Maskulinitas: Perbedaan antara revisi

{{Bedakan|Maskulin (tata bahasa)}}[[Berkas:Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg|al=One of the most famous depictions of Heracles, originally by Lysippos (marble, Roman copy called Hercules Farnese, 216 CE)|jmpl|Dalam mitologi yunani, [[Herakles]] identik dengan sifat maskulin.]]

'''Maskulinitas''' (disebut juga '''kejantanan''' atau '''kedewasaan''') adalah sejumlah atribut, perilaku, dan peran yang terkait dengan anak laki-laki dan pria dewasa. Maskulinitas didefinisikan secara sosial dan diciptakan secara biologis.<ref name="Wijngaard">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dn5cI9BHbKgC&pg=PA1|title=Reinventing the sexes: the biomedical construction of femininity and masculinity|last=van den Wijngaard|first=Marianne|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1997|isbn=9780253210876|location=Bloomington}}</ref><ref name="Martin and Finn">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLPlmr9T7MC&pg=PA16|title=Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A|last=Martin|first=Hale|last2=Finn|first2=Stephen Edward|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2010|isbn=9780816675203}}</ref><ref name="Dunphy">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Sexual_Politics.html?id=NVPQkt0bVpAC|title=Sexual politics: an introduction|last=Dunphy|first=Richard|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780748612475}}</ref> Sifat maskulin berbeda dengan jenis kelamin.<ref name="Ferrante">Ferrante, Joan (2008), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AwnIIXI6y38C Gender and sexualities: with emphasis on gender ideals]", in {{Cite book|title=Sociology: a global perspective|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|isbn=9780840032041|editor-last=Ferrante|editor-first=Joan|edition=7th|location=Belmont, California|pages=269–272}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/|title=Gender, Women and Health: What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?|website=who.int|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908003355/http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/|archive-date=8 September 2014|access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> baik laki-laki maupun perempuan dapat bersifat maskulin. Ciri-ciri yang melekat pada istilah maskulin adalah keberanian, [[Kemerdekaan|kemandirian]] dan ketegasan.<ref name="Vetterling-Braggin">{{Cite book|title="Femininity", "masculinity", and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion|last=Vetterling-Braggin|first=Mary|publisher=Littlefield, Adams|year=1982|isbn=9780822603993|location=Totowa, N.J}}</ref><ref name="Worell">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of women and gender: sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender, Volume 1|last=Worell|first=Judith|publisher=Academic Press|year=2001|isbn=9780122272462|location=San Diego, California}}</ref><ref name="R. Murray Thomas">Thomas, R. Murray (2001), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-RxIUDYIuiIC&pg=PT248 Feminist perspectives]", in {{cite book|title=Recent theories of human development|year=2001|url=https://archive.org/details/recenttheoriesof0000thom|publisher=[[Sage Publications|Sage]]|isbn=9780761922476|editor-last=Thomas|editor-first=R. Murray|location=Thousand Oaks, California|page=[https://archive.org/details/recenttheoriesof0000thom/page/248 248]|quote=''Gender feminists also consider traditional feminine traits (gentleness, modesty, humility, sacrifice, supportiveness, empathy, compassion, tenderness, nurturance, intuitiveness, sensitivity, unselfishness) morally superior to the traditional masculine traits (courage, strong will, ambition, independence, assertiveness, initiative, rationality and emotional control).''}}</ref> ciri-ciri ini bervariasi dan dipengaruhi oleh faktor sosial dan budaya.<ref>Mikkola, Mari (2011), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FU2-Ha0d77wC&pg=PA1 Ontological commitments, sex and gender]", in {{Cite book|title=Feminist metaphysics: explorations in the ontology of sex, gender and the self|url=https://archive.org/details/feministmetaphys00witt|publisher=Springer|year=2011|isbn=9789048137831|editor-last=Witt|editor-first=Charlotte|location=Dordrecht|page=[https://archive.org/details/feministmetaphys00witt/page/77 77]}}</ref>

