Maskulinitas: Perbedaan antara revisi
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{{Bedakan|Maskulin (tata bahasa)}} |
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{{Bedakan|Maskulin (tata bahasa)}}[[Berkas:Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg|al=One of the most famous depictions of Heracles, originally by Lysippos (marble, Roman copy called Hercules Farnese, 216 CE)|jmpl|Dalam mitologi yunani, [[Herakles]] identik dengan sifat maskulin.]]
'''Maskulinitas''' (disebut juga '''kejantanan''') adalah sejumlah atribut, perilaku, dan peran yang terkait dengan anak laki-laki dan pria dewasa. Maskulinitas didefinisikan secara sosial dan diciptakan secara biologis.<ref name="Wijngaard">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dn5cI9BHbKgC&pg=PA1|title=Reinventing the sexes: the biomedical construction of femininity and masculinity|last=van den Wijngaard|first=Marianne|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1997|isbn=9780253210876|location=Bloomington}}</ref><ref name="Martin and Finn">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KLPlmr9T7MC&pg=PA16|title=Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A|last=Martin|first=Hale|last2=Finn|first2=Stephen Edward|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2010|isbn=9780816675203}}</ref><ref name="Dunphy">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Sexual_Politics.html?id=NVPQkt0bVpAC|title=Sexual politics: an introduction|last=Dunphy|first=Richard|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780748612475}}</ref> Sifat maskulin berbeda dengan jenis kelamin.<ref name="Ferrante">Ferrante, Joan (2008), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AwnIIXI6y38C Gender and sexualities: with emphasis on gender ideals]", in {{Cite book|title=Sociology: a global perspective|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|isbn=9780840032041|editor-last=Ferrante|editor-first=Joan|edition=7th|location=Belmont, California|pages=269–272}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/|title=Gender, Women and Health: What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?|website=who.int|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908003355/http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/|archive-date=8 September 2014|access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> baik laki-laki maupun perempuan dapat bersifat maskulin. Ciri-ciri yang melekat pada istilah maskulin adalah keberanian, [[Kemerdekaan|kemandirian]] dan ketegasan.<ref name="Vetterling-Braggin">{{Cite book|title="Femininity", "masculinity", and "androgyny": a modern philosophical discussion|last=Vetterling-Braggin|first=Mary|publisher=Littlefield, Adams|year=1982|isbn=9780822603993|location=Totowa, N.J}}</ref><ref name="Worell">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of women and gender: sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender, Volume 1|last=Worell|first=Judith|publisher=Academic Press|year=2001|isbn=9780122272462|location=San Diego, California}}</ref><ref name="R. Murray Thomas">Thomas, R. Murray (2001), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-RxIUDYIuiIC&pg=PT248 Feminist perspectives]", in {{cite book|title=Recent theories of human development|year=2001|url=https://archive.org/details/recenttheoriesof0000thom|publisher=[[Sage Publications|Sage]]|isbn=9780761922476|editor-last=Thomas|editor-first=R. Murray|location=Thousand Oaks, California|page=[https://archive.org/details/recenttheoriesof0000thom/page/248 248]|quote=''Gender feminists also consider traditional feminine traits (gentleness, modesty, humility, sacrifice, supportiveness, empathy, compassion, tenderness, nurturance, intuitiveness, sensitivity, unselfishness) morally superior to the traditional masculine traits (courage, strong will, ambition, independence, assertiveness, initiative, rationality and emotional control).''}}</ref> ciri-ciri ini bervariasi dan dipengaruhi oleh faktor sosial dan budaya.<ref>Mikkola, Mari (2011), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FU2-Ha0d77wC&pg=PA1 Ontological commitments, sex and gender]", in {{Cite book|title=Feminist metaphysics: explorations in the ontology of sex, gender and the self|url=https://archive.org/details/feministmetaphys00witt|publisher=Springer|year=2011|isbn=9789048137831|editor-last=Witt|editor-first=Charlotte|location=Dordrecht|page=[https://archive.org/details/feministmetaphys00witt/page/77 77]}}</ref>
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== Sejarah ==
Maskulinitas telah bervariasi menurut waktu dan tempat..{{Sfnp}} Studi tentang sejarah maskulinitas muncul pada tahun 1980-an, merupakan pengembangan sejarah gender perempuan.<ref name=":2">Tosh, John (1999), "[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Br8JCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover Introduction: masculinity and domesticity]", in {{cite book|title=A man's place: masculinity and the middle-class home in Victorian England|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1999|isbn=9780300077797|editor-last=Tosh|editor-first=John|location=New Haven, Connecticut|page=2}}</ref> Dalam sejarah, peran historis wanita banyak yang diabaikan meskipun pada dasarnya tokoh pria lebih banyak daripada tokoh wanita namun bukan berarti tidak ada. Studi tentang sejarah perempuan mulai menganalisis gender dan wanita untuk mengembangkan bidang ini.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=Natalie Z.|date=Spring–Summer 1976|title="Women's history" in transition: the European case|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3177729|journal=[[Feminist Studies]]|publisher=Feminist Studies, Inc.|volume=3|issue=3–4|pages=83–103|doi=10.2307/3177729|jstor=3177729|postscript=.|ref=harv}}</ref> Artikel Joan Scott, menyerukan agar meletakkan dasar studi gender sebagai konsep analitis untuk mengeksplorasi masyarakat, kekuasaan dan wacana.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scott|first=Joan W.|date=December 1986|title=Gender: a useful category of historical analysis|url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/91.5.1053|journal=[[The American Historical Review]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press|Oxford Journals]]|volume=91|issue=5|pages=1053–1075|doi=10.1086/ahr/91.5.1053|jstor=1864376|postscript=.|ref=harv}}</ref> Menurut Scott, gender harus diperlakukan dalam dua cara yaitu produktif dan diproduksi. Gender produktif memeriksa perannya dalam menciptakan hubungan kekuasaan sekaligus memproduksi gender yang mengeksplorasi penggunaan dan perubahan gender sepanjang sejarah. Hal ini telah mempengaruhi bidang maskulinitas, seperti yang terlihat pada definisi Pierre Bourdieu mengenai maskulinitas: diproduksi oleh masyarakat dan budaya, dan diproduksi ulang dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Masculine domination|url=https://archive.org/details/masculinedominat0000bour|last=Bourdieu|first=Pierre|publisher=Polity Press|year=2001|isbn=9780745622651|location=Cambridge, UK}}</ref>
