Jenghis Khan: Perbedaan antara revisi
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
Swarabakti (bicara | kontrib) Tag: Suntingan visualeditor-wikitext |
Rescuing 23 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 |
||
(12 revisi perantara oleh 3 pengguna tidak ditampilkan) | |||
Baris 30:
}}
{{Jenghis Khan}}
'''Jenghis Khan''' ([[bahasa Mongol]]: ''Чингис хаан; Chingis haan'') ([[bahasa Kazakh]]: ''Шыңғыс хан; Şyńğys han'') ([[bahasa Turki]]: ''Cengiz Han'') {{efn|Juga dieja sebagai '''Genghis Khan''' ([[bahasa Kazakh]]: ''Генгис хаан; Gengis haan''){{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|ŋ|ɡ|ɪ|s|_|ˈ|k|ɑː|n}}}} (lahir sebagai '''Temüjin''' ([[bahasa Mongol]]: ''Темүзин; Temüzin''); {{circa|1162}}{{snd}}Agustus 1227),
Temüjin yang lahir antara tahun 1155 dan 1167 merupakan putra sulung dari pasangan [[Yesugei]], kepala suku Mongol dari [[Borjigin|klan Borjigin]] dan istri utamanya [[Hö'elün]]. Ketika Temüjin berusia delapan tahun, ayahnya meninggal dan suku mereka meninggalkan keluarga Temujin. Dengan keluarganya yang hampir sepenuhnya miskin, Temüjin membunuh [[Behter|kakak tirinya]] untuk memperkuat posisinya di dalam keluarga. Pribadinya yang karismatik membantunya mendapatkan pengikut dan mengikat persekutuan dengan dua pemimpin [[Stepa Eurasia|padang rumput]] yang kuat, [[Jamukha]] dan [[Toghrul]]. Bersama-sama, mereka menyelamatkan istri Temüjin, [[Börte]], yang diculik oleh perampok. Namun, seiring dengan meningkatnya pamor Temüjin, hubungannya dengan Jamukha berubah menjadi konflik. Pada sekitar 1187, Temüjin mengalami [[Pertempuran Dalan Balzhat|kekalahan besar]] dan mungkin menghabiskan beberapa tahun berikutnya di bawah kendali [[Dinasti Jin (1115–1234)|dinasti Jin]]. Pada 1196, ia muncul kembali dan dengan cepat mulai mendapatkan kekuasaan. Toghrul, yang melihat Temüjin sebagai ancaman, [[Pertempuran Gurun Pasir Qalaqaljid|melancarkan serangan mendadak terhadapnya]] pada 1203. Temüjin mundur, tetapi kemudian berkumpul kembali dan mengalahkan Toghrul. Setelah mengalahkan [[suku Naiman]] dan mengeksekusi Jamukha, Temüjin menjadi penguasa tunggal padang rumput Mongolia.
Baris 73:
[[File:OnonRiver.jpg|thumb|upright=1.63|left|[[Sungai Onon]], dekat tempat lahir Temüjin, diabadikan disini di [[Provinsi Khentii]], Mongolia]]
Temüjin lahir ke dalam klan [[Borjigin]] di bawah [[suku Mongol]]{{efn|Pada masa itu, kata "Mongol" hanya merujuk pada para anggota satu suku di timur laut Mongolia. Karena suku tersebut memainkan peran utama dalam pembentukan [[Kekaisaran Mongol]], nama mereka kemudian dipakai untuk seluruh suku.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|pp=389–391}}}} dari pasangan [[Yesügei]], seorang kepala suku yang mengaku bernasab kepada pejuang legendaris [[Bodonchar Munkhag]], serta istri utamanya, [[Hö'elün]], yang berasal dari klan [[Olkhonud]] dan direbut oleh Yesügei dari mempelai pria bersuku [[Merkit]], Chiledu.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=14–15|May|2018|2pp=20–21}} Asal usul nama lahirnya masih diperdebatkan: beberapa
