Strok: Perbedaan antara revisi

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{{Penyangkalan medis}}{{Technical|date=Juni 2018}}
'''Stroke''' terjadi ketika pasokan [[darah]] ke suatu bagian [[otak]] tiba-tiba terganggu. Dalam jaringan otak, kurangnya aliran darah menyebabkan serangkaian reaksi bio-kimia, yang dapat merusakkan atau mematikan [[neuron|sel-sel otak]]. Kematian jaringan otak dapat menyebabkan hilangnya fungsi yang dikendalikan oleh jaringan itu. Stroke adalah penyebab [[kematian]] yang ketiga di Amerika Serikat dan banyak negara industri di Eropa (Jauch, 2005). Bila dapat diselamatkan, kadang-kadang si penderita mengalami kelumpuhan pada anggota badannya, hilangnya sebagian ingatan atau kemampuan bicaranya. Untuk menggarisbawahi betapa seriusnya stroke ini, beberapa tahun belakangan ini telah semakin populer istilah ''serangan otak''. Istilah ini berpadanan dengan istilah yang sudah dikenal luas, "serangan jantung".
{{Infobox Disease
|Name = Strok
|Image = INFARCT.jpg
|Caption = [[Tomografi terkomputasi|CT scan]] menunjukkan adanya iskemik di penampang melintang otak
|DiseasesDB = 2247
|ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|61||i|60}}-{{ICD10|I|64||i|60}}
|ICD9 = {{ICD9|434.91}}
|OMIM = 601367
|MedlinePlus = 000726
|eMedicineSubj = neuro
|eMedicineTopic = 9
|eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|558}} {{eMedicine2|emerg|557}} {{eMedicine2|pmr|187}}
|MeshID = D020521
}}
[[Berkas:MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG|jmpl|Hasil [[otopsi]] otak yang mengalami strok.]]
'''Strok''' (bentuk tidak baku: '''stroke'''){{efn|Dalam ''[[Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia]]'' telah disebutkan bahwa {{lang|id|'''strok'''}} adalah ejaan yang benar dalam bahasa Indonesia.<ref>{{kamus|strok}}</ref> Walaupun tidak ada entri {{lang|id|'''stroke'''}} pada ''Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia'', tetapi kata ini masih sering digunakan.}} atau '''angin ahmar''' adalah [[Penyakit|kondisi medis]] akibat buruknya [[aliran darah]] ke [[otak]] sehingga terjadi [[kematian sel]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/stroke|title=Stroke {{!}} National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)|website=www.nhlbi.nih.gov|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref> Hal ini dapat terjadi karena [[iskemia]] (berkurangnya aliran darah) akibat penyumbatan ([[trombosis]], [[embolisme arteri]]), atau adanya [[pendarahan]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sims NR, Muyderman H |title=Mitochondria, oxidative metabolism and cell death in stroke |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta |volume= 1802|issue= 1|pages= 80–91 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19751827 |doi=10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.09.003}}</ref> Strok iskemik yang biasanya disebabkan oleh diabetes menjadi mayoritas pada penderita strok dan bisa mencapai 85 persen, sedangkan strok pendarahan hanya 15 persen, tetapi strok pendarahan dapat menyebabkan kematian pada 40 persen pasiennya. Yang perlu diperhatikan juga adalah strok iskemik ringan yang gejalanya mirip strok, tetapi akan hilang dengan sendirinya dalam 24 jam (''transient ischemic attacks'' (TIA)). Hal ini terjadi karena penyumbatan pembuluh darah hanya terjadi sementara. Tetapi bagaimanapun, jika hal ini terjadi, maka kemungkinan terjadinya strok berikutnya yang lebih berat dapat terjadi. Di Indonesia, strok terjadi pada 12 dari 1.000 orang dan satu dari 7 pasien yang mengalami strok akan meninggal.<ref name="TIA">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/07/01/detecting-and-dealing-with-strokes.html |title=Detecting and dealing with strokes |author=Niken Prathivi |date=July 1, 2014}}</ref>
 
Karenanya, daerah yang terkena strok tidak dapat berfungsi seperti seharusnya. Gejala-gejalanya termasuk: [[hemiplegia]] (ketidakmampuan untuk menggerakkan satu atau lebih anggota badan dari salah satu sisi badan), [[aphasia]] (ketidakmampuan untuk mengerti atau berbicara), atau tidak mampu untuk melihat salah satu sisi dari luas pandang.<ref name=Donnan>{{cite journal |author=Donnan GA, Fisher M, Macleod M, Davis SM |title=Stroke |journal=Lancet |volume=371 |issue=9624 |pages=1612–23 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18468545 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60694-7}}</ref>
{{stub}}
 
Strok memerlukan tindakan [[darurat medis]] pada masa emasnya (golden period) yang maksimum hanya berlangsung beberapa jam saja setelah terjadinya strok. Hal ini diperlukan untuk mencegah terjadinya kerusakan tetap atau kerusakan yang lebih parah. Dan jika tidak ditangani, bahkan bisa mengakibatkan kematian. Strok adalah penyebab ketiga terbesar kematian dan yang pertama dalam menyebabkan kecacatan pada dewasa di Amerika Serikat dan Eropa.
[[Category:Istilah kedokteran]]
 
Faktor-faktor yang meningkatkan risiko terjadinya strok adalah: [[usia]], [[tekanan darah tinggi]], strok sebelumnya, [[diabetes]], [[kolesterol]] tinggi, [[merokok]], [[fibrilasi atrium]], [[migrain]], dan [[trombofilia]] (kekurangan [[trombosis]]). Dari semua faktor-faktor tersebut yang paling mudah dikendalikan adalah tekanan darah tinggi dan merokok. 80 persen strok dapat dihindari dengan pengelolaan faktor-faktor risiko.<ref name=TIA/>
==Types of stroke==
===Ischemic stroke===
Stroke is classified by its cause into two main types: ischemic and [[hemorrhagic stroke|hemorrhagic]]. In ischemic stroke, which occurs in approximately 85-90% of strokes, a [[blood vessel]] becomes occluded and the blood supply to part of the brain is totally or partially blocked. Ischemic stroke is commonly divided into thrombotic and embolic (Stroke Center, 2005). Rarer types of stroke can occur (see below)
 
== Klasifikasi ==
====Embolic stroke====
Strok dibagi menjadi dua jenis yaitu [[strok iskemik]] maupun [[strok hemoragik]]. Sebuah prognosis hasil sebuah penelitian di [[Korea]] menyatakan bahwa,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10660147|title = Ischemic stroke in Korean young adults|accessdate = 2011-08-21|work = Department of Neurology, University of Ulsan, Asan Medical Center; Kwon SU, Kim JS, Lee JH, Lee MC.}}</ref> 75,2% strok iskemik diderita oleh kaum pria dengan prevalensi berupa [[hipertensi]], kebiasaan merokok dan konsumsi alkohol. Berdasarkan sistem TOAST, komposisi terbagi menjadi 20,8% LAAS, 17,4% LAC, 18,1% CEI, 16,8% UDE dan 26,8% ODE.
In embolic stroke, an [[embolus]], or a travelling particle in a blood vessel, flows with the bloodstream into progressively smaller arteries until it becomes lodged, inhibiting passage of blood. An embolus is most frequently a blood clot, but it can also be a plaque broken off from an [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] blood vessel or a number of other things including fat, air, and even [[cancer]]ous cells (Perry and Miller 1961). An embolism may also be formed when the [[human heart|heart]] pumps ineffectively, allowing the blood to pool and coagulate, as occurs in certain heart arythmias such as [[atrial fibrillation]] (NINDS 1999).
 
Deteksi secepatnya dalam masa 'Golden Period' beberapa jam setelah serangan strok sangat berarti bagi kesehatan pasien pascastrok. Strok iskemik, karena penyumbatan harus diberikan obat pengencer darah untuk melancarkan sumbatan dalam waktu tidak lebih dari 3 jam setelah serangan strok, sedangkan strok hemoragik dimana terjadi pendarahan harus segera dilakukan pembedahan untuk membersihkan darah dari otak. Jika terlambat penangannya, maka pasien akan menderita pascastrok yang lebih berat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2014/08/26/alami-stroke-harus-segera-dibawa-ke-dokter |title=Alami Stroke Harus Segera Dibawa Ke Dokter |date=26 Agustus 2014|language=id |work=[[Tribunnews|Tribunnews.com]] }}</ref>
====Thrombotic stroke====
In thrombotic stroke, the clot does not travel; it builds up and finally occludes the artery where it forms. When there is a tear in an artery wall, [[platelet]]s and [[clotting factor]]s in the blood are drawn to the area and aggregate there, forming a clot. They send out chemicals that can trigger a [[clotting cascade]]. Arterial clots usually form around [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] plaques (NINDS 1999). Since occlusion takes longer, onset of thrombotic strokes is slower.
 
=== Strok hemoragik ===
Blood flow can also be restricted in a condition called arterial [[stenosis]], in which plaques build up on the artery wall, causing the vessel to become narrow and stiff (NINDS 1999).
Dalam strok [[pendarahan|hemoragik]], pembuluh darah pecah sehingga menghambat aliran darah yang normal dan darah merembes ke dalam suatu daerah di otak dan merusaknya. Pendarahan dapat terjadi di seluruh bagian otak seperti ''caudate putamen''; [[talamus]]; [[hipokampus]]; frontal, parietal, dan ''occipital cortex''; [[hipotalamus]]; area suprakiasmatik; ''cerebellum''; ''pons''; dan ''midbrain''.<ref name="PMC2914803">{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2914803
|title = A New Embolus Injection Method to Evaluate Intracerebral Hemorrhage in New Zealand White Rabbits|accessdate = 2011-09-08|work = Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Department of Neurology; Paul A. Lapchak, Ph.D., FAHA}}</ref> Hampir 70 persen kasus strok hemorhagik menyerang penderita hipertensi.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851591
|title = Variants of the Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 but not the Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 genes significantly influence functional outcome after stroke|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Departamento Promoção da Saúde e Doenças Crónicas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr Ricardo Jorge, Center for Biodiversity, Functional & Integrative Genomics (BIOFIG), Clinical Neurology Research Unit, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Serviço de Neurologia, Hospital de Santa Maria; Helena Manso, Tiago Krug, João Sobral, Isabel Albergaria, Gisela Gaspar, José M Ferro, Sofia A Oliveira, dan Astrid M Vicente
|quote = History of hypertension, although not associated in the univariate analysis, became significant in the multivariate model before inclusion of genetic variants, and was therefore included in the final regression model.
}}</ref>
 
Strok hemoragik terbagi menjadi subtipe ''intracerebral hemorrhage'' (ICH), ''subarachnoid hemorrhage'' (SAH),<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
===Hemorrhagic stroke===
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2734292|title = Influence of stroke subtype on quality of care in the Get With The Guidelines–Stroke Program|accessdate = 2011-07-25
:''See full article: [[Hemorrhagic stroke]].''
|work = Calgary Stroke Program (E.E.S.), Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Canada; Duke Clinical Research Institute (L.L., A.H.), Department of Epidemiology (M.J.R.), Michigan State University, Division of Cardiology (C.P.C.), Brigham & Women's Hospital, Division of Cardiology (G.C.F.), University of California, Stroke Service (L.H.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital; E E. Smith, MD, MPH, L Liang, PhD, A Hernandez, MD, M J. Reeves, PhD, C P. Cannon, MD, G C. Fonarow, MD, dan L H. Schwamm, MD}}</ref> ''cerebral venous thrombosis'', dan ''spinal cord stroke''.<ref name="PM19342825">{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19342825
Hemorrhagic stroke, or [[intracranial hemorrhage]], occurs in about 10% of strokes, when a [[blood vessel]] in the brain bursts, spilling blood into the spaces surrounding the brain cells. Hemorrhagic strokes generally carry a greater risk of death and permanent disability than ischemic strokes.
|title = Classification of stroke subtypes.|accessdate = 2011-08-01|work = Department of Neurology and Stroke Center, INSERM U-698 and Paris-Diderot University, Bichat University Hospital; Amarenco P, Bogousslavsky J, Caplan LR, Donnan GA, Hennerici MG.}}</ref> ICH lebih lanjut terbagi menjadi ''parenchymal hemorrhage'', ''hemorrhagic infarction'', dan ''punctate hemorrhage''.<ref name="PMC2914803" />
 
===Watershed strokeStrok iskemik ===
Dalam strok iskemik, penyumbatan bisa terjadi di sepanjang jalur pembuluh darah [[arteri]] yang menuju ke otak. Darah ke otak disuplai oleh dua [[arteria karotis interna]] dan dua [[arteri vertebralis]]. Arteri carotis interna merupakan cabang dari arteri carotis communis sedangkan arteri vertebralis merupakan cabang dari arteri subclavia.
A small proportion of strokes are [[watershed stroke]]s caused by [[hypoperfusion]] (usually due to [[hypotension]]) or other vascular problems including [[vasculitis]]. A watershed stroke is where the brain tissue between major arteries has been damaged from lack of blood flow. Hypoperfusion is a lack of blood flow which may have various causes. Hypotension is low blood pressure. In a watershed stroke blood flow to the area is not stopped, but is instead lessened to the point where brain damage occurs.
==== Sistem klasifikasi etiologis ====
Beberapa sistem klasifikasi yang didasarkan pada pertimbangan [[etiologi]] telah diterapkan kepada strok iskemik.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2861780
|title = Advances in the Diagnosis of Etiologic Subtypes of Ischemic Stroke
|accessdate = 2011-07-25|work = Stroke Service and A. A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School; Hakan Ay}}</ref> Beberapa sistem tersebut gagal mengikuti perkembangan zaman dan tidak lagi dipergunakan, beberapa sistem yang lain masih dapat diterima oleh sebagian masyarakat dan dipergunakan dalam lingkup yang terbatas. Berikut adalah sistem klasifikasi yang paling mutakhir dan paling banyak digunakan.
 
