="b117-118">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=110}}</ref><ref group="nb">See {{lang|hbo|אֳנִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɔ̆ˈni/}} ('shipskapal-kapal') {{lang|hbo|אֲנִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ăˈni/}} ('Iaku'), {{lang|hbo|חֳלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ħɔ̆ˈli/}} ('sicknesspenyakit') {{lang|hbo|חֲלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ħăˈli/}} ('ornamentornamen'), {{lang|hbo|עֲלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʕăˈli/}} ('ascendnaiklah!') (NumBilangan 21:17) anddan {{lang|hbo|בַּעֱלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/baʕɛ̆ˈli/}} ('[with thedengan] pestle'; ProvAmsal 27:22). {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}} {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}} alternatessering withberalternasi dengan {{IPA|/ă/}} frequently and rarelydan contrastsjarang withberkontras itdengannya, e.g. {{lang|hbo|אֱדוֹם|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʔɛ̆ˈðom/}} ('[[Edom]]') versus {{lang|hbo|אֲדֹמִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʔăðoˈmi/}} ('Edomiteorang Edom'). {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}} {{IPA|/ɔ̆/}} isjelas clearlyfonemik phonemictetapi but bears minimalmemuat [[functional load|beban fungsional]] minimal. {{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=110}} {{IPA|/ă/}} isditulis writtenbaik both withdengan ''mobile šwa'' ⟨&zwnj;ְ⟨‌ְ ⟩ anddan ''hataf patah'' ⟨&zwnj;ֲ⟨‌ֲ ⟩.{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=117}}</ref> {{IPA|/ă/}} di bawah suatu huruf ''non-guttural'' dilafalkan sebagai tiruan sangat pendek (''ultrashort copy'') huruf hidup setelahnya sebelum suatu guttural, misalnya {{lang|hbo|וּבָקְעָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[uvɔqɔ̆ˈʕɔ]}}, dan sebagai {{IPA|[ĭ]}} mendahului {{IPA|/j/}}, misalnya {{lang|hbo|תְדֵמְּיוּ֫נִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[θăðamːĭˈjuni]}}, tetapi selalu dilafalkan sebagai {{IPA|[ă]}} di bawah guttural, misalnya {{rtl-lang|he|שָחֲחו, חֲיִי}}.<ref name="y281-282">{{Harvcoltxt|Yeivin|1980|pp=281–282}}</ref><ref name="b105-106">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=105–106}}</ref> Ketika direduksi, {{IPA|*/a i u/}} etimologis menjadi {{IPA|/ă ɛ̆⁓ă ɔ̆/}} di bawah guttural (misalnya {{lang|hbo|אֲמרתם|rtl=yes}} 'kalian [mp.] berkata' (waktu lampau) bandingkan {{lang|hbo|אָמר|rtl=yes}} 'dia [laki-laki] berkata' (waktu lampau)), dan umumnya {{IPA|/ă/}} ''under non-gutturals'', tetapi {{IPA|*/u/}} > {{IPA|/ɔ̆/}} (dan jarang {{IPA|*/i/}} > {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}}) masih dapat terjadi, khususnya setelah ''stop'' (atau pasangan ''spirantized''-nya) dan {{IPA|/sʼ ʃ/}} (misalnya {{lang|hbo|דֳּמִי|rtl=yes}} /dɔ̆ˈmi/).<ref name="b84-85">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=84–85}}</ref><ref name="y282-283">{{Harvcoltxt|Yeivin|1980|pp=282–283}}</ref> Ibrani Samaria dan Qumran memiliki huruf hidup penuh bukannya huruf hidup tereduksi seperti pada Ibrani Tiberias.<ref name="s160" />

<!--Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length, e.g. {{IPA|/rɒb/}} {{lang|hbo|רב|rtl=yes}} ('great') vs. {{IPA|/rɒːb/}} {{lang|hbo|רחב|rtl=yes}} ('wide').<ref name="bhlen">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=45, 47–48}} (while Ben-Hayyim notates four degrees of vowel length, he concedes that only his "fourth degree" has phonemic value)</ref> Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened (to a lesser degree) in open syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|המצרי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[ammisˤriˑ]}}, {{lang|hbo|היא|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[iˑ]}}, though this is less strong in post-tonic vowels.<ref name="bhlen" /> Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew, but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew, e.g. {{lang|hbo|גמלים|rtl=yes}} TH {{IPA|/ɡămalːim/}} SH {{IPA|/ɡɒmɒləm/}}; {{lang|hbo|שלמים|rtl=yes}} TH {{IPA|/ʃălɔmim/}} SH {{IPA|/ʃelamːəm/}}.<ref name="bh62">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=62}}</ref> While Proto-Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew,<ref name="r77">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=77}}</ref><ref name="jlong">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54, 123–127}}</ref> in Samaritan Hebrew {{IPA|*/iː/}} may have reflex {{IPA|/e/}} in closed stressed syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דין|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/den}}/, {{IPA|*/aː/}} may become either {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/ɒ/}},<ref name="bhlong" /> and {{IPA|*/oː/}} > {{IPA|/u/}}.<ref name="bhlong">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=83}}</ref> The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels, though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction. <!-- needs to be elaborated on --><!--Samaritan {{IPA|/ə/}} results from the neutralization of the distinction between {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in closed post-tonic syllables, e.g. {{IPA|/bit/}} {{lang|hbo|בית|rtl=yes}} ('house') {{IPA|/abbət/}} {{lang|hbo|הבית|rtl=yes}} ('the house') {{IPA|/ɡer/}} {{lang|hbo|גר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/aɡɡər/}} {{rtl-lang|he|הגר}}.<ref name="bh49" />

Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred. Diphthongs were frequently monopthongized, but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects. In particular, the Samaria ostraca show {{IPA|/jeːn/}} < {{IPA|*/jajn/}} < {{IPA|*/wajn/}}<ref group="nb">For {{IPA|/w-/}} > {{IPA|/j-/}}, see above. The Semitic form {{IPA|*/wajn-/}} was borrowed into [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] as {{IPA|*/wojn-om/}}, eventually yielding Latin ''vīnum'' and English ''wine''.</ref> for Southern {{IPA|/jajin/}} ('wine'), and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift {{IPA|*/aj/}} > {{IPA|/iː/}}.<ref name="sclas" /><ref name="ssam" /> Original {{IPA|*/u/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|אֹמֶר|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|אִמְרָה|rtl=yes}} 'word'; {{lang|hbo|חוץ|rtl=yes}} 'outside' and {{lang|hbo|חיצון|rtl=yes}} 'outer') beginning in the second half of the second millennium&nbsp;BC.<ref name="sdis">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=138–139}}</ref> This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions.<ref name="sdis" /> [[Philippi's law]] is the process by which original {{IPA|*/i/}} in closed stressed syllables shifts to {{IPA|/a/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*bint/}} > {{lang|hbo|בַּת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/bat/}} 'daughter'), or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*ʔamint/}} > {{lang|hbo|אֱמֶת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɛ̆mɛt/}} 'truth').<ref name="bphil">{{harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=133–136}}</ref><ref group="nb">Note that this {{IPA|/a/}} does not become {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in pause, thus {{lang|hbo|בת|rtl=yes}} has a patah vowel in pause as well as in context. {{cite book|title=Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 1|url=https://archive.org/details/eblaiticaessayso0004unse|year=1987|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-0-931464-34-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/eblaiticaessayso0004unse/page/20 20]}}</ref> This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=66}}</ref> but there is evidence that the law's onset predates the Secunda. In the Samaritan tradition Philippi's law is applied consistently, e.g. {{IPA|*/libː-u/}} > {{IPA|/lab/}} ('heart').<ref name="bhp">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=79}}</ref><ref group="nb">The only known case where Philippi's Law does not apply is in the word {{lang|hbo|קן|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/qen/}} < {{IPA|*/qinn-u/}} ('nest'). The shift {{IPA|*/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} has been extended by analogy to similar forms, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃam/}} ('name'; but {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃem/}} 'reputation'!). {{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=76,79}}</ref> In some traditions the short vowel {{IPA|/*a/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} in unstressed closed syllables: this is known as the [[law of attenuation]]. It is common in the Tiberian tradition, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃabʕat/}} > Tiberian {{lang|hbo|שִבְעָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʃivˈʕɔ/}} ('seven'), but exceptions are frequent.<ref name="b132">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=132}}</ref> It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization, e.g. {{IPA|/ʃabʕɔ/}} ('seven'), and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late.<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation generally did not occur before {{IPA|/i⁓e/}}, e.g. Tiberian {{lang|hbo|מַפְתֵּחַ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mafˈteaħ/}} ('key') versus {{lang|hbo|מִפְתַּח|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mifˈtaħ/}} ('opening [construct]'), and often was blocked before a geminate, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מתנה|rtl=yes}} ('gift').<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מקדש|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/maqdaʃ/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=81}}</ref><ref group="nb">Verbal forms such as {{lang|hbo|יפקד|rtl=yes}} = Samaritan {{IPA|/jifqɒd/}} < {{IPA|*/jafqud/}} may be examples of Barth's law rather than attenuation.</ref> In the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/e i o u/}} take offglide {{IPA|/a/}} before {{IPA|/h ħ ʕ/}}.<ref name="b83">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref><ref group="nb">This is known as ''pataḥ furtivum'', literally 'stolen pataḥ' and perhaps a mistranslation of Hebrew {{lang|hbo|פתח גנובה|rtl=yes}} ('pataḥ of the stolen [letter]'), as if {{lang|hbo|אֵ|rtl=yes}} were being inserted. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref> This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome.<ref name="ssam">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=156}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=43,133}}</ref> In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort [[echo vowel]] is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural, e.g. {{lang|hbo|יַאֲזִין|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔăzin/}} ('he will listen') {{lang|hbo|פָּעֳלוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/pɔʕɔ̆lo/}} ('his work') but {{lang|hbo|יַאְדִּיר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔdir/}} ('he will make glorious') {{lang|hbo|רָחְבּוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʀɔħbo/}} 'its breadth'.<ref name="b84-85" /><ref group="nb">It is evident that this epenthesis must have been a late phenomenon, since a short vowel preceding a guttural is preserved even though it becomes in an open syllable, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=85}}.</ref><ref group="nb">This is less common when the consonant following the guttural is a [[begadkefat]] letter, e.g. {{lang|hbo|תֵּחְבֹּל|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/taħbol/}} ('you take in pledge'). This suggests that begadkefat spirantization was no longer automatic by the time that this epenthesis occurred, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=79}}</ref><!--loss of final short vowels – differences bw/ nouns and verbs--><!-- {{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} / gutterals -->

