Calakmul: Perbedaan antara revisi

Jelajahi riwayat secara interaktif

← Revisi sebelumnya

Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan

VisualTeks wiki

Revisi per 23 November 2018 06.34 sunting AABot (bicara \| kontrib) Bot, Pengecualian blokir IP 913.306 suntingan k Bot: Perubahan kosmetika Tag: PAWS [1.2] ← Revisi sebelumnya		Revisi terkini sejak 2 November 2024 05.19 sunting balikkan Rang Djambak (bicara \| kontrib) 23.790 suntingan →Bacaan lanjut Tag: halaman dengan galat kutipan Suntingan perangkat seluler Suntingan peramban seluler Suntingan seluler lanjutan
(11 revisi perantara oleh 4 pengguna tidak ditampilkan)
Baris 54: }} [[Berkas:Calakmul Structure 13.jpg\|jmpl\|ka\|Prasasti 88 di yang berdiri di atas anak tangga Struktur 13 di Calakmul]] '''Calakmul''' (juga dieja '''Kalakmul''') adalah sebuah situs arkeologi [[peradaban Maya\|Maya]] yang terletak di negara bagian [[Campeche]] di [[Meksiko]]. Situs ini terletak di hutan yang lebat di wilayah [[Cekungan Petén]]. Calakmul terletak sejauh 35  km dari perbatasan dengan [[Guatemala]]. Calakmul merupakan salah satu kota Maya terbesar dan terkuat di wilayah dataran rendah Maya. Calakmul merupakan ibu kota sebuah negara yang dijuluki "Kerajaan Ular". Kerajaan Ular berkuasa pada [[kronologi Mesoamerika\|zaman Klasik]]. Negara ini memiliki wilayah yang luas, yang ditandai dengan glif lambang kepala ular yang dibaca "Kaan". Calakmul sendiri diperkirakan memiliki jumlah penduduk sebesar 50.000 jiwa dan memerintah wilayah yang terletak hingga sejauh 150  km. Terdapat 6.750 struktur kuno yang telah ditemukan di Calakmul, dan struktur terbesar di situs ini adalah piramidanya. Struktur 2 memiliki tinggi 45 m, sehingga merupakan salah satu piramida Maya tertinggi yang telah ditemukan. Empat makam telah ditemukan di dalam piramida ini. Seperti kebanyakan kuil atau piramida di Mesoamerika, piramida Calakmul dibangun dengan memperbesar kuil yang sudah ada sebelumnya. Pusat kota Calakmul memiliki luas sekitar 2  km<sup>2</sup>, sementara situsnya secara keseluruhan (kebanyakan merupakan hunian-hunian yang padat) memiliki luas yang mencapai 20  km<sup>2</sup>. Pada zaman Klasik, Calakmul merupakan musuh bebuyutan kota [[Tikal]] di selatan, dan perseteruan di antara keduanya telah digambarkan sebagai persaingan di antara dua adidaya Maya. Baris 63: == Etimologi == Calakmul adalah nama modern. Menurut Cyrus L. Lundell (yang menamai situs ini), ''ca'' dalam [[rumpun bahasa Maya\|bahasa Maya]] berarti "dua", ''lak'' bermakna "bersebelahan", dan ''mul'' artinya adalah gundukan buatan atau piramida, sehingga nama ''Calakmul'' berarti "Kota Dua Piramida yang Bersebelahan".<ref>{{cite web \| title = Zona Arqueológica de Calakmul \| publisher = Instituto Nacional de Arqueología e Historia \| date = 2013-10-07 \| url = http://www.inah.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5448 \| accessdate = 2013-04-16 \| language = Spanish \| archive-date = 2020-09-18 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200918070615/https://www.inah.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5448 \| dead-url = yes }}</ref> Pada zaman kuno, pusat kota ini dikenal dengan sebutan ''Ox Te' Tuun'', yang berarti "Tiga Batu". Nama lain yang dikaitkan dengan tempat ini (atau mungkin juga wilayah yang lebih luas di sekitarnya) adalah ''Chiik Naab'''. Para penguasa Calakmul menyebut gelar mereka ''k'uhul kaanal ajaw'' (secara harfiah berarti "Penguasa Ilahi Ular"), tetapi keterkaitan antara gelar ini dengan situs Calakmul masih belum pasti.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104">Martin & Grube 2000, hlm. 104.</ref> <!--▼ ~~==Location==~~ Calakmul is located in [[Campeche]] [[Political divisions of Mexico\|state]] in southeastern Mexico, about {{convert\|35\|km\|mi}} north of the border with [[Guatemala]] and {{convert\|38\|km\|mi}} north of the ruins of [[El Mirador]].