Terdapat beberapa legenda seputar kelahiran Temüjin. Salah satu yang paling terkenal adalah bahwa ia lahir dengan [[gumpalan darah]] di tangannya. Penggambaran ini merupakan sebuah [[Motif (sastra)|motif]] khas cerita rakyat Asia yang menjadi pertanda bahwa anak itu akan menjadi seorang pejuang.{{sfnm|Brose|2014|1loc=§ "The Young Temüjin"|Pelliot|1959|2p=288}} Legenda lain mengatakan bahwa Hö'elün [[kelahiran mukjizat|hamil dari seberkas cahaya]], yang menandakan masa depan anak tersebut, sebuah kisah yang mirip dengan mitos nenek moyang Borjigin, [[Alan Gua]].{{sfn|Ratchnevsky|1991|p=17}} Setelah Temüjin, Yesügei dan Hö'elün memiliki tiga anak laki-laki—[[Qasar]], [[Hachiun]], dan [[Temüge]]—serta seorang anak perempuan, [[Temülün]]. Temüjin juga memiliki dua saudara tiri, [[Behter]] dan [[Belgutei]], dari istri kedua Yesügei, [[Sochigel]], yang latar belakangnya tidak diketahui. Kakak beradik ini tumbuh besar di perkemahan utama Yesügei di tepi Sungai Onon, kala mereka belajar menunggang kuda dan memanah.{{sfn|Ratchnevsky|1991|pp=15–19}}
Baris 97:
Segera setelah itu, sekitar 300 orang Merkit menyerang perkemahan Temüjin untuk membalas dendam atas penculikan Hö'elün yang dilakukan oleh Yesügei. Sementara Temüjin dan saudara-saudaranya berhasil bersembunyi di [[Burkhan Khaldun|gunung Burkhan Khaldun]], Börte dan Sochigel ditangkap. Börte dinikahkan dengan adik laki-laki mendiang Chiledu, mengikuti hukum levirat.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=34–35|Brose|2014|2loc=§ "Emergence of Chinggis Khan"}} Temüjin meminta bantuan dari Toghrul dan teman masa kecilnya, Jamukha, yang telah menjadi kepala suku [[Jadaran]]. Kedua kepala suku itu bersedia menggerakkan pasukan yang terdiri dari 20.000 prajurit. Di bawah pimpinan Jamukha, mereka dengan cepat memenangkan pertempuran. Börte, yang saat itu sedang hamil, diselamatkan dan kemudian melahirkan seorang putra, [[Jochi]]. Meskipun Temüjin membesarkan Jochi layaknya putra sendiri, keraguan mengenai nasab Jochi selalu mengikutinya sepanjang hayat.{{sfnm|May|2018|1p=30|Bawden|2022|2loc=§ "Early struggles"}} Kisah ini ada di ''Sejarah Rahasia'', tetapi tidak dicatat oleh Rashid al-Din, yang berupaya melindungi reputasi keluarganya dengan menghilangkan segala kesan ketidakabsahan.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=34–35|May|2018|2pp=30–31}} Selama 15 tahun berikutnya, Temüjin dan Börte memiliki tiga anak laki-laki ([[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]], [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]], dan [[Tolui]]) dan empat anak perempuan ([[Checheikhen|Checheyigen]], [[Alakhai Bekhi|Alaqa]], Tümelün, dan [[Alaltun|Al Altan]]).{{sfn|Broadbridge|2018|pp=66–68}}
Para pengikut Temüjin dan Jamukha berkemah bersama selama sekitar satu setengah tahun. Selama itu pula, kedua pemimpin memperbaharui ikatan mereka sebagai saudara sedarah, bahkan turut berbagi selimut, sebagaimana dicatat oleh ''Sejarah Rahasia''. Sumber
[[File:Djengiz Khân et Toghril Ong Khan.jpeg|upright=1.3|left|thumb|Temüjin dan [[Toghrul]], diilustrasikan dalam manuskrip abad ke-15 [[Jami' al-tawarikh]].]]