Tabel berikut meringkas refleks-refleks paling umum untuk huruf-huruf hidup Proto-SemitikSemit dalam berbagai tahapan bahasa Ibrani:

! Proto-SemitikSemit !! Proto-Ibrani !! ''Secunda'' !! Tiberias !! Babilonia !! Palestinia !! Samaria¹

!rowspan="2" | Proto-SemitikSemit

# Samaritan vowels mayHuruf-huruf behidup lengthenedSamaria indapat thediperpanjang presencejika ofada etymologicalkonsonan guttural consonantsetimologis. {{IPA|/ə/}} resultsdihasilkan frombaik bothdari {{IPA|/i/}} andmaupun {{IPA|/e/}} indalam ''closed post-tonic syllables''.

# underdi thebawah conditions of thekondisi ''law of attenuation''

# underdi thebawah conditions ofkondisi ''Phillipi's law''

# SamaritanHuruf hidup Samaria {{IPA|/o u/}} are nearlyhampir indalam complementarydistribusi distributionkomplementer ({{IPA|/o/}} indalam open syllables, {{IPA|/u/}} indalam closed syllables)

# perpanjangan (''lengthening'') occursterjadi indalam somesejumlah ''open pretonic syllables'' anddan somesejumlah ''stressed syllables''; precise conditionskondisi-kondisi dependtepatnya ontergantung thepada vowelhuruf andhidup ondan thepada traditiontradisi

# reductionreduksi occursterjadi in thedalam ''open syllables'' twodua syllablessuku awaykata fromjauhnya thedari ''stress'' anddan kadang sometimeskala alsojuga indalam ''pretonic and stressed open syllables''

# effectivelysecara inefektif mostdalam kebanyakan ''closed syllables''

# morelebih commonumum beforesebelum ''geminate consonants''

Bahasa Ibrani purba (Proto-Ibrani; ''Proto-Hebrew'') umumnya mempunyai penekanan (''stress'') pada satu suku kata sebelum suku kata terakhir (dalam bahasa Inggris: ''penultimate stress'').<ref name="j52">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=52}}</ref> <!-- perhatikan bagaimana Janssens melihat sejumlah perkecualian yang tidak dilihat oleh Blau --><ref group="nb">Untuk tujuan pergeseran kualitas huruf hidup (''vowel quality shifts''), kata-kata dalam [[:en:construct state|keadaan konstruk]] diperlakukan seakan-akan penekanan jatuh langsung pada suku kata pertama yang mengikuti kata itu. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=52}}</ref> Penekanan akhir (''ultimate stress'') pada tradisi-tradisi bahasa Ibrani di kemudian hari biasanya dihasilkan dari hilangnya huruf-huruf hidup pada akhir kata (''final vowel'') dalam banyak kata, melestarikan lokasi penekanan proto-SemitikSemit.<ref group="nb">Additionally, short stressed vowels in open syllables were reduced and lost stress, leading to ultimate stress in forms like {{lang|hbo|קטלו|rtl=yes}} < {{IPA|*/qaˈtʼaluː/}}. In Tiberian Hebrew some words have penultimate stress in pause (before a break in reading), but ultimate stress in context, such as {{lang|hbo|שָמָ֫רָה|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|שָמְרָה|rtl=yes}} ('she watched'), because the penultimate vowel in the original form {{IPA|*/ʃaˈmaru/}} lengthened in pause, while in context it was not lengthened, and then lost the stress and was reduced due to this sound shift. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=146–148, 154}}</ref><!-- Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress, e.g. {{lang|hbo|בָּנוּ֫|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/bɔˈnu/}} ('they built') vs. {{lang|hbo|בָּ֫נוּ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ˈbɔnu/}} ('in us'); stress is most commonly ultimate, less commonly penultimate, and antipenultimate stress exists marginally, e.g. {{lang|hbo|הָאֹ֫הֱלָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/hɔˈʔohɛ̆lɔ/}} ('into the tent').<ref name="b143-144">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=143–144}}</ref><ref group="nb">It is not clear that a reduced vowel should be considered as comprising a whole syllable. Note for example that the rule whereby a word's stress shifts to a preceding open syllable to avoid being adjacent to another stressed syllable skips over ultrashort vowels, e.g. {{lang|hbo|עִם־יוֹ֫רְדֵי בוֹר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʕim-ˈjorăde vor/}} ('with those who go down into the pit') {{lang|hbo|מְטֹ֫עֲנֵי חָ֫רֶב|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/măˈtʼoʕăne ˈħɔrɛv/}} ('pierced with a sword'). See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=143–144}}</ref> There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=53}}</ref> Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew, Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto-Semitic stress, and has predominantly penultimate stress, with occasional ultimate stress.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=68}}</ref>--> ThereAda isbukti evidencebahwa thatIbrani Qumran Hebrewmemiliki hadsuatu apola similarpenekanan stressserupa patterndengan toIbrani Samaritan HebrewSamaria.<ref name="s160">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=160}}</ref>