===Rarer== typesSistem ofTOAST stroke=====
Sistem TOAST ({{lang-en|Trial of ORG 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment}}) pertama kali dikembangkan kepada terapi strok iskemik akut pada awal tahun 1990. Sistem ini didasarkan pada sebagian besar fitur klinis namun tetap mempertimbangkan informasi diagnostik dari CT, MRI, ''transthoracic echocardiography'', ''extracranial carotid ultrasonography'', dan jika memungkinkan, ''cerebral angiography''.
Venous obstruction can obstruct flow so that an infarction occurs. This commonly occurs in the rare disease [[sinus vein thrombosis]].
 
Sistem TOAST membagi strok menjadi 5 subtipe yaitu,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7678184|title = Classification of subtype of acute ischemic stroke. Definitions for use in a multicenter clinical trial. TOAST. Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment.|accessdate = 2011-08-01|work = Department of Neurology, University of Iowa; Adams HP Jr, Bendixen BH, Kappelle LJ, Biller J, Love BB, Gordon DL, Marsh EE 3rd.}}</ref><ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15630637|title = Cerebrovascular risk factors and clinical classification of strokes|accessdate = 2011-08-21|work = Department of Internal Medicine and Cardioangiology, University of Palermo; Pinto A, Tuttolomondo A, Di Raimondo D, Fernandez P, Licata G.}}</ref> ''large artery'' [[aterosklerosis|''atherosclerosis'']] (LAAS), ''cardiaoembolic'' [[infark|''infarct'']] (CEI), ''small artery occlusion''/[[infark#infark lakunar|''lacunar infarct'']] (LAC), ''stroke of another determined cause/origin'' (ODE), dan ''stroke of an undetermined cause/origin'' (UDE).
==Causes==
===Ischemic stroke===
Ischemic stroke is usually caused by [[atherosclerosis]] (fatty lumps in the artery wall), [[embolism]] (obstruction of blood vessels by blood clots from elsewhere in the body), or [[microangiopathy]] (small artery disease, the occlusion of small cerebral vessels).
 
===== Sistem CCS =====
[[Atrial fibrillation]] and other [[arrhythmia]]s can lead to clot formation in the heart, which can become emboli and lodge in the brain. Some forms of [[thrombophilia]] (increased coagulation tendency) have a predilection for arterial thrombosis and stroke; these include [[polycythemia vera]] and the rare [[paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria]].
Klasifikasi sistem CCS ({{lang-en|Causative Classification of Stroke System}}) mirip dengan sistem TOAST dengan perbedaan dalam subtipe ''large artery atherosclerosis'' dibedakan menjadi ''occlusive'' dan ''stenotic''. Sebagai contoh, penurunan diameter ≥ 50%, atau penurunan diameter <50% disertai ''plaque ulceration'' atau [[trombosis]]. Dan subtipe ''undetermined cause'' dibedakan lebih lanjut menjadi ''unknown'', ''incomplete evaluation'', ''unclassified stroke (more than one etiology)'', dan ''cryptogenic embolism''.
 
===== Sistem ASCO =====
Risk factors (for atherosclerosis and small vessel disease) are advanced age, [[hypertension]] (high blood pressure), [[diabetes mellitus]], [[hypercholesterolemia|high cholesterol]], and [[cigarette smoking]]. High blood pressure is the most important modifiable risk factor of stroke.
ASCO merupakan [[akronim]] dari ''atherothrombosis, small vessel disease, cardiac causes, and other uncommon causes''. Sistem ASCO merupakan klasifikasi berdasarkan sistem [[fenotipe]]. Tiap fenotipe masih terbagi menjadi jenjang 0, 1, 2, 3 atau 9. Jenjang 0 berarti ''disease is completely absent'', 1 berarti ''definitely a potential cause of the index stroke'', 2 untuk ''causality uncertain'' dan 3 untuk ''unlikely a direct cause of the index stroke (but disease is present)'', 9 bagi ''grading is not possible due to insufficient work-up''.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19342826|title = New approach to stroke subtyping: the A-S-C-O (phenotypic) classification of stroke.|accessdate = 2011-08-01|work = Department of Neurology and Stroke Center, INSERM U-698 and Paris-Diderot University, Bichat University Hospital; Amarenco P, Bogousslavsky J, Caplan LR, Donnan GA, Hennerici MG.}}</ref>
 
Dalam sistem ini, penderita dapat dikategorikan menjadi lebih dari satu subtipe etiologis, misalnya, penderita dengan [[ateroma]] [[karotid]] yang menyebabkan [[stenosis]] 50% dan [[fibrilasi atrial]] dengan [[aterosklerosis]] dan [[emboli]] kardiak, atau dijabarkan menjadi seperti A1-S9-C0-O3.
===Hemorrhagic stroke===
Causes of [[hemorrhagic stroke]] include [[hypertension]], [[Cerebral arteriovenous malformation|cerebral AVM]], [[cerebral aneurysm]]s, cerebral [[arteriosclerosis]], [[head injury]], [[congophilic angiopathy]], congenital artery defects and [[Premature birth|prematurity]].
 
===== Sistem UCSD Stroke DataBank =====
===Watershed stroke===
Sistem UCSD mengklasifikan strok iskemik menjadi ''large-vessel stenotic'', ''large-vessel occlusive'', ''Small-vessel stenotic'', ''small-vessel occlusive'', ''embolic'' dan ''unknown cause''. Sedangkan klasifikasi strok hemoragik terbagi menjadi subtipe yang sama yaitu tipe ''intracerebral'' dan ''subarachnoid''.
As opposed to hemorrhagic stroke or embolic (or other atherogenic) stroke, watershed strokes occur in parts of the brain that lie at the boundary between zones of arterial distribution from different arteries. When there is hypotension from any cause, these watershed areas are more susceptible to damage than other areas of the brain.
 
==Signs=== andSistem symptomsHCSR =====
Sistem HCSR ({{lang-en|Harvard Cooperative Stroke Registry}}) membuat klasifikasi menjadi subtipe strok yang disertai [[trombosis]] di [[arteri]] atau dengan [[infark#infark lakunar|infark lakunar]], ''cerebral embolism'', ''intracerebral hematoma'', subarachnoid hemorrhage'' dari malformasi ''aneurysm'' atau ''arteriovenous''.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/567291|title = The Harvard Cooperative Stroke Registry: a prospective registry.|accessdate = 2011-08-01|work = Mohr JP, Caplan LR, Melski JW, Goldstein RJ, Duncan GW, Kistler JP, Pessin MS, Bleich HL.}}</ref>
The symptoms of stroke include the following:
* sudden [[numbness]] or weakness, especially on one side of the body ([[hemiplegia]]);
** [[reflex]]es can initially be decreased on the affected side, but are often more exaggerated than on the unaffected side;
** the face is normally spared (as this is served by both hemispheres), but the corner of the mouth can be affected on the same side as the limb symptoms;
* sudden [[confusion]] or [[aphasia]] (trouble [[speaking]]) or understanding speech;
* sudden trouble [[Visual perception|seeing]] in one [[eye]] (or rarely both);
* [[pupil]]s of unequal size;
* impaired swallowing reflex;
* sudden trouble [[walking]], [[dizziness]], or loss of balance or coordination.
 
===== Sistem NINCDS Stroke Data Bank =====
Some patients lose consciousness as part of the initial presentation. This occurs more often in hemorrhagic stroke than in thrombosis.
Dalam ''Stroke Data Bank of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke'' mengklasifikasi menjadi subtipe [[diagnosa|diagnostik]] berdasarkan riwayat klinis penderita, pemeriksaan, test laborat meliputi [[tomografi]], ''noninvasive vascular imaging'', dan saat memungkinkan dan relevan, [[angiografi]]. Dari diagnosa tersebut subtipe ''infarcts of undetermined cause'' (IUC) dapat diklasifikasi ulang menjadi subtipe [[embolisme]] [[idiopatik]], [[stenosis]] atau [[trombosis]] di [[pembuluh nadi]], [[infark#infark lakunar|infark lakunar]], [[infarksi superfisial]] dan [[sindrom nonlakunar]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2712533|title = Infarks of undetermined cause: the NINCDS Stroke Data Bank.|accessdate = 2011-08-01|work = Neurological Institute, Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center; Sacco RL, Ellenberg JH, Mohr JP, Tatemichi TK, Hier DB, Price TR, Wolf PA.}}</ref>
 
==== Sistem lain ====
A sudden-onset severe [[headache]] can denote [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]], which is a stroke-like clinical entity. Some other forms of stroke can feature headaches.
Beberapa ahli lain mempertimbangan klasifikasi berdasarkan [[fenotipe]] seperti keberadaan ''internal carotid artery plaque'', ''intima-media thickness'', [[leukoaraiosis]], ''cerebral microbleeds'' (CMB), atau ''multiple lacunae''.<ref name="PM19342825" />
 
CMB adalah deposit [[hemosiderin]] intraserebral yang terdapat di ruang [[pervaskular]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18384712|title = Silent cerebral microbleeds on susceptibility-weighted imaging of patients with ischemic stroke and leukoaraiosis.|accessdate = 2011-08-01|work = Department of Neurology, Capital Medical University, Beijing Anzhen Hospital; Gao T, Wang Y, Zhang Z. }}</ref> Ekspresi CMB sangat tinggi di [[infark#infark lakunar|infark lakunar]] dan [[infark]] [[trombosis|aterotrombotik]], dan berekspresi rendah di infarksi kardioembolik. CMB dan [[leukoaraiosis]] sangat berkaitan erat. Hasil [[prognosis]] menunjukkan bahwa CMB ditemukan dalam 47-80% kasus ''primary intracerebral haemorrhage'' dan 0-78% dalam kasus ''ischaemic cerebrovascular disease''.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18706032|title = Cerebral microbleeds: old leaks and new haemorrhages.|accessdate = 2011-08-01|work = Department of Neuroradiology, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf; Fiehler J.}}</ref>
If the symptoms resolve within an hour, or maximum 24 hours, the diagnosis is [[transient ischemic attack]] (TIA), and not a stroke. This syndrome may be a warning sign, and a proportion of patients develop strokes in the future. The chances of suffering a stroke can be reduced by using [[aspirin]], which inhibits platelets from aggregating and forming obstructive clots.
 
==Diagnosis Patofisiologi ==
Hingga saat ini patofisiologi strok didasarkan pada serangkaian penelitian,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
Stroke is diagnosed through several techniques: a neurological examination, [[blood test]]s, [[CT scan]]s (without contrast enhancements) or [[MRI scan]]s, [[Doppler ultrasound]], and [[arteriography]].
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15554412
|title = Pathophysiology of stroke: lessons from animal models.
|accessdate = 2011-07-28|work = Department of Experimental Neurology Charité, Humboldt University; Mergenthaler P, Dirnagl U, Meisel A.}}</ref> terhadap berbagai proses yang saling terkait, meliputi kegagalan energi, hilangnya [[homeostasis]] ion sel, [[asidosis]], peningkatan kadar kalsium|Ca<sup>2+</sup> [[sitoplasma|sitosolik]], [[eksitotoksisitas]], toksisitas dengan [[radikal bebas]], produksi [[asam arakidonat]], sitotoksisitas dengan sitokin, aktivasi [[sistem komplemen]], disrupsi [[sawar darah otak]], aktivasi [[sel glial]] dan infiltrasi leukosit.<ref name="PMC3037909">{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3037909|title = Pathophysiology, treatment, and animal and cellular models of human ischemic stroke|accessdate = 2011-07-30
|work = School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Department of Neurology and Stroke Center, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University; Trent M Woodruff, John Thundyil, Sung-Chun Tang, Christopher G Sobey, Stephen M Taylor, dan Thiruma V Arumugam}}</ref>
 
Pusat area [[otak besar]] yang terpapar [[iskemia]] akan mengalami penurunan aliran darah yang dramatis, menjadi cedera dan memicu [[transduksi sinyal seluler|jenjang reaksi]] seperti [[lintasan metabolisme|lintasan]] [[eksitotoksisitas]] yang berujung kepada [[nekrosis]] yang menjadi pusat area [[infark]] dikelilingi oleh [[penumbra]]/zona peri-infarksi. Menurut morfologi, nekrosis merupakan [[bengkak]] seluler akibat disrupsi inti sel, organel, membran plasma, dan [[disintegrasi]] struktur inti dan [[sitoskeleton]].
If a stroke is confirmed on imaging, various other studies may be performed to determine whether there is a peripheral source of [[embolus|emboli]]:
* an [[medical ultrasonography|ultrasound/doppler study]] of the [[carotid artery|carotid arteries]] (to detect [[carotid stenosis]])
* an [[electrocardiogram]] (ECG) and [[echocardiogram]] (to identify [[cardiac arrhythmia|arrhythmias]] and resultant clots in the heart which may spread to the brain vessels through the bloodstream)
* a [[Holter monitor]] study to identify intermittent arrhythmias
* an [[angiogram]] of the cerebral vasculature (if a bleed is thought to have originated from an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation)
 
Di area penumbra, apoptosis neural akan berusaha dihambat oleh kedua mekanisme eksitotoksik dan peradangan,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10441299|title = Pathobiology of ischaemic stroke: an integrated view.|accessdate = 2011-07-28|work = Dept of Neurology, Charité Hospital; Dirnagl U, Iadecola C, Moskowitz MA.}}</ref> oleh karena sel otak yang masih normal akan menginduksi [[sistem kekebalan turunan]] untuk meningkatkan toleransi jaringan otak terhadap kondisi iskemia, agar tetap dapat melakukan aktivitas [[metabolisme]]. Protein khas CNS seperti [[pancortin-2]] akan berinteraksi dengan protein modulator [[aktin]], ''Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein verprolin homologous-1'' (WAVE-1) dan Bcl-xL akan membentuk kompleks protein mitokondrial untuk proses penghambatan tersebut.
==Pathophysiology==
When [[neuron]]s and [[glia]] receive insufficient [[oxygen]] and [[nutrient]]s due to inadequate blood supply, a [[biochemical cascade]] called the [[ischemic cascade]] is unleashed. The ischemic cascade, as well as sudden bleeding from ruptured blood vessels into or around the brain, can injure and kill cells. These damaged cells can linger in a compromised state for several hours. With timely treatment, these cells can be saved. Intriguingly, when the brain cells suffer the ischemia, they begin to fill up with free zinc ions which are released from some of their proteins, especially metallothionein, which can release 7 zinc ions per molecule. This released zinc is a major player in the ensuing death of the brain cells. Drugs that buffer the zinc and reduce the level of free zinc are already being tested to reduce brain cell death after stroke.
 