<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.356. Folan et al. 1995a, p.310.</ref> The ruins of [[El Tintal]] are {{convert\|68\|km\|mi}} to the southwest of Calakmul and were linked to both El Mirador and Calakmul itself by causeway.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313">Folan et al 1995a, p.313.</ref> Calakmul was about {{convert\|20\|km\|mi}} south of the contemporary city of [[Oxpemul]] and approximately {{convert\|25\|km\|mi}} southwest of [[La Muñeca]].<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, p.311.</ref> The city is located on a rise about {{convert\|35\|m\|ft}} above a large [[wetland\|seasonal swamp]] lying to the west,<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> known as the El Laberinto ''bajo'' (a [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] word used in the region to denote a low-lying area of seasonal marshland).<ref name="Folan&c95a310">Folan et al 1995a, p.310.</ref> This swamp measures approximately {{convert\|34\|by\|8\|km\|mi}} and was an important source of water during the rainy season.<ref name="Folan&c95a310"/> The ''bajo'' was linked to a sophisticated water-control system including both natural and artificial features such as gullies and canals that encircled a {{convert\|22\|km2\|sqmi\|adj=on}} area around the site core, an area considered as Inner Calakmul.<ref name="Folan&c95a310"/> The location of Calakmul at the edge of a ''bajo'' provided two additional advantages: the fertile soils along the edge of the swamp and access to abundant [[flint]] [[Nodule (geology)\|nodules]].<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> The city is situated on a promontory formed by a natural {{convert\|35\|m\|ft\|adj=on}} high [[limestone]] dome rising above the surrounding lowlands.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> This dome was artificially levelled by the Maya.<ref name="Braswell05p167"/> During the [[Mesoamerican chronology\|Preclassic]] and Classic periods settlement was concentrated along the edge of the El Laberinto ''bajo'', during the Classic period structures were also built on high ground and small islands in the swamp where flint was worked.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> == Letak == At the beginning of the 21st century the area around Calakmul remained covered by dense forest.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165">Braswell et al. 2005, p.165.</ref> During the 1st millennium AD the area received moderate and regular rainfall, although there is less surface water available than further south in Guatemala.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/> Calakumul is now located within the {{convert\|1800000\|acre\|km2\|adj=on}} [[Calakmul Biosphere Reserve]]. Calakmul terletak di negara bagian [[Campeche]] di Meksiko tenggara, sekitar 35 km di sebelah utara perbatasan dengan [[Guatemala]] dan 38 km di sebelah utara reruntuhan [[El Mirador]].<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, hlm. 356. Folan et al. 1995a, hlm. 310.</ref> Reruntuhan [[El Tintal]] terletak sejauh 68 km di sebelah barat daya Calakmul dan dihubungkan oleh sebuah jalan dengan El Mirador maupun Calakmul.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313">Folan et al 1995a, hlm. 313.</ref> Calakmul terletak sekitar 20 km di sebelah selatan kota [[Oxpemul]] dan sekitar 25 km di sebelah barat daya [[La Muñeca]].<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, hlm. 311.</ref> Calakmul sendiri terletak di ketinggian sekitar 35 m di atas rawa-rawa musiman yang besar yang terhampar di barat,<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> yang dikenal dengan sebutan El Laberinto.<ref name="Folan&c95a310">Folan et al 1995a, hlm. 310.</ref> Rawa-rawa ini memiliki luas sekitar 34 x 8 km dan merupakan sumber air yang penting pada musim penghujan.