Karakteristik maskulin biasanya terdapat pada anak laki-laki maupun pria dewasa. Pada laki-laki sering kali dibuat perbandingan mengenai pria sangat maskulin, maskulin maupun tidak maskulin.<ref name="Roget">{{Cite book|title=[[Roget's Thesaurus|Roget's II: the new thesaurus]]|last=Roget|first=Peter Mark|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co|year=1995|isbn=9780395736791|edition=3rd|location=Boston|author-link=Peter Mark Roget}}</ref> Konsep maskulinitas cukup bervariasi. Tergantung sejarah dan budayanya. Pada abad ke 19, seseorang yang suka berdandan baik pria maupun wanita dipandang bersifat masukin namun dalam standar modern disebut feminim.{{Sfnp}} Ronald F. Levant dalam bukunya ''Masculinity Reconstructed'' menjelaskan bahwa terdapat sifat-sifat khas pada seseorang yang dianggap maskulin diantaranya menghindari sifat [[Femininitas|kewanitaan]], membatasi emosi, ambisius, mandiri, kuat dan agresif.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Masculinity reconstructed: changing the rules of manhood—at work, in relationships, and in family life|url=https://archive.org/details/masculinityrecon00leva|last=Levant|first=Ronald F.|last2=Kopecky|first2=Gini|publisher=Dutton|year=1995|isbn=978-0452275416|location=New York}}</ref> Sifat-sifat ini memperkuat [[peran gender]] yang dikelompokkan menurut jenis kelamin pria maupun wanita karena sebagian besar pria bersifat maskulin. Sebaliknya, sebagian besar wanita bersifat feminim.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dornan|first=Jennifer|date=August 2004|title=Blood from the moon: gender ideology and the rise of ancient Maya social complexity|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00348.x|journal=[[Gender & History]]|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell|Wiley]]|volume=16|issue=2|pages=459–475|doi=10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00348.x|postscript=.|ref=harv}}</ref>

Studi tentang maskulinitas mendapat perhatian yang meningkat pada akhir 1980an1980-an dan awal 1990an1990-an. Di Amerika Serikat, mata kuliah maskulinitas meningkat dari 30 menjadi lebih dari 300 mata kuliah.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Bradley|first=Rolla M.|date=2008|title=Masculinity and self perception of men identified as informal leaders|url=https://athenaeum.uiw.edu/uiw_etds/190/|degree=PhD|publisher=[[University of the Incarnate Word]]|oclc=1004500685|OCLC=1004500685}} [https://search.proquest.com/openview/bb91cf3b301335a7d97da0d80aed98a6/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y View online preview.]</ref> Hal ini telah memicu berbagai penelitian tentang maskulinitas dan pada akhirnya bidang ini berkembang lebih luas. Lahirnya teori-teori diskriminasi sosial, konstruksi sosial dan perbedaan gender merupakan perkembangan dari bidang studi ini.<ref name="Flood 2007 Viii">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUON2SYps-QC|title=International encyclopedia of men and masculinities|last=Flood|first=Michael|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=9780415333436|location=London New York|page=viii|author-link=Michael Flood}}</ref>

Maskulinitas telah bervariasi menurut waktu dan tempat..{{Sfnp}} Studi tentang sejarah maskulinitas muncul pada tahun 1980-an, merupakan pengembangan sejarah gender perempuan.<ref name=":2">Tosh, John (1999), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Br8JCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover Introduction: masculinity and domesticity]", in {{cite book|title=A man's place: masculinity and the middle-class home in Victorian England|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1999|isbn=9780300077797|editor-last=Tosh|editor-first=John|location=New Haven, Connecticut|page=2}}</ref> Dalam sejarah, peran historis wanita banyak yang diabaikan meskipun pada dasarnya tokoh pria lebih banyak daripada tokoh wanita namun bukan berarti tidak ada. Studi tentang sejarah perempuan mulai menganalisis gender dan wanita untuk mengembangkan bidang ini.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=Natalie Z.|date=Spring–Summer 1976|title="Women's history" in transition: the European case|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3177729|journal=[[Feminist Studies]]|publisher=Feminist Studies, Inc.|volume=3|issue=3–4|pages=83–103|doi=10.2307/3177729|jstor=3177729|postscript=.|ref=harv}}</ref> Artikel Joan Scott, menyerukan agar meletakkan dasar studi gender sebagai konsep analitis untuk mengeksplorasi masyarakat, kekuasaan dan wacana.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scott|first=Joan W.|date=December 1986|title=Gender: a useful category of historical analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/91.5.1053|journal=[[The American Historical Review]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press|Oxford Journals]]|volume=91|issue=5|pages=1053–1075|doi=10.1086/ahr/91.5.1053|jstor=1864376|postscript=.|ref=harv}}</ref> Menurut Scott, gender harus diperlakukan dalam dua cara yaitu produktif dan diproduksi. Gender produktif memeriksa perannya dalam menciptakan hubungan kekuasaan sekaligus memproduksi gender yang mengeksplorasi penggunaan dan perubahan gender sepanjang sejarah. Hal ini telah mempengaruhi bidang maskulinitas, seperti yang terlihat pada definisi Pierre Bourdieu mengenai maskulinitas: diproduksi oleh masyarakat dan budaya, dan diproduksi ulang dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Masculine domination|url=https://archive.org/details/masculinedominat0000bour|last=Bourdieu|first=Pierre|publisher=Polity Press|year=2001|isbn=9780745622651|location=Cambridge, UK}}</ref>