Riset terkini menunjukkan bahwa banyak [[neuron]] di area penumbra dapat mengalami apoptosis setelah beberapa jam/hari sebagai bagian dari proses pemulihan jaringan pascastrok dengan dua lintasan, yaitu lintasan ekstrinsik dan lintasan intrinsik.
==Prevention==
Prevention is an important public health concern. Identification of patients with treatable risk factors for stroke is paramount. Treatment of risk factors in patients who have already had strokes (secondary prevention) is also very important as they are at high risk of subsequent events compared with those who have never had a stroke. Medication or drug therapy is the most common method of stroke prevention. Surgery such as [[Carotid endarterectomy]] can be used to remove significant narrowing of the neck (internal) [[carotid artery]] which supplies blood to the brain and this operation has been shown to be an effective way to prevent stroke in particular groups of patients.
 
Iskemia tidak hanya mempengaruhi jaringan [[parenkima]] otak, namun berdampak pula kepada [[sistem ekstrakranial]]. Oleh karena itu, strok akan menginduksi imunosupresi yang dramatis melalui aktivasi berlebih sistem saraf simpatetik, sehingga memungkinkan terjadinya infeksi bakterial seperti [[pneumonia]].<!-- Sementara disembunyikan dulu hingga ditemukan Referensi layak yang dapat mendukung pernyataan di bawah
Some brain damage that results from stroke may be secondary to the initial death of brain cells caused by the lack of blood flow to the brain tissue. This brain damage is a result of a toxic reaction to the primary damage. Researchers are studying the mechanisms of this toxic reaction and ways to prevent this secondary injury to the brain. Scientists hope to develop neuroprotective agents to prevent this damage. Another area of research involves experiments with vasodilators, medications that expand or dilate blood vessels and thus increase the blood flow to the brain. Basic research has also focused on the genetics of stroke and stroke risk factors. One area of research involving genetics is [[gene therapy]]. A promising area of stroke animal research involves hibernation. The dramatic decrease of blood flow to the brain in hibernating animals is extensive enough that it would kill a non-hibernating animal. If scientists can discover how animals hibernate without experiencing brain damage, then maybe they can discover ways to stop the brain damage associated with decreased blood flow in stroke patients. Other studies are looking at the role of [[hypothermia]], or decreased body temperature, on [[metabolism]] and neuroprotection. Scientists are working to develop new and better ways to help the brain repair itself and restore important functions to stroke patients. Some evidence suggests that [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), in which a small magnetic current is delivered to an area of the brain, may possibly increase brain [[plasticity]] and speed up recovery of function after stroke.
Suatu [[ateroma]] (endapan lemak) bisa terbentuk di dalam pembuluh darah [[arteri karotis]] sehingga menyebabkan berkurangnya aliran darah. Keadaan ini sangat serius karena setiap pembuluh darah arteri karotis dalam keadaan normal memberikan darah ke sebagian besar otak. Endapan lemak juga bisa terlepas dari dinding arteri dan mengalir di dalam darah, kemudian menyumbat arteri yang lebih kecil.
 
Pembuluh darah arteri karotis dan arteri vertebralis beserta percabangannya bisa juga tersumbat karena adanya bekuan darah yang berasal dari tempat lain, misalnya dari jantung atau satu katupnya. Strok semacam ini disebut [[emboli serebral]] (emboli = sumbatan, serebral = pembuluh darah otak) yang paling sering menyerang penderita yang baru menjalani pembedahan jantung dan penderita kelainan katup jantung atau [[gangguan irama jantung]] (terutama [[fibrilasi atrium]]).
==Treatment==
===Early assessment===
It is important to identify a stroke as early as possible because patients who are treated earlier are more likely to survive and have better recoveries.
 
[[Emboli lemak]] jarang menyebabkan strok. Emboli lemak terbentuk jika lemak dari [[sumsum tulang]] yang pecah dilepaskan ke dalam aliran darah dan akhirnya bergabung di dalam sebuah arteri.
If a patient is suspected of having a stroke, emergency services should be contacted immediately. The patient should be transported to the nearest hospital that can provide a rapid evaluation and treatment with the latest available therapies targeted to the type of stroke. The faster these therapies are started for hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke, the chances for recovery from each type improves greatly. Quick decisions about medication and the need for surgery have been shown to improve outcome.
 
Strok juga bisa terjadi bila suatu [[radang|peradangan]] atau [[infeksi]] menyebabkan penyempitan pembuluh darah yang menuju ke otak. Obat-obatan (misalnya [[kokain]] dan [[amfetamin]]) juga bisa mempersempit pembuluh darah di otak dan menyebabkan strok.
Only detailed [[physical examination]] and [[medical imaging]] provide information on the presence, type, and extent of stroke.
 
[[Tekanan darah rendah]] yang tiba-tiba bisa menyebabkan berkurangnya aliran darah ke otak, yang biasanya menyebabkan seseorang pingsan. Strok bisa terjadi jika tekanan darah rendahnya sangat berat dan menahun. Hal ini terjadi jika seseorang mengalami kehilangan darah yang banyak karena cedera atau pembedahan, [[serangan jantung]] atau gangguan irama jantung. -->
Recent research has shown that brain cells die after stroke by a signaling cascade using a protein called IKK2, presenting the possibility that cell death may be prevented by blocking this signaling [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-11/embl-ltd110805.php].
=== Eksitotoksisitas asam glutamat ===
[[Asam glutamat]] merupakan [[neurotransmiter]] asam amino eksitatorial utama di otak, akan menumpuk di ruang ekstraselular dan mengaktivasi reseptornya.<ref name="PMC3037909" /> Aktivasi pencerap glutamat akan memengaruhi konsentrasi ion intraselular, terutama ion natrium|Na<sup>+</sup> dan kalsium|Ca<sup>2+</sup>. Peningkatan influx ion Na<sup>+</sup> dapat membuat sel menjadi cedera pada awal mula terjadinya iskemia, namun riset menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar kerusakan sel yang ditimbulkan oleh toksisitas asam glutamat saat terjadi [[iskemia]] lebih disebabkan oleh peningkatan berlebih influx ion kalsium intraselular yang kemudian menimbulkan efek toksik.
 
=== Stres oksidatif ===
Studies show that patients treated in hospitals with a dedicated Stroke Team or Stroke Unit and a specialized care program for stroke patients have improved odds of recovery.
Sepanjang proses strok, terjadi peningkatan [[radikal bebas]] seperti [[anion]] [[superoksida]], radikal [[hidroksil]] dan [[nitrogen monoksida|NO]]. Sumber utama senyawa radikal bebas turunan [[oksigen]] yang biasa disebut [[spesi oksigen reaktif]] dalam proses iskemia adalah [[mitokondria]]. Sedangkan produksi senyawa superoksida saat pasca iskemia adalah metabolisme [[asam arakidonat]] melalui [[lintasan metabolisme|lintasan]] [[siklo-oksigenase]] dan [[lipo-oksigenase]]. Radikal bebas juga dapat diproduksi oleh [[sel mikroglia]] yang teraktivasi dan [[leukosit]] melalui sistem [[NADPH oksidase]] segera setelah terjadi [[reperfusi]] di jaringan iskemik. [[Oksidasi]] tersebut akan menyebabkan kerusakan lebih lanjut di jaringan dan merupakan [[molekul]] yang penting untuk memicu [[apoptosis]] setelah strok iskemik.
 
NO umumnya dihasilkan dari L-[[arginina]] dengan salah satu [[isoform]] [[NO sintase]], dan merupakan [[kluster diferensiasi]] neuron di seluruh bagian otak dengan sebutan nNOS. Aktivasi nNOS memerlukan [[kalsium]]/[[kalmodulin]]. Di sisi lain, ekspresi iNOS ({{lang-en|inducible NOS}}) terdapat di [[sel radang]] seperti [[sel mikroglia]] dan [[monosit]]. Kedua isoform nNOS dan iNOS memiliki peran yang merusak otak pada rentang waktu iskemia. Namun isoform yang ketiga eNOS ({{lang-en|endothelial NOS}}) memiliki efek [[vasodilasi]] dan tidak bersifat merusak.
===Ischemic stroke===
As ischemic stroke is due to a [[thrombus]] (blood clot) occluding a cerebral artery, a patient is given [[antiplatelet drug|antiplatelet medication]] ([[aspirin]], [[clopidogrel]], [[dipyridamole]]), or [[anticoagulant]] medication ([[warfarin]]), dependant on the cause, when this type of stroke has been found. As such treatment would be dangerous in hemorrhagic stroke, it is essential that this form of stroke is ruled out with medical imaging.
 
Aktivasi pencerap NMDA saat iskemia akan menstimulasi produksi NO oleh nNOS. NO yang terbentuk akan [[difusi|masuk]] ke dalam [[sitoplasma]] dan bereaksi dengan [[superoksida]] dan menghasilkan sejenis spesi oksigen yang sangat reaktif yaitu [[peroksinitrita]] (ONOO-).
In increasing numbers of specialist centers, [[thrombolysis]] ("clot busting") is used to dissolve the clot and unblock the artery. However, this treatment is new, expensive, potentially dangerous and often contraindicated. There is also a time constraint: studies indicate that after three hours of symptom onset the damage to the brain is irreversible, and that after this time thrombolysis provides no benefit. These requirements prevent routine thrombolysis of ischemic stroke in most hospitals, especially when no stroke expert is available.
 
Pasca iskemia, kedua jenis spesi oksigen reaktif dan spesi nitrogen reaktif kemudian berperan untuk mengaktivasi beberapa lintasan metabolisme seperti [[radang]], [[apoptosis]], dan penurunan pasokan [[oksigen]] yang berdampak kepada peningkatan [[asam laktat]] melalui [[glikolisis]] [[anaerobik]] atau [[asidosis]]. Selain itu, akan tampak [[ekspresi gen|ekspresi]] [[gen]] [[iNOS]] di sel vaskular maupun sel yang mengalami peradangan dan ekspresi gen [[COX-2]] di [[sel saraf]] di area antara infark dan penumbra. Kedua [[gen]] [[radang]] ini akan meningkatkan kerusakan iskemik.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9616775|title = Molecular pathology of cerebral ischemia: delayed gene expression and strategies for neuroprotection.|accessdate = 2011-07-28|work = Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota Medical School; Iadecola C, Ross ME.}}</ref>
Whether thrombolysis is performed or not, the following investigations are required:
* Stroke symptoms are documented, often using scoring systems such as the [[National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale]], the [[Cincinnati Stroke Scale]], and the [[Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Scale]]. The latter is used by [[emergency medical technicians]] (EMTs) to determine whether a patient needs transport to a stroke center.
* A [[Computed axial tomography|CT scan]] is performed to rule out hemorrhagic stroke
* [[Blood test]]s, such as a [[full blood count]], [[coagulation]] studies ([[prothrombin time|PT/INR]] and [[Partial thromboplastin time|APTT]]), and tests of [[electrolyte]]s, [[renal function]], [[liver function tests]] and [[glucose]] levels are carried out.
 
=== Peroksidasi lipid ===
Other immediate strategies to protect the brain during stroke include ensuring that blood sugar is as normal as possible (such as commencement of an [[insulin sliding scale]] in known [[diabetes|diabetics]]), and that the stroke patient is receiving adequate [[oxygen]] and [[intravenous fluid]]s. The patient may be positioned so that his or her head is flat on the stretcher, rather than sitting up, since studies have shown that this increases blood flow to the brain. Additional therapies for ischemic stroke include [[aspirin]] (50 to 325 mg daily), [[clopidogrel]] (75 mg daily), and combined aspirin and [[dipyridamole]] extended release (25/200 mg twice daily).
{{unreferenced section|date=Juni 2018}}
Selain menghasilkan berbagai [[senyawa organik|senyawa]] [[spesi oksigen reaktif|ROS]], [[lintasan metabolisme|lintasan]] [[asidosis]] juga turut serta dalam proses [[sintesis]] [[protein]] intraselular. Peroksidasi lipid di [[membran sel]] yang menginduksi apoptosis terhadap neuron, akan menghasilkan senyawa [[aldehida]] yang disebut 4-[[hidroksinonenal]] (4-HNE) yang akan bereaksi dengan [[permease|transporter]] membran seperti Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> [[ATP sintase|ATPase]], [[transporter glutamat]] dan [[transporter glukosa]].
 