<ref name="Folan&c95a310"/> Dataran rawa ini terhubung dengan sistem pengendali air yang mutakhir yang menggunakan kenampakan alami maupun buatan, seperti selokan dan terusan yang mengelilingi wilayah seluas 22 km<sup>2</sup> di sekeliling pusat situs yang disebut "Calakmul Dalam".<ref name="Folan&c95a310"/> Letak Calakmul di ujung dataran rawa memiliki dua manfaat: tanah yang subur di ujung rawa-rawa dan tersedianya [[nodul (geologi)\|nodul]] [[rijang]] yang berlimpah.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> Sementara itu, gundukan tempat kota ini berdiri merupakan gundukan buatan.<ref name="Braswell05p167"/> Pada zaman [[kronologi Mesoamerika\|Praklasik]] dan Klasik, permukiman-permukiman terpusat di ujung El Laberinto, tetapi pada zaman Klasik bangunan-bangunan juga didirikan di atas tanah tinggi dan pulau-pulau kecil yang menjadi tempat pengerjaan rijang.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> Pada permulaan abad ke-21, daerah di sekitar Calakmul masih ditutupi oleh hutan yang lebat.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165">Braswell et al. 2005, hlm. 165.</ref> Pada milenium pertama M, wilayah ini memiliki curah hujan sedang dan berkala, walaupun air permukaannya lebih sedikit daripada daerah yang terletak di selatan di Guatemala.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/> Calakumul kini berada di [[Cagar Biosfer Calakmul]] yang memiliki luas sebesar {{convert\|1800000\|acre\|km2\|adj=on}}. ▲<!-- ==Population and extent== At its height in the Late Classic period the city is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 inhabitants and to have covered an area of over {{convert\|70\|km2\|sqmi}}. The city was the capital of a large regional state with an area of about {{convert\|13000\|km2\|sqmi}}.<ref name="Braswell&c05p171">Braswell et al. 2005, p.171.</ref> During the Terminal Classic the city's population declined dramatically and the rural population plummeted to 10% of its former level.<ref>Braswell et al. 2005, pp.164, 188.</ref> Baris 337: * [[K'àak' Chi']] --> == Catatan kaki == {{reflist\|colwidth=30em}} Baris 342 ⟶ 343: == Daftar pustaka == {{refbegin\|indent=yes}}<!--BEGIN biblio format. If indent param. is used, Pls use a colon (:) instead of asterisk () for bullet markers in the references list --> : {{cite book \|author=Braswell, Geoffrey E. \|author2=Gunn, Joel D. \|author3=Dominguez Carrasco, María del Rosario \|author4=Folan, William J. \|author5=Fletcher, Laraine A. \|author6=Morales López, Abel \|author7=Glascock, Michael D. \|year=2005 \|chapter=Defining the Terminal Classic at Calakmul, Campeche \|editor=Arthur A. Demarest \|editor2=Prudence M. Rice \|editor3=Don S. Rice \|title=The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation \|url=https://archive.org/details/terminalclassici00arth \|location=Boulder \|publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] \|pages=~~162–194~~[https://archive.org/details/terminalclassici00arth/page/162 162]–194\|isbn=0-87081-822-8 \|oclc=61719499}} :{{cite journal \|author=Domínguez, María del Rosario \|author2=William J. Folan \|year=1996 \|title=Calakmul, México: Aguadas, bajos, precipitación y asentamiento en el Petén Campechano. \|journal=IX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1995 \|editor=J.P. Laporte \|editor2=H. Escobedo \|pages=147–173 \|publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología \|location=Guatemala \|url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/11.95_-_Rosario.pdf \|format=versión digital \|accessdate=2009-11-15 \|language=es \|deadurl=yes \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904132332/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/11.95_-_Rosario.pdf \|archivedate=2011-09-04 \|df= }} :{{cite book \|author=Drew, David \|year=1999 \|title=The Lost Chronicles of the Maya Kings\|url=https://archive.org/details/lostchroniclesof0000drew_j2y5 \|location=London \|publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]] \|isbn=0-297-81699-3 \|oclc=43401096}} :{{cite web \|author=Fahsen, Federico \|year=2002 \|title=Rescuing the Origins of Dos Pilas Dynasty: A Salvage of Hieroglyphic Stairway #2, Structure L5-49 \|url=http://www.famsi.org/reports/01098/index.html \|work=The Foundation Granting Department: Reports Submitted to FAMSI \|publisher=[[Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc.\|Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI)]] \|accessdate=2010-07-12}} :{{cite journal\|author=Folan, William S. \|author2=Joyce Marcus \|author3=Sophia Pincemin \|author4=Maria del Rosario Dominguez Carrasco \|author5= Loraine Fletcher \|author6= Abel Morales Lopez \|last-author-amp= yes \|title=Calakmul: New Data from an Ancient Maya Capitol in Campeche, Mexico \|journal=Latin American Antiquity \|volume=6 \|issue=4 \|date=December 1995a \|pages=310–334 \|jstor=971834}} :{{cite journal\|author=Folan, William J. \|author2=Joyce Marcus \|author3=W. Frank Miller \|title=Verification of a Maya Settlement Model through Remote Sensing. \|journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal \|volume=5 \|issue=2 \|pages=277–283 \|doi=10.1017/S0959774300015067 \|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] \|year=1995b}} :{{cite book \|author=Hammond, Norman \|year=2000 \|chapter=The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes \|editor=Richard E.W. Adams \|editor2=Murdo J. Macleod \|title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1 \|location=Cambridge, UK \|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] \|pages=197–249\|isbn=0-521-35165-0 \|oclc=33359444}} :{{cite book \|author=Looper, Matthew G. \|year=2003 \|title=Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua \|url=https://archive.org/details/lightningwarrior0000loop \|series=Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies \|location=Austin \|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] \|isbn=0-292-70556-5\|oclc=52208614}} :{{citation\|author=Martin, Simon \|authorlink=Simon Martin (Mayanist) \|title=Recently Uncovered Murals and Facades at Calakmul \|work=The Maya Mural Symposium \| date=October 2005 }} :{{cite book\|author=Martin, Simon \|authorlink=Simon Martin (Mayanist)\|author2=Nikolai Grube\|author2-link=Nikolai Grube \|year=2000 \|title=Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya \|url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofmayak00mart \|location=London and New York \|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] \|isbn=0-500-05103-8 \|oclc=47358325}} :{{cite book \|author=Miller, Mary Ellen \|authorlink=Mary Miller (art historian) \|year=1999 \|title=Maya Art and Architecture\|url=https://archive.org/details/mayaartarchitect00mill \|location=London and New York \|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] \|isbn=0-500-20327-X \|oclc=41659173}} :{{cite journal \|author=Reents-Budet, Dorie \|author2=Antonia E. Foias \|author3=Ronald L. Bishop \|author4=M. James Blackman \|author5=Stanley Guenter \|last-author-amp=yes \|year=2007 \|title=Interacciones políticas y el Sitio Ik’ (Motul de San José): Datos de la cerámica. \|url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf \|format=[[PDF]] online publication \|work=XX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2006 \|editor=J.P. Laporte \|editor2=B. Arroyo \|editor3=H. Mejía \|pages=1416–1436 \|publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala \|accessdate=2010-07-15 \|language=es \|deadurl=yes \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914133722/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf \|archivedate=2011-09-14 \|df= }} :{{cite book \|author=Rice, Prudence M. \|author2=Don S. Rice \|title=The Postclassic to Spanish-Era Transition in Mesoamerica: Archaeological Perspectives \|chapter=Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Maya