Geosentrisme: Perbedaan antara revisi

'''Geosentrisme''' atau disebut '''Teori Geosentrik''', '''Model Geosentrik''' (bahasa Inggris: '''geocentric model''' atau '''geocentrism''', '''Ptolemaic system''') adalah istilah [[astronomi]] yang menggambarkan alam semesta dengan [[bumi]] sebagai pusatnya dan pusat pergerakan semua benda-benda langit. Model ini menjadi sistem kosmologi predominan pada budaya kuno misalnya [[Yunani kuno]], yang meliputi sistem-sistem terkenal yang dikemukakan oleh [[Aristoteles]] anddan [[Claudius Ptolemaeus]].<ref name="Lawson2004"/>

Pada abad ke-12, [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī|Arzachel]] meninggalkan ide Yunani kuno "pergerakan melingkar uniform" (''[[uniform circular motion]]'') dengan membuat hipotesis bahwa planet [[Merkurius]] bergerak dalam orbit eliptik,<ref name="Rufus1939">{{Cite journal |title= The influence of Islamic astronomy in Europe and the far east |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1939-05_47_5/page/233 |last= Rufus |first= W. C. |journal= Popular Astronomy |volume= 47 |issue= 5 |date=May 1939 |pages= 233–8}}</ref><ref name="Hartner1955">{{cite journal |first= Willy |last= Hartner |title= The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_vistas-in-astronomy_1955_1/page/118 |journal= Vistas in Astronomy |volume= 1 |year= 1955 |pages= 118–22}}</ref> sedangkan [[Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji|Alpetragius]] mengusulkan model planetari yang meninggalkan [[equant]], mekanisme epicycle dan eksentrik,<ref name="Goldstein1972"/> meskipun ini menghasilkan suatu sistem yang lebih kurang akurat secara matematik.<ref name="Gale">{{Cite book|chapter= Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School|title= Science and Its Times|publisher= [[Thomson Gale]]|year= 2006}}</ref> [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1149–1209), sehubungan dengan konsepsi fisika dan dunia fisika dalam karyanya ''Matalib'', menolak pandangan Aristotelian dan Avicennian bahwa Bumi berada di pusat alam semesta, melainkan berpendapat bahwa ada "ribuan-ribuan dunia (''alfa alfi 'awalim'') di luar dunia ini sedemikian sehingga setiap dunia ini lebih besar dan masif dari dunia ini serta serupa dengan dunia ini." Untuk mendukung argumen teologinya, ia mengutip dari [[Al Quran]], "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," menekankan istilah "Worlds" (''dunia-dunia'').<ref name="Setia2004"/>

The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha observatory]] and continuing with astronomers from the [[Umayyad Mosque|Damascus mosque]] and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatory]]. Like their [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the [[equant]] problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an [[epicycle]] was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations.<ref name="Saliba1994">{{cite book |last= Saliba |first= George |authorlink= George Saliba |year= 1994 |title= A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofarabica0000sali |pages= 233–234[https://archive.org/details/historyofarabica0000sali/page/233 233]–234, 240 |publisher= [[New York University Press]] |isbn= 0814780237}}</ref> The most important of the Maragha astronomers included [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (d. 1266), [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] (1201–1274), [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375), [[Ali Qushji]] (c. 1474), [[Al-Birjandi]] (d. 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).<ref name="Dallal1999">{{cite book |first= Ahmad |last= Dallal |year= 1999 |chapter= Science, Medicine and Technology |title= The Oxford History of Islam |url= https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |page= [https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/page/171 171] |editor-first= John |editor-last= Esposito |editor-link= John Esposito |location= New York |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> [[Ibn al-Shatir]], the Damascene astronomer (1304–1375 AD) working at the [[Umayyad Mosque]], wrote a major book entitled ''Kitab Nihayat al-Sul fi Tashih al-Usul'' (''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory'') on a theory which departs largely from the Ptolemaic system known at that time. In his book, "Ibn al-Shatir, an Arab astronomer of the fourteenth century," E. S. Kennedy wrote "what is of most interest, however, is that Ibn al-Shatir's lunar theory, except for trivial differences in parameters, is identical with that of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] (1473–1543 AD)." The discovery that the models of Ibn al-Shatir are mathematically identical to those of Copernicus suggests the possible transmission of these models to Europe.<ref name="Guessoun2008">{{cite journal |last= Guessoum |first= N. |date=June 2008 |title= Copernicus and Ibn Al-Shatir: Does the Copernican revolution have Islamic roots? |journal= The Observatory |volume= 128 |pages= 231–9}}</ref> At the Maragha and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatories]], the [[Earth's rotation]] was discussed by al-Tusi and [[Ali Qushji]] (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion.<ref name="Ragep2001a">{{Cite journal |last= Ragep |first= F. Jamil |year= 2001 |title= Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's motion in context |journal= Science in Context |volume= 14 |issue= 1-2 |pages= 145–163 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref>