Temüjin dengan cepat dinyatakan sebagai khan Mongol oleh para pengikut dekatnya.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=98|Brose|2014|2loc=§ "Building the Mongol Confederation"}} Toghrul senang dengan naiknya Temüjin, tetapi Jamukha cemburu dan kesal. Hal ini menyebabkan meningkatnya ketegangan, yang akhirnya berubah menjadi konflik terbuka. Sekitar tahun 1187, Temüjin
Sejarawan modern seperti Ratchnevsky dan Timothy May
=== Mengalahkan pesaing ===
Setelah kemenangannya di Dalan Baljut, Jamukha bertindak dengan sangat kejam
[[File:Mongol_Empire_c.1207.png|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Negara-negara kesukuan disatukan oleh Temüjin untuk mendirikan Kekaisaran Mongol]]
Pada tahun-tahun berikutnya, Temüjin dan Toghrul melancarkan kampanye melawan Merkit, Naiman, dan Tatar, terkadang bekerja sama dan terkadang secara independen. Sekitar tahun 1201, beberapa suku yang tidak puas, termasuk Onggirat, Tayichiud, dan Tatar, membentuk sebuah aliansi untuk menantang dominasi koalisi Borjigin-Kereit. Mereka memilih Jamukha sebagai pemimpin mereka dan memberinya gelar [[gurkhan]], yang berarti “khan
Berusaha untuk menjadi kekuatan dominan di Mongolia timur, Temüjin pertama-tama mengalahkan Tayichiud dan kemudian, pada 1202, Tatar. Setelah setiap kemenangan, ia mengeksekusi para pemimpin klan dan menggabungkan para pejuang yang tersisa ke dalam pasukannya. Di antara anggota baru ini adalah Sorkan-Shira, yang sebelumnya telah membantu Temüjin, dan seorang prajurit muda bernama Jebe, yang membuat Temüjin terkesan dengan keterampilan dan keberaniannya—[[Jebe]] telah membunuh kuda Temüjin selama pertempuran dan tidak berusaha menyembunyikannya.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=63–67|de Hartog|1999|2pp=21–22|3a1=Fitzhugh|3a2=Rossabi|3a3=Honeychurch|3y=2009|3p=102}}
Setelah menaklukkan Tatar, ada tiga kekuatan militer utama yang tersisa di padang rumput: Naiman di barat, Mongol di timur, dan Kereit di antaranya.{{sfn|May|2018|p=36}} Untuk memperkuat posisinya, Temüjin menyarankan agar putranya, Jochi, menikahi salah satu putri Toghrul. Namun, kaum elit Kereit
{{Quote box
Baris 333:
=== Daftar pustaka ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news |last=Achenbach |first=Joel |author-link=Joel Achenbach |date=31 December 1995 |accessdate=27 November 2023 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1995/12/31/the-era-of-his-ways/58a4ef4c-052f-4cd3-b6ee-5e68b4159161/ |title=The Era of His Ways |work=[[Washington Post]] |ref={{harvid|Washington Post 1995}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |author-link=Christopher Atwood |date=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8160-4671-3 |url=https://www.academia.edu/8855875 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719221752/https://www.academia.edu/8855875 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite journal |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |author-link=Christopher Atwood |date=2004a |title=Validation by Holiness or Sovereignty: Religious Toleration as Political Theology in the Mongol World Empire of the Thirteenth Century |journal=[[The International History Review]] |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=237–256 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2004.9641030 |jstor=40109471 |s2cid=159826445 |url=http://globalmiddleages.org/sites/default/files/pdf-files/atwood.pdf |
* {{cite book |last=Barthold |first=Vasily |author-link=Vasily Bartold |editor-last=Bosworth |editor-first=Clifford E. |editor-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |date=1992 |orig-date=1900 |title=Turkestan Down To The Mongol Invasion |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] |location=New Delhi |edition=Third |isbn=978-8-1215-0544-4 |url=https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/z316q171w |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801193954/https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/z316q171w |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bawden |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Bawden |date=2022 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |title=Genghis Khan |access-date=17 October 2022 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Genghis-Khan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011170916/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Genghis-Khan |archive-date=11 October 2022 |url-status=live |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Biran |first=Michal |title=Chinggis Khan |year=2012 |series=Makers of the Muslim World |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |location=London |url=https://www.academia.edu/32453356 |isbn=978-1-7807-4204-5 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611223326/https://www.academia.edu/32453356 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last1=Birge |first1=Bettine |last2=Broadbridge |first2=Anne F. |chapter=Women and Gender under Mongol Rule |date=2023 |title=The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire |editor-last1=Biran |editor-first1=Michal |editor-last2=Kim |editor-first2=Hodong |editor-link2=Kim Ho-dong |isbn=978-1-3163-3742-4 |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=628–654|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Boyle |first=John Andrew |author-link=John Andrew Boyle |date=1968 |title=[[The Cambridge History of Iran]] Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521069366 |isbn=978-1-1390-5497-3 |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Broadbridge |first=Anne F. |date=2018 |title=Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization |isbn=978-1-1086-3662-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Brose |first=Michael C. |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Kerry |editor-link=Kerry Brown (sejarawan) |date=2014 |encyclopedia=The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography |title=Chinggis (Genghis) Khan |publisher=[[Berkshire Publishing Group]] |location=[[Great Barrington, Massachusetts|Great Barrington]] |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780190214371.001.0001/acref-9780190214371-e-14 |isbn=978-1-9337-8266-9 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2020-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814020603/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780190214371.001.0001/acref-9780190214371-e-14 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite journal |last=Buell |first=Paul D. |date=2010 |title=Some Royal Mongol Ladies: Alaqa-beki, Ergene-Qatun and Others |journal=World History Connected |volume=7 |issue=1 |url=https://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/7.1/buell.html |accessdate=25 November 2023 |ref=harv |archive-date=2020-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921033005/https://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/7.1/buell.html |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite journal |last=Cleaves |first=Francis Woodman |author-link=Francis Woodman Cleaves |date=1955 |journal=[[Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies]] |title=The Historicity of The Baljuna Covenant |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=357–421 |doi=10.2307/2718438 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718438 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-04-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425204119/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718438 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite web |last=Craig |first=Erin |date=19 July 2017 |title=Why Genghis Khan's tomb can't be found |access-date=19 Juli 2023 |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20170717-why-genghis-khans-tomb-cant-be-found |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718100715/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20170717-why-genghis-khans-tomb-cant-be-found |archive-date=18 Juli 2023 |url-status=live |website=[[BBC]] |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Favereau |first=Marie |author-link=Marie Favereau |date=2021 |title=The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-6742-7865-3
* {{cite journal |last1=Fiaschetti |first1=Francesca |year=2014 |url=http://mongol.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/Fiaschetti-%20MQYJ%202015.pdf |title=Tradition, Innovation and the construction of Qubilai's diplomacy |journal=Ming Qing Yanjiu |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=82 |access-date=10 Januari 2020 |url-status=live |archive-date=11 Juni 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611102740/http://mongol.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/Fiaschetti-%20MQYJ%202015.pdf |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Fitzhugh |editor-first1=William W. |editor-link1=William W. Fitzhugh |editor-last2=Rossabi |editor-first2=Morris |editor-link2=Morris Rossabi |editor-last3=Honeychurch |editor-first3=William |year=2009 |title=Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire |publisher=Mongolian Preservation Foundation |location=Washington |isbn=978-0-2959-8957-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanmongo00medi |url-access=limited |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Fogel |first=Joshua |author-link=Joshua Fogel |date=2008 |title=Chinggis on the Japanese Mind |journal=Mongolian Studies |volume=30/31 |pages=259–269 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43193543 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2024-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708214150/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43193543 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Golden |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Benjamin Golden |date=2009 |chapter=Inner Asia c.1200 |series=[[The Cambridge History of Inner Asia]] |title=The Chinggisid Age |editor-last1=Di Cosmo |editor-first1=Nicola |editor-link1=Nicola Di Cosmo |editor-last2=Frank |editor-first2=Allen J. |editor-last3=Golden |editor-first3=Peter |editor-link3=Peter Benjamin Golden |pages=9–25 |isbn=978-1-1390-5604-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=de Hartog |first=Leo |date=1999 |orig-date=1979 |title=Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-8606-4972-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanconqu0000hart/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Hung |first=William |author-link=William Hung (sinologist) |date=1951 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718184 |journal=[[Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies]] |title=The Transmission of The Book Known as The Secret History of The Mongols |volume=14 |issue=3/4 |pages=433–492 |doi=10.2307/2718184 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421113345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718184 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |date=2017 |title=The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1n2tvq0 |isbn=978-0-3001-2533-7 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719222124/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1n2tvq0 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |date=2023 |title=From Genghis Khan to Tamerlane: The Reawakening of Mongol Asia |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.9421075 |isbn=978-0-3002-5112-8 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2024-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240812151239/https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.9421075 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite journal |last=Jagchid |first=Sechin |year=1979 |title=The Mongol Khans and Chinese Buddhism and Taoism |journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=7–28 |url=http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8475/2382 