[[Berkas:I_Won't_Cry_Daddy.jpg|ka|jmpl|Dari usia muda, anak laki-laki biasanya diajarkan untuk menekan emosi mereka dalam rangka untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan stereotip maskulin.<ref name="Worell835">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Women and Gender: Sex Similarities and Sifferences and the Impact of Society on Gender|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediawome00wore|last=Worell|first=Judith|date=2001|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=0122272455|location=San Diego, California|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediawome00wore/page/n871 835]}}</ref>]]Norma sosial dan tekanan yang terkait dengan maskulinitas telah membuat pria harus menyesuaikan identitas diri mereka. Ini mungkin menyebabkan perasaan menurun kecakapan fisik dan seksual serta kehilangan identitas laki-laki. Perasaan bersalah dan kehilangan kontrol secara keseluruhan juga dialami."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchinson|first=Susan L.|last2=Kleiber|first2=Douglas A.|date=January 2000|title=Heroic masculinity following spinal cord injury: Implications for therapeutic recreation practice and research|url=http://js.sagamorepub.com/trj/article/view/1110|journal=Therapeutic Recreation Journal|publisher=Sagamore Journals|volume=34|issue=1|postscript=.|ref=harv}}</ref> Penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa pria merasakan tekanan sosial untuk mendukung model pria maskulin tradisional dalam periklanan. Brett Martin dan Juergen Gnoth (2009) menemukan bahwa meskipun pria feminin lebih menyukai model feminin, mereka lebih menyukai model tradisional maskulin di depan umum. Hal ini mencerminkan tekanan sosial pada pria untuk mendukung norma maskulin tradisional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Brett A.S.|last2=Gnoth|first2=Juergen|date=December 2009|title=Is the Marlboro man the only alternative? The role of gender identity and self-construal salience in evaluations of male models|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-009-9069-2|journal=Marketing Letters|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|volume=20|issue=4|pages=353–367|doi=10.1007/s11002-009-9069-2|postscript=.|ref=harv}} [http://www.basmartin.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Martin-Gnoth-2009.pdf Pdf.]</ref>

Sebuah teori "maskulinitas dalam krisis" telah muncul.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k24dAQAAMAAJ|title=Masculinities in Crisis: Myths, Fantasies, and Realities|last=Horrocks|first=Rooger|publisher=St Martin's Press|year=1994|isbn=0333593227}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Marked Men: White Masculinity in Crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/markedmen00robi|last=Robinson|first=Sally|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-231-50036-4|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/markedmen00robi/page/n17 5]}}</ref> Ahli arkeologi Australia Peter McAllister berkata, "Saya memiliki perasaan kuat bahwa maskulinitas dalam krisis. Manusia benar-benar mencari peran dalam masyarakat modern."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.salon.com/2010/11/14/manthropology_interview/singleton/|title=The dramatic decline of the modern man|last=Rogers|first=Thomas|date=November 14, 2010|work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]]|newspaper=[[Salon (website)|Salon]]|access-date=June 3, 2012|archive-date=2012-07-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712150156/http://www.salon.com/2010/11/14/manthropology_interview/singleton/|dead-url=yes}}More than one of <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;work=</code> dan <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;newspaper=</code> specified ([[Bantuan:CS1 errors#redundant parameters|bantuan]])</ref> Yang lain melihat perubahan pasar tenaga kerja sebagai sumber stres. Deindustrialisasi dan penggantian industri cerobong dengan teknologi telah memungkinkan lebih banyak wanita memasuki angkatan kerja, mengurangi penekanannya pada kekuatan fisik.{{Sfnp}}

Krisis ini juga disebabkan oleh feminisme dan pertanyaan tentang dominasi dan hak laki-laki yang diberikan kepada laki-laki semata-mata berdasarkan jenis kelamin.{{Sfnp}} Sosiolog Inggris John MacInnes menulis bahwa "maskulinitas selalu dalam satu krisis atau yang lain" menunjukkan bahwa krisis timbul dari "ketidakcocokan mendasar antara prinsip inti modernitas bahwa semua manusia pada dasarnya sama (terlepas dari jenis kelamin mereka) dan inti prinsip patriarki bahwa manusia secara alami lebih unggul dari wanita dan karenanya ditakdirkan untuk memerintah mereka".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The end of masculinity: the confusion of sexual genesis and sexual difference in modern society|url=https://archive.org/details/endmasculinity00john|last=MacInnes|first=John|publisher=Open University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-335-19659-3|location=Philadelphia|page=[https://archive.org/details/endmasculinity00john/page/11 11]}}</ref>