Dengan penemuan [[teleskop]] pada tahun 1609, pengamatan yang dilakukan oleh [[Galileo Galilei]] (antara lain bahwa [[Yupiter]] memiliki sejumlah bulan) mempertanyakan sejumlah prinsip geosentrisme tetapi tidak secara serius mengancamnya. Karena ia mengamati adanya "titik-titik" gelap pada Bulan, kawah-kawah, ia berkomentar bahwa Bulan bukanlah benda langit sempurna sebagaimana anggapan sebelumnya. Ini pertama kalinya orang dapat melihat cacat pada suatu benda langit yang dianggap terbuat dari [[aether]] yang sempurna. Sedemikian, karena cacatnya bulan sekarang dapat dikaitkan dengan apa yang dilihat di Bumi, orang dapat berargumen bahwa keduanya tidak unik, melainkan terbuat dari bahan yang serupa. Galileo juga dapat melihat bulan-bulan yang mengitari Yupiter, yang didedikasikannya kepada [[:en:Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Cosimo II de' Medici]], dan menyatakan bahwa bulan-bulan itu mengorbit Yupiter, bukan Bumi.<ref name="Finocchiaro2008">{{cite book|last= Finocchiaro|first= Maurice A.|title= The Essential Galileo|url= https://archive.org/details/essentialgalileo00gali|location= Indianapolis, IL|publisher= Hackett|year= 2008|page= [https://archive.org/details/essentialgalileo00gali/page/n59 49]}}</ref> Ini merupakan klaim signifikan karena jika benar, berarti tidak semua benda langit mengitari Bumi, menghancurkan kepercayaan teologi dan ilmiah yang dianut sebelumnya. Namun, teori-teori Galileo yang menantang geosentrisme alam semesta dibungkam oleh pihak gereja dan sikap skeptik umum terhadap sistem yang tidak menempatkan Bumi di pusat semesta, mempertahankan pikiran dan sistem Ptolemaeus dan Aristoteles.

Model Ptolemaik mengenai tata surya masih terus dianut sampai ke awal zaman modern. Sejak akhir abad ke-16 dan seterusnya perlahan-lahan digantikan sebagai penggambaran konsensus oleh model heliosentrisme. Geosentrisme sebagai suatu kepercayaan agamawi terpisah, tidak pernah padam. Di Amerika Serikat antara tahun 1870-1920, misalnya, berbagai anggota [[Gereja Lutheran – Sinode Missouri]] menerbitkan artikel-artikel yang menyerang sistem astronomi Kopernikan, dan geosentrisme banyak diajarkan di dalam sinode dalam periode tersebut.<ref name="Babinski1995">{{cite journal |editor-last= Babinski |editor-first= E. T. |journal= Cretinism of Evilution |issue= 2 |title= Excerpts from Frank Zindler's 'Report from the center of the universe' and 'Turtles all the way down' |url= http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/ce/2/part3.html |publisher= [[TalkOrigins Archive]] |year= 1995 |accessdate= 2013-12-01 |archive-date= 2018-02-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180209235618/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/ce/2/part3.html |dead-url= no }}</ref> Namun, pada tahun 1902 ''Theological Quarterly'', A. L. Graebner menyatakan bahwa sinode itu tidak mempunyai posisi doktrinal terhadap geosentrisme, heliosentrisme, atau model ilmiah lainnya, kecuali kalau itu bertolak belakang dengan [[Alkitab]]. Ia menyatakan pula bahwa deklarasi apapun yang dikemukakan para penganut geosentrisme di dalam sinode bukan merupakan pendapat badan gereja secara keseluruhan.<ref name="Graebner1902">{{cite journal |title= Science and the church |journal= Theological Quarterly |first= A. L. |last= Graebner |pages= [http://books.google.com/books?id=cxsRAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37 37–45] |year= 1902 |publisher= Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing |location= St. Louis, MO |volume= 6}}</ref>

