Salafiyah: Perbedaan antara revisi

{{SalafismeBedakan|Salaf}}

'''Salafiyah''' ({{lang-ar|السلفية|translit=as-Salafīyyah}}, bentuk adjektival '''Salafi'''), juga disebut '''Salafisme''', adalah sebuah gerakan [[Islahkebangkitan Islam|reformasikebangkitan]] ultra-konservatifdalam [[Sunni|Islam Sunni]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Esposito|first1=John|date=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkCak_1CnYlinMC&q=salafiSalafi+movement+reformsect&pg=PA275PA27 |title=TheLegal Oxford DictionaryIntegration of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195125597|page=275|access-date=5 December 2015}}</ref> di dalam [[Suni|Islam Sunni]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Joppke |first=Christian |date=1 April 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ak_1CnYlinMC&q=Salafi+sect&pg=PA27|title=Legal Integration of Islam|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674074910 |pages=27 |language=en |quote=Salafism, which is a largely pietistic, [[apolitical]] sect favoring a literalist reading of the Quran and SunnaSunnah. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Salafism in Jordan: Political Islam in a Quietist Community |author=Joas Wagemakers|year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L13WDAAAQBAJ&lpgpg=PA227|title=Salafism in Jordan: Political Islam in a Quietist Community|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107163669|page=227 |quote=These men adhere to the Salafi branch of Islam |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2016|isbn=9781107163669 }}</ref><ref name="Harvard Divinity">{{cite web|title=The Rise of European Colonialism|url=https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/rise-european-colonialism|publisher=Harvard Divinity School|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409171633/https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/rise-european-colonialism|archive-date=9 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&q=salafi+movement+reform&pg=PA275 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195125597 |page=275 |access-date=95 AprilDecember 2015}}</ref> yang dibentuk sebagai gerakan sosio-religius pada akhir abad ke-19 dan tetap berpengaruh di [[dunia Islam]] selama lebih dari satu abad.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mahmood |first=Saba |title=Politics of piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject 2018|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofpietyi00mahm_2 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780691149806 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofpietyi00mahm_2/page/61 61] |chapter=Chapter 2: Topography of the Piety movement |quote="The Salafi movement emerged at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth in the context of European intellectual and political dominance in the Muslim World"}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=E. Curtis |first=Edward |title=Encyclopedia of Muslim-statusAmerican History |publisher=deadInfobase Publishing |year=2010 |isbn=9781438130408 |pages=499 |language=English |quote="Salafi Muslims: As a social movement within Sunni Islam, Salafi Muslims ARE a global revivalism movement"}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-539589-1 |editor-last=L. Esposito, El-Din Shahin |editor-first=John, Emad |location=New York |pages=38 |quote="Salafism, in its varying guises, has been an important trend in Islamic thought for more than a century."}}</ref>Nama ini diambil dari anjuran untuk kembali ke pemahaman leluhur ([[salaf]]), tiga generasi awal Muslim yang mengetahui ajaran Islam yang murni tanpa adanya tambahan dan pengurangan. Generasi-generasi itu termasuk [[Nabi Islam]] [[Muhammad]] dan para sahabat yang diajarkannya sendiri ([[Sahabat Nabi|para Sahabat]]), penerus mereka ([[Tabiin]]), dan penerus penerus (''[[Tabi'ut Tabi'in]]''). Secara praktis, Salafi berpendapat bahwa umat Islam harus bergantung pada [[Al-Qur'an]], [[Sunnah]] dan [[Ijma']] (konsensus) salaf, memberikan mereka prioritas atas interpretasi agama kemudian.<ref>Bin Ali Mohamed ''Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala' Wal Bara'' World Scientific, 14.09.2015 9781783263943 p. 61</ref> Gerakan ini bertujuan untuk memperbarui kehidupan Muslim dan ia telah memberikan pengaruh besar pada banyak pemikir dan gerakan Muslim di seluruh [[Dunia Islam]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=L. Esposito|first=John|title=The Oxford encyclopedia of the modern Islamic world vol.3|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-19-509614-2|location=200 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016|pages=463|quote="SALAFIYAH... It aimed at the renewal of Muslim life and had a formative impact on many Muslim thinkers and movements across the Islamic world."}}</ref> Sejak awal, Salafisme telah berkembang melalui upaya berbagai reformis Islam, yang kegiatannya tersebar di berbagai wilayah.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islam and Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-539589-1|editor-last=L. Esposito, El-Din Shahin|editor-first=John, Emad|location=198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016|pages=38|quote="Salafism has evolved under a number of key reformers, each of whom has brought his own unique insights and vision to the movement in response to the challenges of his national context."}}</ref>