Kerusakan di transporter membran, yang menyebabkan [[difusi|influx]] berlebih ion [[kalsium|Ca<sup>2+</sup>]] dan radikal bebas, lebih lanjut akan mengaktivasi [[faktor transkripsi]] neuroprotektif seperti [[NF-κB]], [[HIF-1]] dan [[IRF-1]]. Aktivasi faktor transkripsi ini akan menginduksi produksi [[sitokina]] radang seperti [[interleukin-1|IL-1]], [[interleukin-6|IL-6]], [[faktor nekrosis tumor-alfa|TNF-α]], [[kemokina]] seperti [[interleukin-8|IL-8]], [[MCP-1]], [[molekul]] [[adhesi sel]] seperti [[selektin]], [[ICAM-1]], [[VCAM-1]] dan [[gen]] pro-radang lainnya seperti [[IIP-10]].
It is common for the [[blood pressure]] to be [[arterial hypertension|elevated]] immediately following a stroke. Studies indicated that while high blood pressure causes stroke, it is actually beneficial in the emergency period to allow better blood flow to the brain.
 
=== Disfungsi sawar darah otak ===
If studies show [[carotid stenosis]], and the patient has residual function in the affected side, [[carotid endarterectomy]] (surgical removal of the stenosis) may decrease the risk of recurrence.
[[Sawar darah otak]] yang merupakan jaringan endotelium di otak akan merespons kondisi cedera akibat strok dengan meningkatkan [[permeabilitas]] dan menurunkan fungsi sawarnya, bersamaan dengan degradasi [[lamina basal]] di dinding pembuluhnya. Oleh sebab itu, pada kondisi [[akut]], strok akan meningkatkan interaksi antara sel endotelial otak dengan sel ekstravaskular seperti astrosit, mikroglia, neuron, dengan sel intravaskular seperti [[keping darah]], [[leukosit]]; dan memberikan kontribusi lebih lanjut pada proses peradangan, disamping perubahan sirkulasi kadar [[ICAM-1]], [[trombomodulin]], [[faktor jaringan]] dan ''tissue factor pathway inhibitor''.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/126/2/424.full
|title = Markers of endothelial dysfunction in lacunar infarction and ischaemic leukoaraiosis
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Department of Clinical Neurosciences, St George’s Hospital Medical School, Department of Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’s Trust, St Thomas’s Hospital, Institute of Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Department of Neurology, St James’s Hospital, Department of Neurology, Stoke Mandeville Hospital, Thames Valley Nuffield Hospital; Ahamad Hassan, Beverley J. Hunt, Michael O’Sullivan, Kiran Parmar, John M. Bamford, Dennis Briley, Martin M. Brown, Dafydd J. Thomas dan Hugh S. Markus
}}</ref> Disfungsi endotelial yang menyebabkan defisiensi sawar darah otak, ''impaired cerebral autoregulation'' dan perubahan [[protrombotik]] dipercaya merupakan penyebab ''cerebral small vessel disease'' (SVD). Penderita (SVD) dapat mengalami [[infark#infark lakunar|infark lakunar]], atau dengan disertai [[leukoaraiosis]].
Dari 594 penderita strok, leukoaraiosis ditemukan dalam 55,4% ''cerebral large vessel disease'' (LVD) atau ateroskeloris, 30,3% dalam SVD dan 14,3% dalam ''cardioembolic disease''. Dalam pronosis LVD, leukoaraiosis memiliki kecenderungan ke arah grup stenosis intrakranial dengan 40,3% untuk grup intrakranial, 26,9% untuk grup ekstrakranial dan 45,5% untuk grup kombinasi keduanya. Tidak ditemukan korelasi antara leukoaraiosis dengan [[diabetes mellitus]], [[hiperlipidemia]], [[merokok]], [[hipertensi]] dan [[penyakit jantung]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2532686
|title = The leukoaraiosis is more prevalent in the large artery atherosclerosis stroke subtype among Korean patients with ischemic stroke
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Department of Neurology, Department of Radiology, The Catholic University of Korea, Department of Neurology, National Cancer Center; Seung-Jae Lee, Joong-Seok Kim, Kwang-Soo Lee, Jae-Young An, Woojun Kim, Yeong-In Kim, Bum-Soo Kim, dan So-Lyung Jung
}}</ref>
 
=== Infiltrasi leukosit ===
If the stroke has been the result of [[cardiac arrhythmia]] (such as [[atrial fibrillation]]) with cardiogenic emboli, treatment of the arrhythmia and [[anticoagulation]] with [[warfarin]] or high-dose aspirin may decrease the risk of recurrence.
Di jaringan otak terdapat beberapa populasi [[sel (biologi)|sel]] dengan kapasitas untuk mensekresi [[sitokina]] setelah terjadi stimulasi iskemia, yaitu sel endotelial, [[astrosit]], [[sel mikroglia]] dan [[neuron]].
 
Peran respons peradangan pasca iskemia dilakukan oleh sel mikroglia, terutama di area penumbra dengan sekresi sitokina pro-radang, [[metabolit]] dan [[enzim]] toksik. Selain itu, sel mikroglia dan astrosit juga mensekresi faktor neuroprotektif seperti [[eritropoietin]], [[TGFβ1]], dan [[metalotionein-2]].
===Hemorrhagic stroke===
Patients with bleeding into ([[intracerebral hemorrhage]]) or around the brain ([[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]), require [[neurosurgery|neurosurgical]] evaluation to detect and treat the cause of the bleeding. Anticoagulants and antithrombotics, key in treating ischemic stroke, can make bleeding worse and cannot be used in intracerebral hemorrhage. Patients are monitored and their blood pressure, blood sugar, and oxygenation are kept at optimum levels.
 
Terdapat banyak bukti yang menunjukkan peran [[leukosit]] terhadap [[patogenesis]] cedera akibat strok seperti cedera di jaringan akibat [[reperfusi]] dan disfungsi mikrovaskular. Bukti-bukti tersebut dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 3 bagian pokok yaitu,
===Care and rehabilitation===
* terjadi akumulasi leukosit pasca iskemia hingga terjadi cedera jaringan
Stroke rehabilitation is the process by which patients with disabling strokes undergo treatment to help them return to normal life as much as possible by regaining and relearning the skills of everyday living. It is multidisciplinary in the fact that it involves a team with different skills working together to help the patient. These include nursing staff, [[physiotherapy]], [[occupational therapy]], [[speech and language therapy]] and usually a [[physician]] trained in [[rehabiliation medicine]]. Some teams may also include [[psychologists]] and [[social work]]ers and [[pharmacist]]s.
* simtoma iskemia direspon dengan peningkatan [[neutrofil]].<ref name="PM16247183">{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16247183|title = Stroke and T-cells.
|accessdate = 2011-07-28|work = Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program; Arumugam TV, Granger DN, Mattson MP.}}</ref> Dalam percobaan dengan [[tikus]], rendahnya populasi neutrofil dalam sirkulasi darah menunjukkan volume [[infark]] yang lebih kecil.
* pencegahan [[adhesi sel]] antara leukosit dengan [[sel endotelial]] pada [[sawar darah otak]], dengan [[antibodi monoklonal]] terbukti dapat memberikan perlindungan terhadap cedera akibat strok.
 
Akumulasi [[sel T]] terjadi pasca iskemia,<ref name="PM16247183" /> dan diperkirakan merupakan penyebab terjadinya reperfusi. [[Sel T CD8]] dapat menginduksi cedera otak dengan [[molekul]] dari granula sitotoksik. [[Sel T pembantu|Sel T<sub>H</sub>1]] [[CD4]]<sup>+</sup> dengan [[sekresi]] [[sitokina]] pro-[[radang]] termasuk [[interleukin-2|IL-2]], [[interleukin-12|IL-12]], [[interferon|IFN-γ]] dan [[faktor nekrosis tumor-alfa|TNF-α]] dapat memperburuk efek yang ditimbulkan strok, sedangkan [[Sel T pembantu|Sel T<sub>H</sub>2]] [[CD4]]<sup>+</sup> dengan sitokina anti-radang seperti [[interleukin-4|IL-4]], [[interleukin-5|IL-5]], [[interleukin-10|IL-10]] dan [[interleukin-13|IL-13]] lebih mempunyai peran protektif.
Good nursing care is fundamental in maintaining skin care, feeding, hydration, and positioning as well as the monitoring of vital signs such as temperature, pulse, and blood pressure. Stroke rehabilitation begins almost immediately.
 
=== Pendarahan ===
For most stroke patients, [[physical therapy]] is the cornerstone of the rehabilitation process. Another type of therapy involving relearning daily activities is [[occupational therapy]] (OT). OT involves exercise and training to help the stroke patient relearn everyday activities sometimes called the [[Activities of daily living]] (ADLs) such as eating, drinking and swallowing, dressing, bathing, cooking, reading and writing, and toileting. [[Speech and language therapy]] is appropriate for patients with problems understanding speech or written words, or problems forming speech.
Pada percobaan terhadap hewan [[kelinci]], setidaknya [[sitokina]] [[faktor nekrosis tumor-alfa|TNF-α]] atau [[antibodi]]nya berperan atas terjadinya [[pendarahan]] setelah terjadi strok iskemik yang diinduksi oleh [[trombus|klot]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17673188
|title = Tumor necrosis factor-alpha is involved in thrombolytic-induced hemorrhage following embolic strokes in rabbits.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California San Diego; Lapchak PA.
}}</ref> Dalam hal ini terjadi peningkatan prognosis terjadinya pendarahan dari 18,5% menjadi 53,3% dan peningkatan [[volume]] pendarahan hingga 87%. Disamping itu, penggunaan ''tissue plasminogen activator'' (tPA) dengan [[dosis]] standar 3,3 mg/kg akan meningkatkan kemungkinan pendarahan dari 18,5% menjadi 76,5%, efek tPA ini dapat diredam dengan penggunaan antibodi anti-TNFα. Pemberian [[eritropoietin|EPO]] setelah 6 jam serangan strok akan memperburuk pendarahan yang diinduksi tPA dengan mediasi [[metaloproteinase matriks-9|MMP-9]], [[NF-κB]] dan ''interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-1'' (IRAK-1).<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2950698
|title = Erythropoietin in combination of tissue plasminogen activator exacerbates brain hemorrhage when treatment is initiated 6h after stroke
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neurology, Department of Biostatistics and Research Epidemiology, Henry Ford Hospital, Department of Physics, Oakland University; Longfei Jia, Michael Chopp, Li Zhang, Mei Lu, dan Zheng Gang Zhang
}}</ref>
 
Pada hewan [[tikus]], TNF-α akan menginduksi ekspresi [[metaloproteinase matriks-9|MMP-9]] yang menurunkan kadar protein dalam sawar darah otak seperti [[okludin]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
Patients may have particular problems such as complete or partial inability to swallow, which can cause swallowed material to pass into the lungs and cause [[aspiration pneumonia]]. The condition may improve with time but in the interim a nasogastric tube may be inserted, enabling liquid food to be given directly into the stomach. If after a week the swallow is still not safe then a [[percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy]] (PEG) tube is passed and this can remain indefinitely.
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11567062
|title = Effects of matrix metalloproteinase-9 gene knock-out on the proteolysis of blood-brain barrier and white matter components after cerebral ischemia.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Departments of Neurology and Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School; Asahi M, Wang X, Mori T, Sumii T, Jung JC, Moskowitz MA, Fini ME, Lo EH.
}}</ref> dan meningkatkan [[permeabilitas]] pada [[pembuluh kapiler]] otak.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8719627
|title = Tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced gelatinase B causes delayed opening of the blood-brain barrier: an expanded therapeutic window.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neurology and Physiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine; Rosenberg GA, Estrada EY, Dencoff JE, Stetler-Stevenson WG.
}}</ref> MMP-9 kemudian memodulasi,<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9644031
|title = Gelatinase B modulates selective opening of the blood-brain barrier during inflammation.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine; Mun-Bryce S, Rosenberg GA.
}}</ref> [[metaloproteinase matriks-2|Gelatinase A]] untuk membuka [[sawar darah otak]]. Pendarahan yang terjadi kemudian direspons tubuh dengan memproduksi ''urokinase-type plasminogen activator'' (uPA). Ekspresi MMP-9 juga dapat diinduksi oleh [[lipopolisakarida]].<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>
 
== Faktor risiko ==
Stroke rehabilitation can last anywhere from a few days to several months. Most return of function is seen in the first few days and weeks, and then improvement falls off. Complete recovery is unusual but not impossible. Most patients will improve to some extent.
* [[Merokok]]
* [[Alkohol]]
* [[Diet]]
* Tingginya kadar kolesterol
* Riwayat keluarga<ref>{{en}} {{cite journal|last = Floßmann
|first = Enrico|authorlink =|author2= Ursula G.R. Schulz, Peter M. Rothwell
|year = 2004
|title = Systematic Review of Methods and Results of Studies of the Genetic Epidemiology of Ischemic Stroke|journal = Stroke
|volume = 35|issue =
|pages = 212-227
|doi =
|id =
|url = http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/35/1/212?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=stroke+review&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT|
|format =
|accessdate = 13 November 2010 }}</ref>
 
==Prognosis= Hipertensi ===
Hipertensi akan merangsang pembentukan [[plak]] [[aterosklerosis|aterosklerotik]] di pembuluh arteri dan arteriol dalam [[otak]], serta menginduksi [[lintasan]] [[lipohialinosis]] di pembuluh ganglia basal, hingga menyebabkankan [[infark#infark lakunar|infark lakunar]] atau [[pendarahan otak]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
Disability affects 75% of stroke survivors enough to decrease their employability (Coffey et al., 2000 p.601). Stroke can affect patients physically, mentally, emotionally, or a combination of the three. The results of stroke vary widely depending on size and location of the lesion (Stanford, 2005). Dysfunctions correspond to areas in the brain that have been damaged.
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2475602
|title = Hypertension and Cerebrovascular Dysfunction
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = Costantino Iadecola, Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill Cornell Medical College; Costantino Iadecola dan Robin L. Davisson
}}</ref>
 