Artikel-artikel yang mendukung geosentrisme sebagai pandangan Alkitab muncul pada sejumlah surat kabar sains penciptaan yang berhubungan dengan [[Creation Research Society]]. Umumnya menunjuk kepada beberapa nas [[Alkitab]], yang secara harfiah mengindikasikan pergerakan harian Matahari dan Bulan yang dapat diamati mengelilingi Bumi, bukan karena rotasi Bumi pada aksisnya, misalnya pada {{Alkitab|Yosua 10:12}} di mana Matahari dan Bulan dikatakan berhenti di langit, dan {{Alkitab|Mazmur 93:1}} di mana dunia digambarkan tidak bergerak.<ref name="Numbers1993">{{cite book|title= The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism|url= https://archive.org/details/creationistsevol0000numb|publisher= University of California Press|last= Numbers|first= Ronald L.|authorlink= Ronald L. Numbers|year= 1993|page= [https://archive.org/details/creationistsevol0000numb/page/237 237]|isbn= 0520083938}}</ref> Para pendukung kontemporer kepercayaan agamawi itu termasuk [[Robert Sungenis]] (presiden dari[[Bellarmine Theological Forum]] dan pengarang buku terbitan tahun 2006 ''Galileo Was Wrong'' (Galileo keliru)).<ref name="Sefton2006">{{cite news|url= http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=_1kaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XCYEAAAAIBAJ&dq=robert-sungenis&pg=6714%2C4991566|title= In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth|first= Dru|last= Sefton|newspaper= [[Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina)|Times-News]]|location= Hendersonville, NC|date= 2006-03-30|page= 5A|access-date= 2014-03-02|archive-date= 2021-04-27|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210427173438/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=_1kaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XCYEAAAAIBAJ&dq=robert-sungenis&pg=6714%2C4991566|dead-url= no}}</ref> Orang-orang ini mengajarkan pandangan bahwa pembacaan langsung Alkitab memuat kisah akurat bagaimana alam semesta diciptakan dan membutuhkan pandangan geosentrik. Kebanyakan organisasi kreasionis kontemporer menolak pandangan ini.{{refn|group=n|Donald B. DeYoung, misalnya, menyatakan bahwa "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."<ref>{{cite web |last= DeYoung |first= Donald B. |date= 1997-11-05 |title= Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book |url= http://www.answersingenesis.org/Docs/399.asp |accessdate= 2013-12-01 |publisher= Answers in Genesis |archive-date= 2011-08-05 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110805222535/http://www.answersingenesis.org/Docs/399.asp |dead-url= no }}</ref>}}

{{quote|Dari semuanya, Kopernikanisme merupakan kemenangan besar pertama sains atas agama, sehingga tidak dapat dihindari bahwa sejumlah orang berpikir semua yang salah dengan dunia ini bermula dari sana. (Steven Dutch dari [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]]) <ref>[{{Cite web |url=http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/Geocentrism.HTM |title=Geocentrism lives] |access-date=2014-03-02 |archive-date=2017-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024101108/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/Geocentrism.HTM |dead-url=no }}</ref>}}

[[Morris Berman]] mengutip bahwa hasil survei menyatakan saat ini sekitar 20% penduduk Amerika Serikat percaya bahwa matahari mengitari bumi (geosentrisme) bukan bumi mengitari matahari (heliosentrisme), sementara 9% mengatakan tidak tahu.<ref name="Berman2006">{{cite book|last= Berman|first= Morris|authorlink= Morris Berman|title= Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire|url= https://archive.org/details/darkagesamericaf00berm|year= 2006|publisher= W.W. Norton & Company|isbn= 9780393058666}}</ref> Beberapa poll yang dilakukan oleh [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] pada tahun 1990-an mendapati bahwa 16% orang Jermans, 18% orang Amerika dan 19% orang Inggris/Britania Raya percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.<ref name="Crabtree1999">{{cite web |url= http://www.gallup.com/poll/3742/new-poll-gauges-americans-general-knowledge-levels.aspx |title= New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels |first= Steve |last= Crabtree |publisher= [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] |date= 1999-07-06 |access-date= 2014-03-02 |archive-date= 2014-03-27 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140327130003/http://www.gallup.com/poll/3742/New-Poll-Gauges-Americans-General-Knowledge-Levels.aspx |dead-url= no }}</ref> Suatu studi yang dilakukan pada tahun 2005 oleh Jon D. Miller dari [[Northwestern University]], seorang pakar pemahaman publik akan sains dan teknologi,<ref name="MillerBio">{{cite web |url= http://www.cmb.northwestern.edu/faculty/jon_miller.htm |title= Jon D. Miller |work= Northwestern University website |accessdate= 2007-07-19 |archive-date= 2009-02-04 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090204023220/http://www.cmb.northwestern.edu/faculty/jon_miller.htm |dead-url= no }}</ref> mendapati sekitar 20%, atau seperlima, orang dewasa Amerika percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.<ref name="Dean2005">{{cite news|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/30/science/30profile.html?ex=1184990400&en=2fb126c3132f89ae&ei=5070|title= Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much|first= Cornelia|last= Dean|date= 2005-08-30|newspaper= New York Times|accessdate= 2007-07-19|archive-date= 2014-08-25|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140825022235/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/30/science/30profile.html?ex=1184990400&en=2fb126c3132f89ae&ei=5070|dead-url= no}}</ref> Menurut poll tahun 2011 oleh [[VTSIOM]], 32% orang [[Russia]] percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.<ref name="RussianStudy2011">{{citation |url= http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=459&uid=111345 |title= 'СОЛНЦЕ - СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН |trans_title= 'Sun-earth', or rating scientific fallacies of Russians |issue= Пресс-выпуск №1684 <nowiki>[</nowiki>Press release no. 1684<nowiki>]</nowiki> |date= 2011-02-08 |language= ru |publisher= ВЦИОМ <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[VTSIOM|All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> |postscript= . |accessdate= 2014-03-02 |archive-date= 2018-01-31 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180131184406/https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=459&uid=111345 |dead-url= yes }}</ref>