Istilah Salafi dibuat oleh [[Ibnu Taimiyah]] pada abad ke-8 Hijriyah, dan [[Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab]] menghidupkan kembali istilah ini di wilayah [[Najd]] pada abad ke-12 H, yang menjadikan Salafi sebagai sebuah gerakan reformasi yang didirikan oleh salah satu perwakilan paling terkemuka di era modern.<ref name="عربي 21">[https://arabi21.com/story/800126/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B0%D8%A7-%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86-%D9%88%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%AB%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D9%85 مقال على ماذا يتنازع السلفيون .. ومن يمثل السلفية منهم؟] موقع عربي 21 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216044417/http://arabi21.com/story/800126/على-ماذا-يتنازع-السلفيون-ومن-يمثل-السلفية-منهم |date=16 ديسمبر 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Botobekov |first=Uran |year=2021 |chapter=How Central Asian Salafi-Jihadi Groups are Exploiting the Covid-19 Pandemic: New Opportunities and Challenges |editor-last=Käsehage |editor-first=Nina |title=Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic |series=Religionswissenschaft |volume=21 |location=[[Bielefeld]] |publisher=Transcript Verlag |doi=10.14361/9783839454855-005 |doi-access=free |pages=107–148 |isbn=978-3-8376-5485-1 | issn = 2703-1438}}</ref>

== Penggunaan istilah salafiyah ==

Kata salafi sering dihubungkan dengan [[Wahhabisme]] (bagi sebagian besar pengikutnya, nama Wahabi ini dianggap menghina; mereka lebih memilih istilah Salafisme), sehingga dua istilah ini sering dipandang sebagai [[sinonim]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/islam/bldef_salafiyya.htm |title=Salinan arsip |access-date=2012-08-04 |archive-date=2012-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929085504/http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/islam/bldef_salafiyya.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Biasanya, penganutnya dari gerakan salafy menjelaskan dirinya sebagai ''Muwahidin'', ''[[Ahlul Hadits]]'', <ref>The Muslim World After 9/11 By Angel M. Rabasa, pg. 275</ref> atau ''Ahlu Tauhid''. <ref name="global">GlobalSecurity.org [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-salafi.htm Salafi Islam]</ref>

Dakwah salafi adalah [[Minhaj|manhaj]], bukan [[mazhab]] [[fikih]], sebagaimana masyarakat awam mengira. Salafi dapat berasal dari mazhab [[Mazhab Maliki|Maliki]], [[Mazhab Syafi'i|Syafii]], [[Mazhab HambaliHanbali|Hanbali]], [[Mazhab Hanafi|Hanafi]], atau [[Mazhab Zhahiri|Zhahiri]]. Secara akidah, Salafi banyak merujuk kepada pemikiran dari mazhab Hanbali.<ref>{{cnCite journal|last=Ardiansyah|first=Ardiansyah|date=April2013|title=PENGARUH 2023MADZHAB HAMBALI DAN PEMIKIRAN IBNU TAIMIYAH DALAM PAHAM SALAFI|url=http://repository.uinsu.ac.id/198/4/artikel.pdf|journal=Analytica Islamica|volume=15|issue=2|pages=267-283}}</ref> Pengikut-pengikut manhaj ini mengeklaim dirinya sebagai ''[[Sunni Islam|Ahlussunnah wal-Jama'ah]]'' dan juga [[Ahli Hadis]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Asadullah al-Ghalib|first=Muhammad|year=2012|title=AHLE HADEETH MOVEMENT What and Why?|location=Kajla, Rajshahi, Bangladesh H.F.B. Publication: 35|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-984-33-4799-2|pages=625–643|quote="In different books of Hadeeth and in reliable books of Fiqh, the Ahle hadeeth have been described as Ahle hadeeth, Ashabul Hadeeth, Ahle Sunnah wal Jama‘at, Ahlul Athar, Ahlul Haq, Muhadditheen etc. As the followers of Salaf-i-Saleheen, they are also known as Salafi."}}</ref> Gerakan ini juga menganut teologi tradisionalis, yaitu mazhab akidah [[Atsariyah]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidtke|first=Sabine|year=2016|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969670-3|pages=625–643}}</ref>