=== Gender pada Zaman Dahulu ===
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* {{Cite journal|last=Evans|first=Joan|last2=Frank|first2=Blye|last3=Oliffe|first3=John L.|last4=Gregory|first4=David|displayauthors=1|date=March 2011|title=Health, Illness, Men and Masculinities (HIMM): a theoretical framework for understanding men and their health|url=http://health-equity.pitt.edu/4057/1/Health,_Illness,_Men_and_Masculinity.pdf|journal=Journal of Men's Health|volume=8|issue=1|pages=7–15|doi=10.1016/j.jomh.2010.09.227|access-date=2017-12-04|archive-date=2016-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208060031/http://health-equity.pitt.edu/4057/1/Health,_Illness,_Men_and_Masculinity.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Galdas|first=Paul M.|last2=Cheater|first2=Francine M.|date=2010|title=Indian and Pakistani men’s accounts of seeking medical help for cardiac chest pain in the United Kingdom: constructions of marginalised masculinity or another version of hegemonic masculinity?|journal=Qualitative Research in Psychology|volume=7|issue=2|pages=122–139|doi=10.1080/14780880802571168|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|title=Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence|last=Juergensmeyer|first=Mark|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-52-024011-1|edition=౩rd|location=Berkeley|pages=198–|chapter=Why Guys Throw Bombs|chapter-url=http://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/juergensmeyer/juergensmeyer_e.pdf|access-date=2017-12-04|archive-date=2006-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103115259/http://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/juergensmeyer/juergensmeyer_e.pdf|dead-url=unfit}}
* {{Cite book|title=Female masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/femalemasculinit00judi|last=Halberstam|first=Jack|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780822322436|location=Durham|author-link=Jack Halberstam}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Hamber|first=Brandon|date=December 2007|title=Masculinity and transitional justice: an exploratory essay|journal=[[International Journal of Transitional Justice]]|volume=1|issue=3|pages=375–390|doi=10.1093/ijtj/ijm037|ref=harv}}
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** Also available as: {{Cite book|title=Male impersonators: men performing masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/maleimpersonator0000simp_u6w7|last=Simpson|first=Mark|publisher=Cassell|year=1993|isbn=9780304328086|location=London}}
* {{Cite book|title=Men are not cost-effective: male crime in America|url=https://archive.org/details/menarenotcosteff00june|last=Stephenson|first=June|publisher=HarperPerennial|year=1995|isbn=9780060950989|location=New York}}
* {{Cite book|title=The ideal of manliness: the legacy of Thring's Uppingham|url=https://archive.org/details/idealofmanliness0000malc|last=Tozer|first=Malcolm|publisher=Sunnyrest Books|year=2015|isbn=9781329542730|location=Truro}}
* {{Cite book|title=Male trouble: masculinity and the performance of crisis|last=Walsh|first=Fintan|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|isbn=9781349368242|location=Basingstoke, Hampshire England New York}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Williamson|first=P.|date=29 November 1995|title=Their own worst enemy|journal=[[Nursing Times]]|volume=91|issue=48|pages=24–27|oclc=937998604|ref=harv}}
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=== Sejarah ===
* {{Cite book|title=A question of manhood: a reader in U.S. Black men's history and masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/questionofmanhoo00hine|last=Jenkins|first=Earnestine|last2=Clark Hine|first2=Darlene|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1999|isbn=9780253213433|location=Bloomington}}
* {{Cite book|title=Manhood in America: A Cultural History|last=Kimmel|first=Michael|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780199781553|edition=3rd|location=New York|author-link=Michael Kimmel|orig-year=1996}}
* {{Citation|last=Laurie|first=Ross|title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA778|year=1999|pages=778–80|contribution=Masculinity|publisher=Taylor & Francis|editor-last=Boyd|editor-first=Kelly|isbn=9781884964336|ISBN=9781884964336}}More than one of <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|ISBN=</code> dan <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|isbn=</code> specified ([[Bantuan:CS1 errors#redundant parameters|bantuan]]), Historiografi.
* {{Cite book|title=The American man|url=https://archive.org/details/americanman0000plec|last=Pleck|first=Elizabeth Hafkin|last2=Pleck|first2=Joseph H.|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1980|isbn=9780130281425|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey}}
* {{Cite book|title=Castration: an abbreviated history of western manhood|url=https://archive.org/details/castrationabbrev0000tayl_x0j6|last=Taylor|first=Gary|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=9780415938815|location=New York}}
* {{Cite book|title=Male fantasies|url=https://archive.org/details/malefantasies02klau|last=Theweleit|first=Klaus|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=1987|isbn=9780816614516|location=Minneapolis|author-link=Klaus Theweleit}}
* {{Cite book|title=Be a man!: males in modern society|last=Stearns|first=Peter N.|publisher=Holmes & Meier|year=1990|isbn=9780841912816|location=New York}}
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