Menurut John Beynon, maskulinitas dan laki-laki sering terkumpul dan tidak jelas apakah maskulinitas, pria atau keduanya berada dalam krisis. Dia menulis bahwa "krisis" bukanlah fenomena baru-baru ini, yang menggambarkan beberapa periode krisis maskulin sepanjang sejarah (beberapa mendahului gerakan perempuan dan masyarakat pasca-industri), menunjukkan krisis adalah hasil dari maskulinitas itu sendiri."{{Sfnp}} Sarjana film Leon Hunt juga menulis: "Kapan pun krisis maskulin 'benar-benar dimulai, pasti dampaknya sudah ada pada tahun 1970an1970-an."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dvtQEetWrsC&pg=PA73|title=British low culture: from safari suits to sexploitation|last=Hunt|first=Leon|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=978-0-415-15182-5|location=London, New York|page=73}}</ref>

* {{Cite book|title=Men's lives|url=https://archive.org/details/menslives05edunse|last=Strate|first=Lance|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|year=2001|isbn=9780205321056|editor-last=Kimmel|editor-first=Michael|editor-link=Michael Kimmel|edition=5th|location=Boston|chapter=Beer commercials: a manual on masculinity|ref=harv|editor-last2=Messner|editor-first2=Michael|editor-link2=Michael Messner}}

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* {{Cite book|title=Men's health: body, identity, and social context|url=https://archive.org/details/menshealthbodyid0000unse|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2009|isbn=9780470516560|editor-last=Broom|editor-first=Alex|location=Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. Hoboken, New Jersey|editor-last2=Tovey|editor-first2=Philip}}

* {{Cite book|title=Absent fathers, lost sons: the search for masculine identity|url=https://archive.org/details/absentfatherslos00corn|last=Corneau|first=Guy|publisher=Shambhala|year=1991|isbn=9780877736035|location=Boston New York|author-link=Guy Corneau}}

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* {{Cite book|title=Wild at heart: discovering the secret of a man's soul|url=https://archive.org/details/wildatheartdisco00eldr|last=Eldredge|first=John|publisher=T. Nelson|year=2001|isbn=9780785218951|location=Nashville, Tennessee|author-link=John Eldredge}}

* {{Cite journal|last=Evans|first=Joan|last2=Frank|first2=Blye|last3=Oliffe|first3=John L.|last4=Gregory|first4=David|displayauthors=1|date=March 2011|title=Health, Illness, Men and Masculinities (HIMM): a theoretical framework for understanding men and their health|url=http://health-equity.pitt.edu/4057/1/Health,_Illness,_Men_and_Masculinity.pdf|journal=Journal of Men's Health|volume=8|issue=1|pages=7–15|doi=10.1016/j.jomh.2010.09.227|access-date=2017-12-04|archive-date=2016-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208060031/http://health-equity.pitt.edu/4057/1/Health,_Illness,_Men_and_Masculinity.pdf|dead-url=yes}}

* {{Cite book|title=Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence|last=Juergensmeyer|first=Mark|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-52-024011-1|edition=౩rd|location=Berkeley|pages=198–|chapter=Why Guys Throw Bombs|chapter-url=http://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/juergensmeyer/juergensmeyer_e.pdf|access-date=2017-12-04|archive-date=2006-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103115259/http://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/juergensmeyer/juergensmeyer_e.pdf|dead-url=unfit}}

* {{Cite book|title=Female masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/femalemasculinit00judi|last=Halberstam|first=Jack|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780822322436|location=Durham|author-link=Jack Halberstam}}

* {{Cite book|title=Men's lives|url=https://archive.org/details/menslives05edunse|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|year=2001|isbn=9780205321056|editor-last=Kimmel|editor-first=Michael|editor-link=Michael Kimmel|edition=5th|location=Boston|ref=harv|editor-last2=Messner|editor-first2=Michael|editor-link2=Michael Messner}}

* {{Citation|last=Shuttleworth|first=Russell|title=Gendering disability|year=2004|ref=harv|pages=166–178|contribution=Disabled masculinity|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=9780813533735|ISBN=9780813533735}}More than one of <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;ISBN=</code> dan <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;isbn=</code> specified ([[Bantuan:CS1 errors#redundant parameters|bantuan]]) * {{Cite book|title=Male impersonators: men performing masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/maleimpersonator0000simp|last=Simpson|first=Mark|publisher=Routledge|year=1994|isbn=9780415909914|location=New York, NY}}

** Also available as: {{Cite book|title=Male impersonators: men performing masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/maleimpersonator0000simp_u6w7|last=Simpson|first=Mark|publisher=Cassell|year=1993|isbn=9780304328086|location=London}}

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