Meskipun [[Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab]] secara pribadi menolak praktik Taqlid, ulama Wahhabi dan Salafi lebih memilih mengikuti madzhab [[HambaliHanbali]] dan umumnya mengizinkan Taqlid mengikuti Fatwa (pendapat hukum hukum) dan mendorong mengikuti mazhab.<ref>{{Cite book|last=H. Warren|first=David|title=Rivals in the Gulf|publisher=Routledge: Taylor & Francis|year=2021|isbn=978-0-367-28062-8|location=Abingdon, Oxon|pages=5|quote="While Wahhab personally rejected the practice of adhering (taqlīd) to a particular legal school, the Wahhabi ʿulamāʾ who follow his thought do, in effect, practice a taqlīd of the Hanbali school.."}}</ref> Sementara mereka secara doktrinal mengutuk Taqlid dan menganjurkan Ijtihad, secara historis praktik hukum Wahhabisme sebagian besar didasarkan dalam batas-batas sekolahmazhab HambaliHanbali, sampai saat ini. Penolakan doktrin Taqlid oleh Salafi akan menyebabkan munculnya ulama Salafisme terkemuka seperti [[Sa'ad bin Atiq]], [[Abdurrahman bin Nashir as-Sa'di]], [[Ibnu Utsaimin]], [[Ibnu Baz]], dan yang lainnya; yang akan menyimpang secara signifikan dari hukum Hambalifiqih Hanbali.<ref name="al-Yaqoubi" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lacroix|first=Stéphane |title=Awakening Islam: The Politics of Religious Dissent in Contemporary Saudi Arabia |url=https://archive.org/details/awakeningislampo0000lacr|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-674-04964-2 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England|pages=[https://archive.org/details/awakeningislampo0000lacr/page/83 83]–84|chapter=Chapter 3: Resistance to Sahwa Ascendancy}}</ref><ref name="muslimmatters.org">{{cite web|last=Qadhi|first=Dr. Yasir|date=22 April 2014|title=On Salafi Islam|url=https://muslimmatters.org/2014/04/22/on-salafi-islam-dr-yasir-qadhi/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117190311/https://muslimmatters.org/2014/04/22/on-salafi-islam-dr-yasir-qadhi/|archive-date=17 January 2017|website=Muslimmatters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Meijer|first=Roel|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-933343-1|location=New York|pages=43, 61–62, 63 |chapter=Between Revolution and Apoliticism: Nasir al-Din al-Albani and his Impact on the Shaping of Contemporary Salafism}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gauvain|first=Richard|title=Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013|isbn= 978-0-7103-1356-0 |location=New York|pages=8, 293}}</ref>