=== Fibrilasi atrial ===
Some of the physical disabilities that can result from stroke include [[paralysis]], numbness, [[pressure sore]]s, [[pneumonia]], [[incontinence]], [[apraxia]] (inability to perform learned movements), difficulties carrying out daily activities, appetite loss, vision loss, and [[pain]]. If the stroke is severe enough, [[coma]] or [[death]] can result.
[[Fibrilasi atrial]] merupakan indikasi terjadinya [[kardioembolisme]], sedangkan kardioembolisme merupakan 20% penyebab stok iskemik.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2923345
|title = Prevention Strategies for Cardioembolic Stroke: Present and Future Perspectives
|accessdate = 2011-08-08
|work = Department of Neurology, Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSPE), IRCCS San Raffaele, Department Neurology, Sohag University Hospital, Unità Gravi Cerebrolesioni Acquisite (UGCA) Ospedale San Giovanni Battista; Giacomo Giacalone, Mohammed Abballa Abbas, dan Francesco Corea
}}</ref> Kardioembolisme terjadi akibat kurangnya kontraksi otot jantung di bilik kiri, disebut stasis, yang terjadi oleh penumpukan konsentrasi [[fibrinogen]], D-dimer dan [[faktor von Willebrand]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2994107
|title = Cardioembolic Stroke: Clinical Features, Specific Cardiac Disorders and Prognosis
|accessdate = 2011-09-02
|work = Cerebrovascular Division, Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitari del Sagrat Cor, Universitat de Barcelona, CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratórias (CB06/06). Instituto Carlos III, Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat; Adrià Arboixab dan Josefina Alióc
}}</ref> Hal ini merupakan indikasi status protrombotik dengan infark miokardial, yang pada gilirannya, akan melepaskan trombus yang terbentuk, dengan konsekuensi peningkatan risiko embolisasi di otak. Sekitar 2,5% penderita infark miokardial akut akan mengalami strok dalam kurun waktu 2 hingga 4 minggu, 8% pria dan 11% wanita akan mengalami strok iskemik dalam waktu 6 tahun, oleh karena disfungsi dan ''aneurysm'' bilik kiri jantung.
 
=== Aterosklerosis ===
Emotional problems resulting from stroke can result from direct damage to emotional centers in the brain or from frustration and difficulty adapting to new limitations. Post-stroke emotional difficulties include [[anxiety]], [[panic attack]]s, [[flat affect]] (failure to express emotions), [[mania]], apathy, and [[psychosis]].
Penelitian mengenai lintasan [[aterogenesis]] yang memicu [[aterosklerosis]] selama ini terfokus kepada pembuluh nadi koroner, namun proses serupa juga terjadi di otak dan menyebabkan strok iskemik.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.strokecenter.org/education/ais_pathogenesis/01_pathology.htm|title = Atherosclerosis and Thrombus Formation|accessdate = 2011-07-28|work = Stroke Center at University of Washington in Saint Louis, School of Medicine|archive-date = 2011-09-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110916112444/http://www.strokecenter.org/education/ais_pathogenesis/01_pathology.htm|dead-url = yes}}</ref> [[Aterosklerosis]] dapat menyerang [[pembuluh nadi]] otak seperti [[pembuluh karotid]], [[pembuluh nadi]] di otak tengah, dan [[pembuluh basilar]], atau kepada [[pembuluh arteriol]] otak seperti pembuluh ''lenticulostriate'', ''basilar penetrating'', dan ''medullary''. Beberapa riset menunjukkan bahwa mekanisme aterosklerosis yang menyerang pembuluh nadi dapat sedikit berbeda dengan mekanisme kepada pembuluh arteriol.
 
Aterosklerosis intrakranial dianggap sebagai kondisi yang sangat jarang terjadi. Hasil otopsi [[infark]] [[otak]] dari 339 penderita strok yang meninggal akibat aterosklerosis intrakranial, ditemukan 62,2% plak intrakranial dan 43,2% stenosis intrakranial.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
30 to 50% of stroke survivors suffer post stroke [[Clinical depression|depression]], which is characterized by lethargy, irritability, sleep disturbances, lowered self esteem, and withdrawal (Senelick et al., 1994). Depression can reduce motivation and worsen outcome, but can be treated with [[antidepressant]]s.
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18309170
|title = Autopsy prevalence of intracranial atherosclerosis in patients with fatal stroke.
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris; Mazighi M, Labreuche J, Gongora-Rivera F, Duyckaerts C, Hauw JJ, Amarenco P.
}}</ref> Hasil [[otopsi]] oleh ''National Cardiovascular Center'', [[Osaka]], [[Jepang]] terhadap 142 penderita strok yang meninggal dalam waktu 30 hari sejak terhitung sejak terjadi serangan [[iskemia]], menunjukkan bahwa kedua jenis trombus yang kaya akan [[keping darah]] dan yang kaya akan [[fibrin]] berkembang di ''culprit plaque'' di dalam pembuluh nadi otak merupakan faktor utama penyebab strok aterotrombotik.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18496843
|title = Heart and vessel pathology underlying brain infarction in 142 stroke patients.
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Department of Pathology, National Cardiovascular Center; Ogata J, Yutani C, Otsubo R, Yamanishi H, Naritomi H, Yamaguchi T, Minematsu K.
}}</ref> 70% kasus strok kardioembolik menunjukkan keberadaan trombus sebagai sumber potensial terbentuknya [[emboli]] di [[jantung]] atau [[pembuluh balik]] terhadap penderita ''patent foramen ovale'' dan ''tetralogy of Fallot''. Umumnya trombus yang kaya akan [[keping darah]] yang mengendap di pembuluh balik jantung, akan terlepas dan membentuk emboli di pembuluh nadi otak.
 
=== Diabetes mellitus ===
[[Emotional lability]], another consequence of stroke, causes the patient to switch quickly between emotional highs and lows and to express emotions inappropriately, for instance with an excess of laughing or crying with little or no provocation. While these expressions of emotion usually correspond to the patient's actual emotions, a more severe form of emotional lability causes patients to laugh and cry pathologically, without regard to context or emotion (Coffey et al., 2000 p.613). Some patients show the opposite of what they feel, for example crying when they are happy (Villarosa et al., 1993). Emotional lability occurs in about 20% of stroke patients.
Berdasarkan studi hasil [[otopsi]], penderita [[diabetes mellitus]] rentan terhadap [[infark#infark lakunar|infark lakunar]] dan ''cerebral small vessel disease''. Studi [[epidemiologi]] menunjukkan bahwa diabetes merupakan faktor risiko bagi strok iskemik. Patogenesis strok yang dipicu tampaknya dimulai dari reasi berlebih [[glikasi]] dan [[oksidasi]], disfungsi endotelial, peningkatan agregasi [[keping darah]], defisiensi [[fibrinolisis]] dan resistansi [[insulin]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9831810
|title = Diabetes mellitus and cerebrovascular disease.
|accessdate = 2011-08-07
|work = Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center; Lukovits TG, Mazzone TM, Gorelick TM.
}}</ref> Dalam [[hewan]] [[tikus]], strok iskemik yang terjadi dalam diabetes mellitus akan memicu strok hemoragik yang disertai dengan peningkatan [[enzim]] [[metaloproteinase matriks-9|MMP-9]] di otak yang memperburuk kondisi [[leukoaraiosis]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108495
|title = White Matter Damage and the Effect of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Type 2 Diabetic Mice After Stroke
|accessdate = 2011-08-08
|work = Department of Neurology (J.C., X.C., A.Z., Y.C., C.R., M.C.), Henry Ford Hospital, Department of Physics (M.C.), Oakland University; Jieli Chen, MD, Xu Cui, PhD, Alex Zacharek, MS, Yisheng Cui, MD, Cynthia Roberts, BS, and Michael Chopp, PhD
}}</ref>
 
=== ''Transient Ischemic Attack'' (TIA) ===
Cognitive deficits resulting from stroke include perceptual disorders, speech problems, [[dementia]], and problems with attention and memory. A stroke sufferer may be perpetually unaware of his or her own disabilities or even the fact that he or she has suffered a stroke. In a condition called [[agnosia]], or neglect, a patient is unable to see anything on the left or right side and is unaware of and unable to conceive of anything on the neglected side.
<!--{{utama|Transient Ischemic Attack }} -->
''Transient ischemic attack'' (TIA), disebut juga ''acute cerebrovascular syndrome'' (ACVS),<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19803400
|title = Transient ischemic attack, a medical emergency
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = Department of Neurology, Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine; Uchiyama S.
}}</ref> adalah salah satu [[faktor risiko]] dari strok iskemik.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2818812
|title = Short term and long term risk of incident ischemic stroke after transient ischemic attack
|accessdate = 2011-07-27
|work = Department of Epidemiology, Cardiovascular Health Research Unit, Department of Medicine, Department of Biostatistics, Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Group Health Research Institute, Seattle Epidemiologic Research and Information Center, Department of Veterans Affairs Office of Research and Development; Evan L Thacker, SM, Kerri L Wiggins, MS, RD, Kenneth M Rice, PhD, WT Longstreth, Jr, MD, MPH, Joshua C Bis, PhD, Sascha Dublin, MD, PhD, Nicholas L Smith, PhD, Susan R Heckbert, MD, PhD, dan Bruce M Psaty, MD, PhD
|quote = Transient ischemic attack (TIA) is a risk factor for ischemic stroke, and clinically diagnosed TIA is an opportunity for stroke prevention.
}}</ref>
 
TIA dapat dijabarkan sebagai episode singkat disfungsi neurologis yang biasanya terjadi akibat gangguan vaskular,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
==Risk factors==
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15264577
The most important risk factors for stroke are [[hypertension]], [[heart disease]], [[diabetes]], and cigarette smoking. Other risks include heavy alcohol consumption, [[hypercholesterolemia|high blood cholesterol]] levels, illicit drug use, and [[genetics|genetic]] or congenital conditions. Family members may have a genetic tendency for stroke or share a lifestyle that contributes to stroke. Having had a stroke in the past greatly increases one's risk of future strokes.
|title = Transient ischemic attacks: a new definition
|accessdate = 2011-07-27
|work = Moonen G, Delcourt C, Lievens I, Hans G.}}</ref> berupa [[simtoma]] [[iskemia]] di [[otak]] atau [[retina]] yang berlangsung kurang dari 24 [[jam]], atau kurang dari 1 jam,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16822392
|title = Transient ischemic attack: definition and natural history.
|accessdate = 2011-07-27
|work = Cerebrovascular Disease Service, Palmer 127, West Campus, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; Caplan LR.
}}</ref> tanpa meninggalkan bekas berupa [[infark]] serebral<ref name="tia">{{en}} {{cite journal|last = Wu|first = Caren M|authorlink =|author2= Kevin McLaughlin, Dianne L Lorenzetti, Michael D Hill, Braden J Manns, William A Ghali|date= Desember 2007|title = Early Risk of Stroke After Transient Ischemic Attack|journal = Arch Intern Med.|volume = 167|issue = 22|pages = 2417-2422|doi =|id =|url = http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/167/22/2417?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=stroke+review&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT||format =|accessdate = 12 November 2010}}</ref> [[akut]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19423857
|title = Definition and evaluation of transient ischemic attack: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council; Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and the Interdisciplinary Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease. The American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this statement as an educational tool for neurologists
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = American Heart Association; American Stroke Association Stroke Council; Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; Interdisciplinary Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease.; Easton JD, Saver JL, Albers GW, Alberts MJ, Chaturvedi S, Feldmann E, Hatsukami TS, Higashida RT, Johnston SC, Kidwell CS, Lutsep HL, Miller E, Sacco RL
}}</ref>
 
Dari sudut pandang lain, oleh karena strok merupakan defisiensi neurologis akibat perubahan aliran darah di jaringan otak, maka TIA dapat dikatakan sebagai indikasi atau [[simtoma]] yang ditimbulkan dari perubahan aliran darah otak yang tidak dapat dideteksi secara klinis dalam waktu 24 jam.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1307335|title = Clinical Evaluation and Management of Transient Ischemic Attacks|accessdate = 2011-07-27|work = Division of Neurology, Department of Neurosciences, University of California; John F. Rothrock, MD, Director, UCSD Stroke Program}}</ref>
One of the most significant stroke risk factors is advanced age. 95% of strokes occur in people age 45 and older (Senelick, Rossi, Dougherty 1994), and two-thirds of strokes occur in those over the age of 65 (NINDS 1999, Senelick et al., 1994). A person's risk of dying if he or she does have a stroke also increases with age. However, stroke can occur at any age, including in fetuses.
 