Political Geography \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sc8wQYn4LrAC&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q&f=false \|year=2005 \|editor=Susan Kepecs \|editor2=Rani T. Alexander \|publisher=University of New Mexico Press \|location=Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA \|oclc=60550555 \|isbn=9780826337399}} :{{cite journal \|author=Salisbury, David \|author2=Mimi Koumenalis \|author3=Barbara Moffett \|date=19 September 2002 \|title=Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world \|url=http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/print/pdfs/news/news_dospilas_feature.pdf \|format=[[PDF]] online publication \|journal=Exploration: the online research journal of Vanderbilt University \|publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] Office of Science and Research Communications \|location=Nashville, TN \|oclc=50324967 \|accessdate=2009-09-22 \|deadurl=yes \|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102134600/http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/print/pdfs/news/news_dospilas_feature.pdf \|archivedate=2 November 2014 \|df= }} :{{cite book \|author=Schele, Linda \|authorlink=Linda Schele \|author2=David Freidel \|year=1990 \|title=A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya \|url=https://archive.org/details/forestofkingsunt0034sche \|location=New York \|publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]] \|isbn=0-688-11204-8 \|oclc=24501607}} :{{cite book \|author=Sharer, Robert J. \|authorlink=Robert Sharer\|author2=Loa P. Traxler \|year=2006 \|title=The Ancient Maya \|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmaya0006shar \|edition=6th (fully revised) \|location=Stanford, CA \|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] \|isbn=0-8047-4817-9 \|oclc=57577446}} :{{cite book \|author=Stuart, David \|authorlink=David Stuart (Mayanist) \|author2=George Stuart \|year=2008 \|title=Palenque: Eternal City of the Maya \|url=https://archive.org/details/palenqueeternalc0000stua \|location=London \|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] \|isbn=978-0-500-05156-6\|oclc=227016561}} :{{cite book \|author=Webster, David L. \|year=2002 \|title=The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse \|url=https://archive.org/details/fallofancientmay0000webs \|location=London \|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] \|isbn=0-500-05113-5 \|oclc=48753878}} {{refend}}<!-- END biblio format style --> Baris 371 ⟶ 372: :{{cite journal \|author=Zimmermann, Mario \|title=Los nuevos hallazgos en la Estructura III \|journal=Arqueología Mexicana \|volume=XXII \|issue=128 \|pages=52–57 \|year=Jul–Aug 2014 \|location=Mexico City, Mexico \|publisher=Editorial Raíces \|issn=0188-8218 \|oclc=29789840\|language=es}} {{refend}}<!-- END biblio format style --> == Lihat pula == [[Valeriana (kota Maya)]] == Pranala luar == {{Commons category\|Calakmul}} * [http://www.inah.gob.mx/calakmul/htme/calak001.html Calakmul - Patrimonio Cultural de la Humanidad] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209065527/http://www.inah.gob.mx/calakmul/htme/calak001.html \|date=2007-02-09 }} [[INAH]] site on Calakmul * [http://www.mayanroutes.com/calakmul.html Calakmul] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706162006/http://www.mayanroutes.com/calakmul.html \|date=2008-07-06 }} (from ''The State of Campeche Book'') * [http://www.calakmul.org/ Friends of Calakmul] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609231337/http://www.conanp.gob.mx/dcei/didact/CALAKMUL%20PA%20PDF.pdf Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, information from Mexico's National Parks Commission] Baris 383 ⟶ 387: {{Situs Maya}} {{coord\|18.105392\|N\|89.810829\|W\|display=title}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Situs Warisan Dunia UNESCO di Meksiko]]