Gerakan Salafi lainnya, bagaimanapun, percaya bahwa taqlid adalah melanggar hukum dan menantang otoritas sekolah hukum. Dalam perspektif mereka, sejak mazhab muncul setelah era [[Salafus Shalih]] (pendahulu yang saleh); orang-orang Muslim yang mengikuti madzhab tanpa langsung mencari dalil-dalil Kitab Suci akan menyimpang.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Olidort|first=Jacob|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Brookings-Analysis-Paper_Jacob-Olidort-Inside_Final_Web.pdf|title=The Politics of "Quietist Salafism"|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2015|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England|pages=7, 8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cooke, B. Lawrence|first=Miriam, Bruce|title=Muslim Networks from Hajj to Hip Hop|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=2005|isbn=0-8078-2923-4|location=London|pages=212–213|chapter=Chapter 10: The Salafi Movement}}</ref> Ini termasuk ulama gerakan [[Ahlul Hadits]], seperti [[Muhammad Nashiruddin al-Albani]], Muḥammad Ḥayāt al-SindhīSindzī, IbnIbnu 'Amir al-Ṣanʿānī, alasy-ShawkānīSyaukānī, dan yang lainnya; yang sama sekali mengutuk taqlid (peniruan), menolak otoritas mazhab, dan mewajibkan umat Islam untuk mencari fatwa-fatwa yang dikeluarkan oleh para ulama yang hanya berdasarkan [[Al-Qur'an]] dan [[Hadis]]; tanpa melibatkan perantara.<ref name="muslimmatters.org"/><ref name="Bennett, p. 174">"From there he [Albani] learned to oppose taqlid in a madhab." Bennett, ''The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies'', p. 174. "Al-Albani had denounced Wahhabi attachment to the Hanbali school." Stephane Lacroix, George Holoch, ''Awakening Islam,'' p. 85</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Meijer|first=Roel|title=Global Salafism: Islam's New Religious Movement|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-933343-1|location=New York|pages=62–63|chapter=Between Revolution and Apoliticism: Nasir al-Din al-Albani and his Impact on the Shaping of Contemporary Salafism}}</ref> Ulama Ahl-iAhlul Hadits akan membedakan diri mereka dari Wahhabi yang mengikuti mazhab Hanbali sementara mereka menganggap diri mereka tidak mengikuti mazhab tertentu. Di era kontemporer, Albani dan murid-muridnya, khususnya, akan langsung mengkritik Wahhabi dalam masalah Taqlid. karena afinitas mereka terhadap mazhab Hanbali dan menyerukan regenerasi [[Wahhabisme]] yang dimurnikan dari unsur-unsur yang bertentangan dengan doktrin Salaf.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krawietz, Tamer|first=Birgit, Georges|title=Islamic Theology, Philosophy and Law: Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|publisher=Walter De Gruyter|year=2013|isbn=978-3-11-028534-5|location=Berlin, Germany|pages=165–166}}</ref>

Pengikut gerakan Salafi menganggap sumber hukum utama Islam, [[Al-Qur'an]] dan [[Sunnah]], sudah cukup jelas, serta sering menolak penggunaan penafsiran dan penalaran manusia. Salafi menyukai implementasi praktis daripada perselisihan makna, karena dapat dianggap jelas atau berada di luar nalar manusia.<ref>Bin Ali Mohamed ''Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala Wal Bara'' World Scientific, 14.09.2015 9781783263943 p. 61</ref> Mereka menganggap bahwa mengikuti teologi ilmu kalam, bahkan jika terbukti benar sekali pun, mutlak dilarang.<ref name="TCSI2010: 36">[[Salafiyah#TCSI2010|Halverson, ''Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam,'' 2010]]: 36 "For the Atharis, the “clear” (i.e., zahir, apparent, or literal) meaning of the Qur’an and especially the prophetic traditions (ahadith) have sole authority in matters of belief, as well as law, and to engage in rational disputation (jadal), even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden. A strictly literal, or perhaps amodal, reading of the Qur’an, as opposed to one engaged in ta’wil (metaphorical interpretation), or an attempt to rationally conceptualize its meanings, cannot be questioned and the “real” meanings should be consigned to God."</ref> Atsariyah memaknai Al-Qur'an dan [[hadis]] secara literal dan amodal, serta mengakui pemaknaan yang sudah dianggap jelas dalam hal akidah. Hal ini berbeda dengan penganut ''[[takwil]]'' (penafsiran metaforis), penganut Salafi tidak mengkonseptualisasikan makna Al-Qur'an secara rasional; dan percaya bahwa makna sebenarnya harus diserahkan kepada Allah saja ([[Tafwidh|''[[tafwidh'']]'').<ref name="TCSI2010: 36-7">[[Salafiyah#TCSI2010|Halverson, ''Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam,'' 2010]]: 36–7 "For the Atharis, the “clear” (i.e., zahir, apparent, or literal) meaning of the Qur’an and especially the prophetic traditions (ahadith) have sole authority in matters of belief, as well as law, and to engage in rational disputation (jadal), even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden. A strictly literal, or perhaps amodal, reading of the Qur’an, as opposed to one engaged in ta’wil (metaphorical interpretation), or an attempt to rationally conceptualize its meanings, cannot be questioned and the “real” meanings should be consigned to God."</ref> Secara hermeunistik, Salafi berbeda dari non-Salafi dalam beberapa hal kebolehan.<ref>Bin Ali Mohamed ''Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala Wal Bara'' World Scientific, 14.09.2015 9781783263943 pp. 62-63</ref>