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2018-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505162354/http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8475/2382 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kwanten |first=Luc |author-link=Luc Kwanten |date=1978 |title=The Career of Muqali: A Reassessment |journal=[[Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies]] |volume=14 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23497511 |pages=31–38 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716220701/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23497511 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Lane |first=George |author-link=George A. Lane |title=Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule |year=2004 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |location=[[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]] |isbn=978-0-3133-2528-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanmongo00geor |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Fang-ju |last2=Cheng |first2=Shu-fang |script-title=zh:國立故宮博物院藏蒙古文物彙編 |trans-title=Cultural Relics of the Mongols in the National Palace Museum Collection |isbn=978-9-5756-2734-8 |year=2015 |language=zh |publisher=[[National Palace Museum]] |location=Taipei|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lkhagvasuren |first1=Gavaachimed |last2=Shin |first2=Heejin |last3=Lee |first3=Si Eun |last4=Tumen |first4=Dashtseveg |last5=Kim |first5=Jae-Hyun |last6=Kim |first6=Kyung-Yong |last7=Kim |first7=Kijeong |last8=Park |first8=Ae Ja |last9=Lee |first9=Ho Woon |last10=Kim |first10=Mi Jin |last11=Choi |first11=Jaesung |last12=Choi |first12=Jee-Hye |last13=Min |first13=Na Young |last14=Lee |first14=Kwang-Ho |display-authors=1 |date=2016 |title=Molecular Genealogy of a Mongol Queen's Family and Her Possible Kinship with Genghis Khan |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=11 |issue=9 |page=433 |issn=1932-6203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0161622 |pmc=5023095 |pmid=27627454 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1161622L |doi-access=free |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308121873 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Man |first=John |author-link=John Man (penulis) |date=2004 |title=Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection |location=London |publisher=[[Bantam Press]] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanlifed0000manj |isbn=978-0-3129-8965-1 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Man |first=John |author-link=John Man (penulis) |date=2014 |title=The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, His Heirs, and the Founding of Modern China |location=London |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]] |isbn=978-0-5521-6880-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |date=2007 |title=The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System |location=[[Yardley, Pennsylvania|Yardley]] |publisher=Westholme |url=https://archive.org/details/mongolartofwarch0000mayt |isbn=978-1-5941-6046-2 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |date=2008 |title=Culture and Customs of Mongolia |series=Culture and Customs of Asia |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-3133-3983-7 |location=[[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]] |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |title=The Mongol Conquests in World History |year=2012 |publisher=[[Reaktion Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-8618-9971-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/Book_1080 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |date=2018 |title=The Mongol Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7486-4237-3 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424115013/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=McLynn |first=Frank |author-link=Frank McLynn |title=Genghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His Legacy |year=2015 |publisher=[[Hachette Books]] |isbn=978-0-3068-2395-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jcQzCgAAQBAJ |location=New York |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Morgan |first=David |author-link=David O. Morgan |date=1986 |title=The Mongols |series=The Peoples of Europe |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-6311-7563-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mongolspeoplesof00davi |ref=harv }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Morgan |first=David |author-link=David O. Morgan |date=1990 |title=Čengīz Khan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |volume=V |pages=133–135 |access-date=10 December 2022 |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cengiz-khan |ref=harv |archive-date=2022-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206225711/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cengiz-khan |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Mote |first=Frederick W. |author-link=Frederick W. Mote |date=1999 |title=Imperial China, 900–1800 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=