* {{cite book|last=Bergsträsser|first=G.|year=1983|title=Introduction to the Semitic Languages|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontose0000berg|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-0-931464-10-2|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book|lastfirst=[[Joshua |last=Blau]]|year=1981|title= The renaissance of modern Hebrew and modern standard Arabic|url=https://archive.org/details/renaissanceofmod0000blau |isbn=0-520-09548-0|publisher=University of California Press|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book|title=An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, in Two Volumes|last=Budge|first=E. A. Wallis|authorlink =<!-- E. A. Wallis Budge-->|volume=1|publisher = Dover Publications, Inc.|place= New York|year=1920|isbn=0-7661-7649-5|ref=harv}}

* {{citation |last = Doron|first = Edit| contribution = VSO and Left-conjunct Agreement: Biblical Hebrew vs. Modern Hebrew | title=Universal Grammar in the Reconstruction of Dead Languages|year=2005|editor-last=Kiss|editor-first=Katalin É.| location=Berlin|publisher =Mouton|pages=239–264|url=http://pluto.huji.ac.il/~edit/edit/doron-left-conjunct-agreement.pdf|isbn=3-11-018550-4|ref=harv|accessdate=2018-11-08|archive-date=2011-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610020842/http://pluto.huji.ac.il/~edit/edit/doron-left-conjunct-agreement.pdf|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite book|last = Frank|first = Yitzhak| title = Grammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos|url = https://archive.org/details/grammarforgemara0000fran| year = 2003| publisher =Ariel United Israel Institutes | location = Jerusalem, Israel|isbn=1-58330-606-4|ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal| last = Rainey| first = Anson| title = Shasu or Habiru. Who Were the Early Israelites?| journal = Biblical Archeology Review| volume = 34| issue = 6 (Nov/Dec)| publisher = Biblical Archaeology Society| year = 2008| url = http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=34&Issue=6&ArticleID=9| ref = harv| access-date = 2018-11-08| archive-date = 2012-05-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120531102030/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=34&Issue=6&ArticleID=9| dead-url = yes}}

* {{cite journal|last=Shanks|first=Hershel|title=Oldest Hebrew Inscription Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine Border|journal=Biblical Archaeology Review|year= 2010|pages=51–6|volume=36|issue=2|url=http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=9|ref=harv|access-date=2018-11-08|archive-date=2012-02-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232512/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=9|dead-url=yes}}

* {{cite book|last1=Waltke|first1=Bruce K.|last2 = O'Connor|first2=M.|title = An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobi0000walt|year=1990|publisher=Eisenbrauns|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|isbn=0-931464-31-5|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book|last=Yahalom|first=Joseph|title = Palestinian Vocalised Piyyut Manuscripts in the Cambridge Genizah Collections|url=https://archive.org/details/palestinianvocal0000camb|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University|isbn=0-521-58399-3|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book|last = Yardeni|first = Ada|title = The Book of Hebrew Script|url = https://archive.org/details/bookofhebrewscri0000yard|year = 1997|publisher = Carta|location= Jerusalem|isbn=965-220-369-6|ref=harv}}

** [http://www.biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html The Alphabet of Biblical Hebrew] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015041252/http://biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html |date=2007-10-15 }}