Para pengikut Salafi banyak mengikuti ajaran-ajaran dari [[Ibnu Taimiyyah]], terutama dalam masalah teologi dan spiritual. Ajaran-ajaran Ibnu Taimiyyah banyak memberi pengaruh kepada [[Wahabisme]], [[Ahli Hadis]], dan gerakan Salafi yang lain. Menurut doktrin monoteistik Ibnu Taimiyyah, [[Tauhid]] dibagi menjadi tiga: ''ar-rubūbiyyah'' (Tauhid Ketuhanan), ''al-ulūhiyyah'' (Tauhid Sesembahan), dan ''al-asmā' waṣ-ṣifāt'' (Tauhid Nama dan Sifat). Penafsiran [[Syahadat|syahadat tauhid]] oleh Ibnu Taimiyyah adalah menegaskan bahwa "tidak ada Tuhan (Ilah yang disembah) selain Allah", tanpa sekutu bagi-Nya, serta menjadi dasar penting dalam akidah Salafi. Pada zaman kontemporer, tulisan-tulisan Ibnu Taimiyyah tentang teologi dan kebaruan dalam praktiknya telah mengilhami gerakan Salafi dalam berbagai jenis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoover|first=Jon|year=2019|title=Ibn Taymiyya (Makers of the Muslim World)|location=10 Bloomsbury Street, London WC1B 3SR, England|publisher=Oneworld Academic|isbn=978-1-78607-689-2|pages=11, 19, 46–47, 88, 140}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidtke|first=Sabine|year=2016|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969670-3|page=635|quote="Ibn Taymiyya also speaks of the priority of worship and ethics over metaphysics in theological terms that later became widespread among Wahhābīs and modern Salafīs. He distinguishes two tawḥīds, or two ways of confessing God’s unity. Ibn Taymiyya’s first tawḥīd is that of God’s divinity (ulūhiyya). Al-tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya signifies God’s sole worthiness to be a god, that is, God’s sole right to be an object of worship (ʿibāda). Al-tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya is exclusive worship of God that refuses to give devotion and love to anything or anyone else. Then flowing out from this is the second tawḥīd, the tawḥīd of God’s lordship (rubūbiyya). God’s lordship refers to His creative power, and al-tawḥīd al-rubūbiyya means confessing that God is the only source of created beings"}}</ref> Berkembangnya gerakan-gerakan ini pada abad ke-20 telah menyebabkan minat terhadap tulisan-tulisan Ibnu Taimiyah semakin meningkat. Salafi umumnya menggelari Ibnu Taimiyah sebagai ''[[Syekhul Islam|]]''Syekhul Islam'']]. Selain Ibnu Taimiyyah, murid-muridnya seperti [[Ibnul Qayyim al-Jauziyyah]], [[Ibnu Katsir]], [[Imam adz-Dzahabi|adz-Dzahabi]], dll. banyak menjadi ulama rujukan Salafi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidtke|first=Sabine|year=2016|title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969670-3|pages=427, 626, 641–642}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=C. Martin|first=Richard|year=2004|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|isbn=0-02-865603-2|page=468}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bosworth, Donzel, Heinrichs, Lecomte|first=C. E. , E. Van , W. P. , G.|year=1997|title=The Encyclopedia of Islam:New Edition Vol. IX|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-10422-4|page=400}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Leaman|first=Oliver|year=2006|title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse|location=New York|publisher=Routledge: Taylor & Francis|isbn=0-415-32639-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/n662 631]–633}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|date=2010|title=The Construction Ofsalafiyya: Reconsidering Salafism from the Perspective of Conceptual History|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-middle-east-studies_2010-08_42_3/page/369|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=42|issue=3|pages=369–389|doi=10.1017/S0020743810000401|doi-access=free}}</ref>

* {{cite book |last=Botobekov |first=Uran |year=2021 |chapter=How Central Asian Salafi-Jihadi Groups are Exploiting the Covid-19 Pandemic: New Opportunities and Challenges |editor-last=Käsehage |editor-first=Nina |title=Religious Fundamentalism in the Age of Pandemic |series=Religionswissenschaft |volume=21 |location=[[Bielefeld]] |publisher=Transcript Verlag |doi=10.14361/9783839454855-005 |doi-access=free |pages=107–148 |isbn=978-3-8376-5485-1 | issn = 2703-1438}}