TIA tidak selalu menjadi indikasi akan terjadinya strok di kemudian hari, dan jarang sekali dikaitkan dengan strok hemoragik primer. Dalam populasi manusia yang telah beranjak tua, TIA diinduksi oleh terhalangnya aliran darah di pembuluh darah besar terutama akibat [[aterotrombosis]], namun dalam penderita yang berusia di bawah 45 tahun TIA umumnya disebabkan oleh robeknya [[pembuluh darah]] ({{lang-en|arterial dissection}}), [[migrain]] dan [[obat|obat-obatan]] ''sympathomimetic''. TIA juga dapat disebabkan oleh:
[[Sickle cell anemia]], which can cause blood cells to clump up and block blood vessels, also increases stroke risk. Stroke is the second leading killer of people under 20 who suffer from sickle-cell anemia (NINDS 1999).
* ''Large artery atherothrombosis with distal flow reduction''
* [[Arteriosklerosis]] di pembuluh darah kecil ("lacunar TiAs")
* [[Emboli]] Kardiogenic dan emboli antar-[[arteri]]
* [[Vasospasma]]
* [[Vaskulitis]]
* ''Sludging-polycythemia. sickle cell anemia''. [[Trombositemia]] dan sejenisnya
* ''Hypercoaguable states-puerperium. oral contraceptive use. 'sticky platelet syndrome" dan sejenisnya
* [[Meningitis]]
* ''Cortical vein thrombosis-dehydration''. [[Puerperium]]. [[Infection]]. [[Neoplasma]] dan sejenisnya
* [[Displasia fibromuskular]]
* [[Sindrom Moyamoya]]
* [[Arteritis Takayasu]]
Namun beberapa kondisi lain dapat menimbulkan gejala yang sangat serupa dengan TIA, seperti ''focal seizure activity'', ''migraine (?"spreading depression")'', ''compressive mononeuropathies (carpal tunnel syndrome. ulnar elbow compression and so forth)'', [[sindrom Adams-Stokes]], [[tumor otak]] dengan gejala neurologik transien, [[hematoma]] subdural, ''Demyelinating disease'',
[[hipoglisemia]], [[hiperglisemia]], ''primary ocular disease-glaucoma'', ''vitreal hemorrhage''. ''floaters and the like'', ''functional disorders-conversion hysteria'', [[malingering]], [[hiperventilasi]].
 
=== ''Cardiac papillary fibroelastoma'' (CPF) ===
Men are 1.25 times more likely to suffer CVA's than women (NINDS 1999), yet 60% of deaths from stroke occur in women (Villarosa et al., 1993). Since women live longer, they are older on average when they have their strokes and thus more often killed (NINDS 1999, NIMH 2002). Some risk factors for stroke apply only to women. Primary among these are pregnancy, childbirth, menopause and the treatment thereof ([[Hormone replacement therapy|HRT]]). Stroke seems to run in some families.
Dari 725 kasus CPF, 55% merupakan penderita pria dengan lokasi tumor, umumnya, ditemukan di permukaan ''valvular'', terutama di [[katup trikuspidalis]] [[aorta|aortik]], selain [[katup mitralis]]. Tumor juga ditemukan di permukaan non-valvular, seperti di [[bilik kiri]]. Ukuran [[tumor]] bervariasi dari 2&nbsp;mm hingga 70&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12947356
|title = Cardiac papillary fibroelastoma: a comprehensive analysis of 725 cases.
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Division of Cardiology, Long Island College Hospital; Gowda RM, Khan IA, Nair CK, Mehta NJ, Vasavada BC, Sacchi TJ.
}}</ref>
 
Manifestasi klinis CPF meliputi strok, infark miokardial, emboli paru, gagal jantung ''congestive'' dan [[serangan jantung]] mendadak.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
==History==
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2676614
Over 2,400 years ago, [[Hippocrates]] (460 to 370 BC) was first to describe the phenomenon of sudden [[paralysis]], which we now know is caused by stroke. [[Apoplexy]], from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word meaning "struck down with violence,” first appeared in Hippocratic writings to describe stroke symptoms (Kopito 2001; Thompson 1996).
|title = Papillary Fibroelastoma of the Aortic Valve as a Cause of Transient Ischemic Attack
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Texas Heart Institute at St. Luke's Episcopal Hospital; Mehmet H. Akay, MD, Moritz Seiffert, BS, dan David A. Ott, MD
}}</ref> Meskipun demikian, tidak semua penderita menunjukkan simtoma demikian.
 
=== ''Cryptogenic cerebral infarction'' (CCI) ===
In 1658, in his ''Apoplexia'', [[Johann Jacob Wepfer]] (1620-1695) identified the cause of [[hemorrhagic stroke]] when he suggested that people who had died of apoplexy had bleeding in their brains (NINDS 1999; Thompson 1996). Wepfer also identified the main arteries supplying the brain, the [[vertebral artery|vertebral]] and [[carotid artery|carotid arteries]], and identified the cause of ischemic stroke when he suggested that apoplexy might be caused by a blockage to those vessels (NINDS 1999).
CCI paling banyak ditemukan dalam penderita ''patent foramen ovale'' baik yang disertai maupun tidak disertai ''septal aneurysm''.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1503349
|title = Patent foramen ovale as a risk factor for cryptogenic stroke.
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center; Di Tullio M, Sacco RL, Gopal A, Mohr JP, Homma S.
}}</ref><ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14579624
|title = Cryptogenic stroke and patent foramen ovale
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Inselspital Bern, Universitätsspital; Windecker S, Nedeltchev K, Wahl A, Meier B.
}}</ref> Sejak tahun 1989, CCI merupakan penyebab 40% kasus strok iskemik. 4,9% pria dan 2,4% wanita mengalami [[mutasi]] [[gen]]etik [[galaktosidase]]-alfa yang merupakan indikasi [[penyakit Fabry]], sedangkan studi lain menunjukkan keterkaitan dengan [[trombofilia]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19395232
|title = Cryptogenic cerebral infarction: from classification to concept
|accessdate = 2011-08-01
|work = SourceCHU de la Cavale Blanche, Service de neurologie; Timsit S, Breuilly C.
}}</ref> Lintasan patogenesis CCI diperkirakan meliputi aterosklerosis di pembuluh nadi otak, baik yang bersifat [[intrakranial]] seperti ''moderate middle cerebral artery stenosis'', [[ekstrakranial]] seperti ''vertebral artery origin stenosis'' atau [[proksimal]] seperti ''thick plaques in the aortic arch'' yang selama ini dianggap tidak berkaitan dengan patogenesis strok.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19342838
|title = Underlying pathology of stroke of unknown cause (cryptogenic stroke).
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = INSERM U-698 and Paris-Diderot University; Amarenco P.
}}</ref>
 
=== ''Patent foramen ovale'' (PFO) ===
==See also==
[[Sindrom platipnea-ortodeoksia]] merupakan kondisi yang jarang terjadi dengan simtoma berupa [[dispnea]] dan [[desaturasi]] arterial. PFO merupakan salah satu bentuk sindrom platipnea-ortodeoksia dengan peningkatan [[ortostatik]] di area defisiensi atrial septal.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2953222
|title = Transhepatic Approach to Closure of Patent Foramen Ovale
|accessdate = 2011-08-02
|work = Cardiology Department, Arizona Heart Hospital & Institute, Internal Medicine Department, Banner Good Samaritan Medical Center; Jamal Hussain, MD, FACC, Robert Strumpf, MD, Aslan GhandForoush, DO, Ayman Jamal, MD, dan Edward Diethrich, MD
}}</ref> Hasil diagnosa PFO yang sering ditemukan pada CCI dan [[migrain]], juga diperkirakan sebagai penyebab [[emboli]] pada penderita [[tromboembolisme]] arterial.
 
== Deteksi dini ==
* [[Transient ischemic attack]]
Deteksi dini kemungkinan terjadinya strok, bukanlah diagnosis, tetapi merupakan cara untuk mengetahui kemungkinan terjadinya strok yang harus ditindak lanjuti dengan pemeriksaan lanjutan. Jika seseorang tidak dapat berdiri dengan satu kaki selama 20 detik, maka ada kemungkinan (akan) terjadinya strok atau kemunduran kognitif, karena untuk melakukan tugas itu diperlukan keseimbangan yang memerlukan peredaran darah yang prima ke otak. Hal ini telah diungkapkan pada jurnal ''Stroke American Heart Association''. Semakin sulit berdiri dengan hanya satu kaki, semakin tinggi (akan) kemungkinan terjadinya strok.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wartakota.tribunnews.com/2015/07/27/tanda-stroke-sulit-berdiri-dengan-satu-kaki?page=2 |title=Tanda Stroke, Sulit Berdiri dengan Satu Kaki |author=Lucky Octaviano |date=27 Juli 2015|last=Oktaviano |first=Lucky |language=id |work=[[Tribunnews|Tribunnews.com]] }}</ref>
* [[Apoplexy]]
 
==References Diagnosis ==
Diagnosis strok adalah secara klinis beserta pemeriksaan penunjang. Pemeriksaan penunjang yang dapat dilakukan antara lain [[Tomografi terkomputasi|CT scan]] kepala, [[MRI]]. Untuk menilai kesadaran penderita strok dapat digunakan [[Skala Koma Glasgow]]. Untuk membedakan jenis strok dapat digunakan berbagai sistem skor, seperti [[Skor Strok Siriraj]], [[Algoritme Strok Gajah Mada]], atau [[Algoritme Junaedi]].
 
=== Simtoma klinis ===
# Coffey C. Edward, Cummings Jeffrey L, Starkstein Sergio, Robinson Robert. "Stroke". ''The American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Geriatric Neuropsychiatry'', Second Edition. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc, 2000. pp.601-617.
Fitur strok iskemik yang sangat umum, menurut ''Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences'', masih berdasar kepada banyaknya hasil diagnosis pemeriksaan fisik terhadap penderita yang dirangkum dalam satu kurun waktu. USUHS merangkumnya menjadi tabel [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722757/table/T2 berikut] agar dapat digunakan masyarakat awam untuk mengenali gejala klinis strok sedini mungkin. Dan bagi tenaga medis profesional, ''The National Institute of Health'' telah membuat tabel [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/doctors/NIH_Stroke_Scale.pdf skala strok] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911090351/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/doctors/NIH_Stroke_Scale.pdf |date=2011-09-11 }} sebagai panduan guna melakukan diagnosis dalam waktu kurang dari sekitar 5 hingga 10 menit.
# Jauch, Edward C. 2005. [http://www.emedicine.com/neuro/topic9.htm “Acute Stroke Management.”] eMedicine.com, Inc.
# Kopito, Jeff. 1996. [http://www.webasx.com/articles/strokeintime.html "A Stroke in Time".] MERGINET.com, September 2001, Volume 6 Number 9. Available.
# National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). 1999. National Institutes of Health., [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/stroke/detail_stroke.htm Stroke: Hope Through Research.]
# Perry, Thomas and Miller Frank. ''Pathology: A Dynamic Introduction to Medicine and Surgery.'' Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1961.
# Senelick Richard C., Rossi, Peter W., Dougherty, Karla. ''Living with Stroke: A Guide For Families''. Contemporary Books, Inc., Chicago IL, 1994.
# Stanford Hospital & Clinics. 2005. [http://www.stanfordhospital.com/healthLib/atoz/cardiac/effects.html Cardiovascular Diseases: Effects of Stroke.]
# [http://www.strokecenter.org/ Stroke Center] of the Washington University School of Medicine.
# Thompson, Jesse E. [http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/8/1427" The Evolution of Surgery for the Treatment and Prevention of Stroke: The Willis Lecture".] ''Stroke''. 27:1427-1434.
# Villarosa, Linda, Ed., Singleton, LaFayette, MD, Johnson, Kirk A., ''Black Health Library Guide to Stroke''. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1993.
 
=== Simtoma paraklinis ===
==External links==
Beberapa senyawa biokimiawi di dalam [[serum darah]] yang dapat dijadikan dasar diagnosis dan prognosis terjadinya nekrosis otak antara lain:<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2771862
|title = Molecular biomarkers in stroke diagnosis and prognosis
|accessdate = 2011-09-02
|work = Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School; Matthew B Maas dan Karen L Furie
}}</ref>
 
==== S100-β ====
* ''The original text for this article was taken from the [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] [[public domain resource]] at [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/stroke.htm this page]''
{{unreferenced section|date=Juni 2018}}
*[http://www.thedoctorslounge.net/medlounge/articles/stroke_risk/index.htm Cerebrovascular disease and risk of stroke]
S100-β adalah [[protein|peptida]] yang disekresi [[astrosit]] pada saat terjadi cedera otak, proses neurodegenerasi dan kelainan psikiatrik. S100-β merupakan senyawa pengikat [[kalsium]], secara ''in vitro'', pada kadar rendah, interaksi dengan sistem kekebalan di otak akan meningkatkan kelangsungan hidup bagi neuron yang sedang berkembang, namun, pada kadar yang lebih tinggi, S100-β akan menstimulasi produksi sitokina pro-peradangan dan apoptosis.
* [http://www.strokecenter.org/ Stroke Center] of the Washington University School of Medicine
* [http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/strokengine/ Stroke Engine.] Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. Edited by a consorsium of researchers of McGill University, Canada. Information on stroke rehabilitation.
* [http://www.stroke.org.uk www.stroke.org.uk] The Stroke Association, UK
[[Category:Neurology]] [[Category:Medical emergencies]][[Category:Cardiovascular diseases]][[Category:Neurological disorders]]
 
Studi terhadap hewan menunjukkan efek neuroprotektif S100-β dengan teraktivasinya proses seluler di neuron yang menahan eksitotoksisitas yang diinduksi NMDA. Peningkatan serum S100-β selalu terjadi pada strok iskemik, dan terjadi pula pada kondisi yang lain seperti ''traumatic brain injury'' (TBI), [[Alzheimer]] dan [[schizophrenia]].
[[ca:Accident vascular cerebral]]
 
[[de:Schlaganfall]]
Saat terjadi strok iskemik, konsentrasi serum S100-β mencapai titik maksimum pada hari ke-2 hingga 4. Nilai konsentrasi maksimum S100-β berkaitan dengan skala strok NIH, ukuran dan patofisiologi infark, sehingga semakin tinggi nilai maksimum S100-β, semakin tinggi pula risiko terjadinya transformasi hemoragik. Peningkatan S100-β juga ditemukan dalam strok hemoragik primer, yang menunjukkan [[volume]] [[hematoma]] awal.
[[en:Stroke]]
 