<ref name="Goldstein1967">{{cite journal|title= The Arabic version of Ptolemy's planetary hypothesis|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_transactions-of-the-american-philosophical-society_1967-06_57_4/page/6|first= Bernard R.|last= Goldstein|page= 6|journal= Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|year= 1967|volume= 57|issue= pt. 4|jstor= 1006040}}</ref>

<ref name="Nussbaum2007">{{Cite journal|url= http://www.skeptic.com/the_magazine/featured_articles/v12n03_orthodox_judaism_and_evolution.html|title= Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology|accessdate= 2008-12-18|last= Nussbaum|first= Alexander|date= 2007-12-19|journal= Skeptic Magazine|archive-date= 2010-07-04|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100704183723/http://www.skeptic.com/the_magazine/featured_articles/v12n03_orthodox_judaism_and_evolution.html|dead-url= no}}</ref>

<ref name="Mishneh Torah">{{cite book|title= Mishneh Torah|url= http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/947929/jewish/Chapter-Eleven.htm|chapter= Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11|page= Halacha 13–14|nopp= y|others= Translated by Touger, Eliyahu|publisher= Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center|access-date= 2014-03-02|archive-date= 2023-06-22|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230622200831/https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/947929/jewish/Chapter-Eleven.htm|dead-url= no}}</ref>

<ref name="Rabinowitz1987">{{cite web|url= http://www.pages.nyu.edu/%7Eair1/GeoCentrism%20&%20EgoCentrism,%20Existentialist%20Despair%20&%20Significance.htm|first= Avi|last= Rabinowitz|year= 1987|title= EgoCentrism and GeoCentrism; Human Significance and Existential Despair; Bible and Science; Fundamentalism and Skepticalism|work= Science & Religion|accessdate= 2013-12-01|archive-date= 2011-03-14|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110314150928/http://www.pages.nyu.edu/~air1/GeoCentrism|dead-url= yes}} Published in {{cite book|editor1-last= Branover|editor1-first= Herman|editor2-last= Attia|editor2-first= Ilana Coven|title= Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader|url= https://archive.org/details/scienceinlightof0000unse|year= 1994|publisher= Jason Aronson|isbn= 9781568210346}}</ref>

* {{cite book|authorlink= Sir Fred Hoyle|last= Hoyle|first= Fred|title= Nicolaus Copernicus|url= https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-BLU-347|year= 1973|ref={{Harvid|Hoyle|1973}}}}

* {{cite book|editor-last= Walker|editor-first= Christopher|title= Astronomy Before the Telescope|url= https://archive.org/details/astronomybeforet0000unse_b2s7|location= London|publisher= British Museum Press|year= 1996|isbn= 0714117463|ref={{Harvid|Walker|1996}}}}

* [http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Movies/#ptolemaic Geocentric Perspective animation of the Solar System in 150AD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508074738/http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Movies/#ptolemaic |date=2021-05-08 }}

* [http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/ptolemaic_system.html The Galileo Project – Ptolemaic System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408231957/http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/ptolemaic_system.html |date=2014-04-08 }}