* {{cite book |last=Pelliot |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Pelliot |date=1959 |title=Notes on Marco Polo |volume=I |publisher=[[Imprimerie nationale]] |location=Paris |access-date=17 October 2022 |url=https://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/Pelliot/Pelliot_Notes%20on%20Marco%20Polo_I%201959.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=31 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831164116/https://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/Pelliot/Pelliot_Notes%20on%20Marco%20Polo_I%201959.pdf |oclc=1741887 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last1=Porter |first1=Jonathan |title=Imperial China, 1350–1900 |year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MAFiCwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-4422-2293-9 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=[[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]] |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Pow |first=Stephen |date=2017 |title=The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=31–51 |doi=10.1017/S135618631600033X|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |translator-last=de Rachewiltz |translator-first=Igor |translator-link=Igor de Rachewiltz |date=2015 |title=The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century |url=https://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=cedarbooks |access-date=22 November 2022 |type=Shorter Version; edited by John C. Street |ref={{SfnRef|de Rachewiltz 2015}} |archive-date=2020-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025144637/https://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=cedarbooks |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Ratchnevsky |first=Paul |year=1991 |translator=Thomas Haining |translator-link=Thomas Haining |title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Oxford |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhan00paul/ |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-6311-6785-3 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Rosenfeld |first=Gavriel D. |author-link=Gavriel D. Rosenfeld |date=2018 |title=Who Was "Hitler" Before Hitler? Historical Analogies and the Struggle to Understand Nazism, 1930–1945 |journal=[[Central European History]] |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=249–281 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26567826 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2024-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240517171111/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26567826 |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Sanders |first=Alan J. K. |date=2017 |title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia |edition=Fourth |volume=1 |isbn=978-1-5381-0227-5 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Historical_Dictionary_of_Mongolia/UGwvDwAAQBAJ? |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=[[Lanham, Maryland|Lanham]] |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2024-01-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128081424/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Historical_Dictionary_of_Mongolia/UGwvDwAAQBAJ? |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Sverdrup |first=Carl |date=2017 |title=The Mongol Conquests: The Military Campaigns of Genghis Khan and Sübe'etei |isbn=978-1-9133-3605-9 |publisher=Helion & Company |location=[[Solihull]] |url=https://archive.org/details/Book_1096 |url-access=registration |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Togan |first=Isenbike |date=2016 |chapter=Otchigin's Place in the Transformation from Family to Dynasty |title=Central Asia in the Middle Ages: Studies in Honour of Peter B. Golden |series=Turcologica |editor-last1=Zimonyi |editor-first1=Istvan |editor-last2=Karatay |editor-first2=Osman |publisher=[[Harrassowitz Verlag]] |location=[[Wiesbaden]] |url=https://www.academia.edu/36081475/2016_Otchigins_Place_in_the_Transformation_from_Family_to_Dyna_pdf |pages=407–424 |isbn=978-3-4471-0664-1 |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727192951/https://www.academia.edu/36081475/2016_Otchigins_Place_in_the_Transformation_from_Family_to_Dyna_pdf |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite book |last=Waley |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Waley |date=2002 |title=The Secret History of the Mongols: and other pieces |publisher=House of Stratus |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofm0000unse/ |url-access=registration |isbn=978-1-8423-2370-0 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Waterson |first=James |title=Defending Heaven: China's Mongol Wars, 1209–1370 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Pen and Sword Books|Frontline Books]] |isbn=978-1-7834-6943-7 |location=[[Barnsley]]|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Weatherford |first=Jack |author-link=Jack Weatherford |title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World |date=2004 |publisher=[[Crown Publishing Group]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-3072-3781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanmaki00jack |url-access=registration |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson |date=2012 |orig-date=1973 |edition=Third |title=[[Chinese History: A New Manual]] |isbn=978-0-6740-6715-8 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]|ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wright |first=David Curtis |date=2017 |orig-year=2016 |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Bibliographies Online|Oxford Bibliographies]]: Military History |title=Genghis Khan |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199791279-0154 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199791279/obo-9780199791279-0154.xml |url-access=subscription |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320031927/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199791279/obo-9780199791279-0154.xml |dead-url=no }}
* {{cite journal |first1=Wenpeng |last1=You |first2=Francesco M. |last2=Galassi |first3=Elena |last3=Varotto |first4=Maciej |last4=Henneberg |title=Genghis Khan's death (AD 1227): An unsolvable riddle or simply a pandemic disease? |journal=[[International Journal of Infectious Diseases]] |volume=104 |date=2021 |pages=347–348 |issn=1201-9712 |doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2020.12.089 |pmid=33444749 |s2cid=231610775 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1201971221000205 |doi-access=free |hdl=10447/620953 |hdl-access=free |ref=harv |access-date=2024-08-21 |archive-date=2023-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719204147/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1201971221000205 |dead-url=no }}
{{refend}}
|