[[es:Accidente cerebrovascular]]
Peningkatan kadar S100-β tidak harus terjadi dengan cepat, dan masih banyak sel selain astrosit dan [[sel Schwann]] yang menhasilkan S100-β, sehingga penggunaan nilai serum S100-β sebagai salah satu dasar diagnosis strok masih cukup rentan. Namun beberapa studi telah menunjukkan bahwa serum S100-β lebih terkait dengan kondisi integritas [[sawar darah otak]].
[[eo:Apopleksio]]
 
[[fr:Accident vasculaire cérébral]]
==== ''Glial fibrillary-associated protein'' (GFAP) ====
[[he:שבץ מוחי]]
{{unreferenced section|date=Juni 2018}}
[[ms:Angin ahmar]]
GFAP merupakan ''monomeric intermediate filament protein'' yang terdapat di astrosit dan [[sel ependimal]] otak yang berfungsi sebagai bagian [[sitoskeleton]]. Kadar serum S100-β dan GFAP akan meningkat tajam pada hari 1-2 sesuai dengan ukuran infark, dan kembali normal sekitar 3 minggu kemudian.
[[nl:Cerebrovasculair accident]]
 
[[no:Hjerneslag]]
Serum GFAP merupakan indikator yang lebih peka daripada S100-β pada strok minor maupun guratan kecil, namun waktu tunda peningkatan serum ini membuat aplikasi diagnostiknya menjadi terbatas.
[[ja:脳梗塞]]
 
[[pl:Udar mózgu]]
==== ''Myelin basic protein'' (MBP) ====
[[sv:Slaganfall]]
{{unreferenced section|date=Juni 2018}}
[[vi:Tai biến mạch máu não]]
MBP adalah [[protein]] [[hidrofilik]] penting bagi struktur [[selubung mielin]]. Kadar MBP dalam [[zalir serebrospinal|CSF]] sering digunakan sebagai indikasi aktivitas [[patogen]] dalam [[sklerosis multipel]]. Strok juga disertai dengan peningkatan kadar MBP dalam CSF sekitar 1 minggu setelah terjadinya serangan, dan kembali normal setelah minggu ketiga.
[[zh:中風]]
 
==== ''Fatty acid-binding proteins'' (FABPs) ====
{{unreferenced section|date=Juni 2018}}
FABP adalah kelompok molekul intraselular yang berperan dalam menyangga dan sebagai transportasi asam lemak berantai panjang, yang akan segera di[[sekresi]] ke dalam sirkulasi darah sesaat setelah terjadi kerusakan [[sel (biologi)|sel]]. Di tubuh manusia terdapat 9 jenis FABP yang tersebar dalam masing-masing jenis jaringan yang berbeda. Empat jenis FABP terdapat di sistem saraf, dua diantaranya hanya ditemukan di [[sistem saraf pusat]] orang dewasa, yaitu ''brain-type'' (B-FABP) di [[glia]] dan ''heart-type'' (H-FABP) di neuron.
 
Ditemukannya H-FABP dalam berbagai jenis jaringan merupakan tanda-tanda infak miokardial akut. B-FABP berada dalam jaringan di dalam sistem saraf pusat dan tidak dapat dideteksi dalam serum darah manusia sehat. Serum H-FABP dan B-FABP akan tajam dalam 2-3 jam sejak terjadi serangan strok. B-FABP merupakan indikasi yang sangat peka terhadap infark lakunar dan infark subkortikal, namun tidak menunjukkan tingkat kerusakan yang terjadi di neuron, dan bukan merupakan indikasi spesifik terjadinya strok. Sebaliknya peningkatan H-FABP berbanding lurus dengan ukuran infark dan tingkat kerusakan saraf.
 
==== ''Neuron-specific enolase'' (NSE) ====
{{unreferenced section|date=Juni 2018}}
NSE merupakan salah satu dari tiga bentuk [[enolase]], sebuah [[enzim]] yang terdapat di [[lintasan metabolisme|lintasan]] [[glikolisis]]. Walaupun cukup spesifik di neuron, NSE juga dapat ditemukan di [[kultur sel|kultur]] sel neuroendokrin dan bentuk sel kanker terkait. Konsentrasi NSE di dalam [[zalir serebrospinal|CSF]] akan meningkat seiring terjadinya strok iskemik dan sejumlah cedera otak lain seperti ''subarachnoid hemorrhage'', ICH, dan lain-lain, hingga mulai dapat dideteksi setelah 4-8 jam setelah terjadinya serangan. Konsentrasi tertinggi setelah terjadi strok iskemik memiliki korelasi dengan nilai pada skala strok NIH.
 
==== Protein tau (TP) ====
{{unreferenced section|date=Juni 2018}}
Otak memiliki 6 [[isomer]] [[protein tau|TP]] yang memungkinkan terbentuknya [[mikrotubula]] dengan interaksi [[tubulin]]. Peningkatan kadar TP terjadi dengan sangat lambat dan hanya 27% total konsentrasi yang mengalami peningkatan di luar batas atas ambang normal dalam waktu 24 jam setelah serangan strok iskemik, namun nilai konsentrasi ini menunjukkan ukuran infark dan strata serangan strok. Peningkatan kadar [[protein tau|TP]] dalam [[zalir serebrospinal|CSF]] pascastrok juga merupakan indikasi ukuran infark. Akan tetapi strok tidak mempengaruhi kadar [[β-amyloid]], [[ApoE]] dan [[klusterin]] dalam [[zalir serebrospinal|CSF]].
 
== Penanganan ==
Penderita strok akut biasanya diberikan SM-20302,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11779904|title = The nonpeptide glycoprotein IIb/IIIa platelet receptor antagonist SM-20302 reduces tissue plasminogen activator-induced intracerebral hemorrhage after thromboembolic stroke.|accessdate = 2011-09-08|work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California at San Diego; Lapchak PA, Araujo DM, Song D, Zivin JA.}}</ref> atau ''microplasmin'',<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12215599
|title = Microplasmin: a novel thrombolytic that improves behavioral outcome after embolic strokes in rabbits.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California at San Diego; Lapchak PA, Araujo DM, Pakola S, Song D, Wei J, Zivin JA.
}}</ref> [[oksigen]], dipasang [[infus]] untuk memasukkan cairan dan zat makanan, kemudian diberikan [[manitol]] atau [[kortikosteroid]] untuk mengurangi pembengkakan dan tekanan di dalam otak,<ref>{{id}} {{cite web|last = Misbach|first = H Jusuf|authorlink = |author2 = Harmani Kalim|year = |url = http://medicastore.com/stroke/Penanganan_Stroke.php|title = Penanganan Stroke|format = |work = |publisher = Medicastore|accessdate = 2010|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110101120537/http://medicastore.com/stroke/Penanganan_Stroke.php|archivedate = 2011-01-01|quote = |dead-url = yes}}</ref> akibat infiltrasi [[sel darah putih]]. Penelitian terakhir menunjukkan bahwa kelumpuhan dan gejala lainnya bisa dicegah atau dipulihkan jika [[recombinan]] ''tissue plasminogen activator'' (rtPA) atau [[streptokinase]] yang berfungsi menghancurkan [[emboli]] diberikan dalam waktu 3 jam,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7477192
|title = Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group.
}}</ref> setelah timbulnya strok. [[Trombolisis]] dengan rtPA terbukti bermanfaat pada manajemen strok akut, walaupun dapat meningkatkan risiko pendarahan otak,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11700147
|title = Reducing bleeding complications after thrombolytic therapy for stroke: clinical potential of metalloproteinase inhibitors and spin trap agents.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California San Diego; Lapchak PA, Araujo DM.
}}</ref> terutama pada area sawar darah otak yang terbuka.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12154270
|title = Rapid breakdown of microvascular barriers and subsequent hemorrhagic transformation after delayed recombinant tissue plasminogen activator treatment in a rat embolic stroke model.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School,; Dijkhuizen RM, Asahi M, Wu O, Rosen BR, Lo EH.
}}</ref>
 
Beberapa senyawa yang diberikan bersamaan dengan rtPA untuk mengurangi risiko tersebut antara lain [[batimastat]] (BB-94) dan [[marimastat]] (BB-2516),<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9195290
|title = Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Georgetown University Hospital, Vincent T. Lombardi Cancer Center, Division of Medical Oncology; Wojtowicz-Praga SM, Dickson RB, Hawkins MJ.
}}</ref> yang menghambat [[enzim]] MMP, senyawa ''spin trap agent'' seperti ''alpha-phenyl-N-t-butylnitrone'' (PBN) dan ''disodium- [tert-butylimino)methyl]benzene-1,3-disulfonate N-oxide'' (NXY-059),<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12053009
|title = Effects of the spin trap agent disodium- [tert-butylimino)methyl]benzene-1,3-disulfonate N-oxide (generic NXY-059) on intracerebral hemorrhage in a rabbit Large clot embolic stroke model: combination studies with tissue plasminogen activator.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neuroscience, University of California at San Diego; Lapchak PA, Araujo DM, Song D, Wei J, Purdy R, Zivin JA.
}}</ref> dan senyawa anti-ICAM-1.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10066862
|title = Thrombolysis with tissue plasminogen activator alters adhesion molecule expression in the ischemic rat brain.
|accessdate = 2011-09-08
|work = Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health Sciences Center; Zhang RL, Zhang ZG, Chopp M, Zivin JA.
}}</ref>
 
Metode perawatan [[hemodilusi]] dengan menggunakan [[albumin]] masih kontroversial,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1561645
|title = Custom-tailored hemodilution with albumin and crystalloids in acute ischemic stroke
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = Department of Rheology, St. Lucas Hospital; Goslinga H, Eijzenbach V, Heuvelmans JH, van der Laan de Vries E, Melis VM, Schmid-Schönbein H, Bezemer PD.
}}</ref> namun penelitian oleh ''The Amsterdam Stroke Study'' memberikan prognosis berupa penurunan angka kematian dari 27% menjadi 16%, peningkatan kemandirian aktivitas dari 35% menjadi 48%, saat 3 bulan sejak terjadi serangan strok akut.
 
<!--
Menusuk jari dengan jarum hingga berdarah agar terhindar dari strok ataupun agar strok tidak bertambah parah adalah mitos.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pekanbaru.tribunnews.com/2014/05/20/cegah-serangan-stroke-dengan-menusuk-jarum-ke-jari-benarkah |title=Cegah Serangan Strok dengan Menusuk Jarum ke Jari, Benarkah |date=May 20, 2014}}</ref> Yang benar adalah, jika terjadi strok, maka segeralah bawa pasien ke rumah sakit terdekat, karena golden period (hanya beberapa jam saja) atau penanganan masa-masa awal setelah terjadinya strok menentukan banyak atau tidaknya kerusakan otak, semakin lama tidak ditangani semakin banyak kerusakan otaknya.-->
=== Pemulihan ===
Serangan strok terkait dengan keterbatasan pulihnya fungsi otak, meskipun area peri-infark menjadi lebih bersifat neuroplastik sehingga memungkinkan perbaikan fungsi sensorimotorik melakukan pemetaan ulang di area otak yang mengalami kerusakan. Di tingkat seluler, terjadi dua proses regenerasi dalam korteks peri-infark, [[akson]] akan mengalami perubahan [[fenotipe]] dari [[neurotransmiter]] ke dalam status regeneratif,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17643733
|title = Neural plasticity after peripheral nerve injury and regeneration
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = Group of Neuroplasticity and Regeneration, Institute of Neurosciences and Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona; Navarro X, Vivó M, Valero-Cabré A.
}}</ref> dan menjulurkan tangkainya untuk membuat koneksi baru di bawah pengaruh [[trombospondin]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18594557
|title = Thrombospondins 1 and 2 are necessary for synaptic plasticity and functional recovery after stroke.
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine; Liauw J, Hoang S, Choi M, Eroglu C, Choi M, Sun GH, Percy M, Wildman-Tobriner B, Bliss T, Guzman RG, Barres BA, Steinberg GK.
}}</ref> [[laminin]], dan [[faktor pertumbuhan saraf|NGF]] hasil [[sekresi]] [[sel Schwann]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1821734
|title = Peripheral nerve regeneration.
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Eastern Virginia Medical School; Liuzzi FJ, Tedeschi B.
}}</ref> dan terjadi migrasi [[sel progenitor]] neuron ke dalam korteks peri-infark.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16634041
|title = Cellular and molecular mechanisms of neural repair after stroke: making waves.
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California; Carmichael ST.
}}</ref> Hampir sepanjang 1 bulan sejak terjadi serangan strok, daerah peri-infark akan mengalami penurunan molekul penghambat pertumbuhan. Pada rentang waktu ini, neuron akan mengaktivasi [[gen]] yang menstimulasi pertumbuhan, dalam ritme yang bergelombang. [[Neurogenesis]] saling terkait dengan [[angiogenesis]] juga terjadi bergelombang yang diawali dengan migrasi [[neuroblas]] dengan ekspresi GFAP,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17167090
|title = A neurovascular niche for neurogenesis after stroke.
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = Department of Neurology, University of California; Ohab JJ, Fleming S, Blesch A, Carmichael ST.
}}</ref> yang berada dalam [[zona subventrikular]] ke dalam korteks peri-infark. Migrasi ini dimediasi oleh beberapa senyawa antara lain [[eritropoietin]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024854
|title = Poststroke neurogenesis: emerging principles of migration and localization of immature neurons.
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; Ohab JJ, Carmichael ST.
}}</ref> ''stromal-derived factor 1'' (SDF-1) dan [[angiopoietin-1]], hingga menghasilkan neuroblas dengan jarak tempuh migrasi yang lebih panjang dan rentang waktu [[sitokinesis]] yang lebih pendek.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17376977
|title = Neuroblast division during migration toward the ischemic striatum: a study of dynamic migratory and proliferative characteristics of neuroblasts from the subventricular zone.
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = Neurology Department, Henry Ford Health Sciences Center; Zhang RL, LeTourneau Y, Gregg SR, Wang Y, Toh Y, Robin AM, Zhang ZG, Chopp M.
}}</ref>
 
Terhambatnya fungsi pencerap GABA ekstrasinaptik di area peri-infark yang terjadi akibat oleh disfungsi [[transporter]] [[asam aminobutirat-gamma|GABA]] GAT-3/GAT-4, dalam hewan tikus, dapat dipulihkan dengan pemberian [[benzodiazepina]].<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21048709
|title = Reducing excessive GABA-mediated tonic inhibition promotes functional recovery after stroke.
|accessdate = 2011-09-04
|work = Department of Neurology, The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; Clarkson AN, Huang BS, Macisaac SE, Mody I, Carmichael ST.
}}</ref>
 
== Pencegahan ==
Dalam manusia tanpa faktor risiko strok dengan umur di bawah 65 tahun, risiko terjadinya serangan strok dalam 1 tahun berkisar pada angka 1%.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8700641|title = Atrial fibrillation and apoplexy--risks and prevention|accessdate = 2011-08-21|work = Københavns praktiserende laegers laboratorium, AFASAK 2 Center; Koefoed BG, Gulløv AL, Petersen P.}}</ref> Setelah terjadinya serangan strok ringan atau TIA, penggunaan senyawa anti-koagulan seperti [[warfarin]], salah satu obat yang digunakan untuk penderita [[fibrilasi atrial]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9932614
|title = Stroke risk factors and stroke prevention.
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University; Elkind MS, Sacco RL.
}}</ref> akan menurunkan risiko serangan strok dari 12% menjadi 4% dalam satu tahun. Sedangkan penggunaan senyawa anti-[[keping darah]] seperti [[aspirin]], umumnya pada [[dosis]] harian sekitar 30&nbsp;mg atau lebih, hanya akan memberikan perlindungan dengan penurunan risiko menjadi 10,4%.<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12535415
|title = Dipyridamole for preventing stroke and other vascular events in patients with vascular disease
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = Julius Center for General Practice and Patient Oriented Research / Univ. Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Utrecht; De Schryver EL, Algra A, van Gijn J.
}}</ref> Kombinasi aspirin dengan ''dipyridamole'' memberikan perlindungan lebih jauh dengan penurunan risiko tahunan menjadi 9,3%.
 
Cara yang terbaik untuk mencegah terjadinya strok adalah dengan mengidentifikasi orang-orang yang berisiko tinggi dan mengendalikan faktor risiko strok sebanyak mungkin, seperti kebiasaan merokok, hipertensi, dan stenosis di [[pembuluh karotid]],<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17068431
|title = Primary stroke prevention
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = Department of Neurology, University of Cincinnati; Sauerbeck LR.
}}</ref> mengatur pola makan yang sehat dan menghindari makanan yang mengandung kolesterol jahat ([[lipoprotein densitas rendah|LDL]]), serta olaraga secara teratur. Stenosis merupakan efek [[vasodilasi]] endotelium yang umumnya disebabkan oleh turunnya [[sekresi]] [[nitrogen monoksida|NO]] oleh sel endotelial, dapat diredam [[asam askorbat]] yang meningkatkan sekresi NO oleh [[sel endotelial]] melalui lintasan [[NO sintase]] atau [[siklase guanilat]], mereduksi [[nitrita]] menjadi NO dan menghambat [[oksidasi]] [[lipoprotein densitas rendah|LDL]]<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10924860
|title = How does ascorbic acid prevent endothelial dysfunction?
|accessdate = 2011-08-24
|work = Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine; May JM.
}}</ref> di lintasan aterosklerosis.
 
Beberapa institusi kesehatan seperti ''American Heart Association'' atau ''American Stroke Association Council'', ''Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention'' memberikan panduan pencegahan yang dimulai dengan penanganan saksama berbagai [[penyakit]] yang dapat ditimbulkan oleh [[aterosklerosis]], penggunaan senyawa anti-trombotik untuk [[kardioembolisme]] dan senyawa anti-keping darah bagi kasus non-kardioembolisme,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16432246
|title = Guidelines for prevention of stroke in patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Council on Stroke: co-sponsored by the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = American Heart Association; American Stroke Association Council on Stroke; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; American Academy of Neurology.; Sacco RL, Adams R, Albers G, Alberts MJ, Benavente O, Furie K, Goldstein LB, Gorelick P, Halperin J, Harbaugh R, Johnston SC, Katzan I, Kelly-Hayes M, Kenton EJ, Marks M, Schwamm LH, Tomsick T
}}</ref> diikuti dengan pengendalian faktor risiko seperti ''arterial dissection'', ''patent foramen ovale'', [[hiperhomosisteinemia]], ''hypercoagulable states'', ''sickle cell disease''; ''cerebral venous sinus thrombosis''; strok saat [[kehamilan]], strok akibat penggunaan [[hormon]] pasca [[menopause]], penggunaan senyawa anti-koagulan setelah terjadinya ''cerebral hemorrhage''; hipertensi,<ref>{{en}} {{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16785347
|title = Primary prevention of ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council: cosponsored by the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Interdisciplinary Working Group; Cardiovascular Nursing Council; Clinical Cardiology Council; Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism Council; and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group
|accessdate = 2011-08-21
|work = American Heart Association; American Stroke Association Stroke Council; Goldstein LB, Adams R, Alberts MJ, Appel LJ, Brass LM, Bushnell CD, Culebras A, DeGraba TJ, Gorelick PB, Guyton JR, Hart RG, Howard G, Kelly-Hayes M, Nixon JV, Sacco RL
}}</ref> hipertensi, kebiasaan merokok, diabetes, fibrilasi atrial, [[dislipidemia]], stenosis karotid, [[obesitas]], [[sindrom]] [[metabolisme]], konsumsi alkohol berlebihan, konsumsi obat-obatan berlebihan, konsumsi obat [[kontrasepsi]], mendengkur, migrain, peningkatan [[lipoprotein]] dan [[fosfolipase]].
 
Biasanya di Indonesia CT Scan dan MRI baru dilakukan, setelah terjadinya strok. Jarang angiography menggunakan kedua alat itu untuk mendeteksi kemungkinan terjadinya strok dilakukan. Sekarang ini sudah mulai banyak laboratorium klinik, klinik strok, pembuluh darah dan [[penyakit kardiovaskular]] yang memiliki [[Transcranial Doppler]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pramita.co.id/index.php/19-artikel/bulletin/39-trans-cranial-doppler-tcd |title=TRANSCRANIAL DOPPLER (TCD) |accessdate=3 April 2015}}</ref> karena alatnya kecil/portabel dan relatif murah dengan biaya pemeriksaan menggunakan alat itu hanya sekitar Rp 500.000 atau seperempat sampai seperdelapan biaya penggunaan CT Scan atau MRI. Transcranial doppler tidak seakurat kedua alat yang mahal tersebut, tetapi salah satu keuntungannya, yaitu tidak mengandung radiasi, sehingga dapat dilakukan secara berulang, misalnya untuk pamantauan selama dan sesudah/pascastrok dan juga dapat dilakukan pada pasien yang kritis, tidak sadar, di ruang ICU.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jurnalmedika.com/edisi-tahun-2011/edisi-no-02-vol-xxxvii-2011/284-artikel-penelitian/625-penggunaan-trans-cranial-doppler-untuk-deteksi-perubahan-hemodinamik-serebral-pada-pasien-kritis |title=Penggunaan Trans Cranial Doppler untuk Deteksi Perubahan Hemodinamik Serebral pada Pasien Kritis |author=Rizaldi Pinzon |accessdate=3 April 2015 |archive-date=2015-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406040602/http://www.jurnalmedika.com/edisi-tahun-2011/edisi-no-02-vol-xxxvii-2011/284-artikel-penelitian/625-penggunaan-trans-cranial-doppler-untuk-deteksi-perubahan-hemodinamik-serebral-pada-pasien-kritis |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Mengingat biayanya yang relatif murah, maka pemantauan kemungkinan terjadinya strok juga sudah banyak dilakukan menggunakan Transcranial doppler, terutama di Amerika Serikat.
 
== Penelitian ==
 
=== Angioplasty dan stenting ===
[[Angioplasty]] dan [[stent]]ing telah mulai dilirik sebagai kemungkinan pencegahan yang menjanjikan dalam penanganan strok iskemik akut. Intra-cranial stenting yang diterapkan pada gejala penyumbatan stenosis arteri intrakranial, boleh dikatakan sukses mengurangi penyumbatan <50% dengan tingkat keberhasilan 90–98%, dan tingkat komplikasi utama pada peri-procedural berkisar antara 4–10%. Tingkat penyumbatan kembali dan/atau strok yang mengikutinya juga boleh dikatakan minim. Data ini menganjurkan untuk melakukan [[randomized controlled trial]] untuk evaluasi lebih lengkap kemungkinan keuntungan perawatan dari usaha pencegahan ini.<ref name="pmid">{{cite journal | author = Derdeyn CP, Chimowitz MI | title = Angioplasty and Stenting for Atherosclerotic Intracranial Stenosis: Rationale for a Randomized Clinical Trial | journal = Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am. | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 355–63, viii–ix | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17826637 | pmc = 2040119 | doi = 10.1016/j.nic.2007.05.001 | url = | last2 = Chimowitz }}</ref>
 
=== Thrombectomy mekanis ===
[[Berkas:Merci L5.jpg|jmpl|ka|150px|[[MERCI Retriever]] L5.]]
Menghilangkan gumpalan penyumbatan (clot) dapat dicoba, jika ini terjadi pada [[pembuluh darah]] besar dan merupakan suatu pilihan bagi mereka yang tidak mempan atau tidak ada perbaikan dengan intravenous thrombolytics.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Tenser MS, Amar AP, Mack WJ | title = Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke using the MERCI retriever and penumbra aspiration systems | journal = World neurosurgery | volume = 76 | issue = 6 Suppl | pages = S16–23 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22182267 | doi = 10.1016/j.wneu.2011.07.003 | last2 = Amar | last3 = Mack }}</ref> Komplikasi-komplikasi yang mencolok timbul sekitar 7%.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ortega-Lopez Y, Llanos-Mendez A|title=[Mechanical thrombectomy with MERCI device. Ischaemic stroke]|journal=Andalusian Agency for Health Technology Assessment|year=2010|url=http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/CRDWeb/ShowRecord.asp?ID=32011000516}}</ref> {{As of|2013|10}}, percobaan-percobaan ini tidak menunjukkan hasil-hasil yang positif.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Tansy AP, Liebeskind DS | title = The Goldilocks Dilemma in Acute Ischemic Stroke | journal = Frontiers in neurology | volume = 4 | pages = 164 | date = Oct 21, 2013 | pmid = 24155740 | pmc = 3801149 | doi = 10.3389/fneur.2013.00164 | last2 = Liebeskind }}</ref>
 
=== Neuroprotection ===
Obat-obatan yang memakan [[reactive oxygen species]], menolak [[apoptosis]], atau menolak inhibit excitatory neurotransmitters telah memperlihatkan secara eksperimentatif pengurangan kerusakan jaringan yang disebabkan oleh [[iskemia]]. Zat-zat yang bekerja dengan cara ini disebut ''neuroprotective''. Hingga akhir-akhit ini, percobaan pada manusia dengan zat neuroprotective telah gagal, dengan kemungkinan perkecualian [[barbiturate coma]] yang mendalam. Bagaimanapun, yang terkini [[NXY-059]], derivatif dari disulfonyl yang merupakan the radical-scavengin phenylbutylnitrone, dilaporkan bersifat neuroprotective pada strok.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lees KR, Zivin JA, Ashwood T, Davalos A, Davis SM, Diener HC, Grotta J, Lyden P, Shuaib A, Hårdemark HG, Wasiewski WW | title = NXY-059 for acute ischemic stroke | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 354 | issue = 6 | pages = 588–600 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16467546 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa052980 | last2 = Zivin | last3 = Ashwood | last4 = Davalos | last5 = Davis | last6 = Diener | last7 = Grotta | last8 = Lyden | last9 = Shuaib | last10 = Hårdemark | last11 = Wasiewski | author12 = Stroke-Acute Ischemic NXY Treatment (SAINT I) Trial Investigators }}</ref> Zat ini tampaknya bekerja pada pelapis pembuluh darah atau endothelium. Sayangnya, setelah percobaan yang pertama berhasil, yang kedua tidak berhasil.<ref name="NINDS1999">{{en}} {{cite web | author=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) | authorlink=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke | year=1999 | title=Stroke: Hope Through Research | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/stroke/detail_stroke.htm | publisher=National Institutes of Health | access-date=2015-07-27 | archive-date=2015-10-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004193735/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/stroke/detail_stroke.htm | dead-url=yes }}</ref> Sehingga manfaat NXY-059 masih dipertanyakan.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Koziol JA, Feng AC | title = On the analysis and interpretation of outcome measures in stroke clinical trials: lessons from the SAINT I study of NXY-059 for acute ischemic stroke | journal = Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation | volume = 37 | issue = 10 | pages = 2644–7 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16946150 | doi = 10.1161/01.STR.0000241106.81293.2b | last2 = Feng }}</ref>
 
[[Hyperbaric oxygen therapy]] telah dipelajari sebagai kemungkinan perlindungan, tetapi akhir-akhir ini dipikirkan bahwa terapi ini tidak memberikan manfaat yang cukup.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bennett|first1=MH|last2=Weibel|first2=S|last3=Wasiak|first3=J|last4=Schnabel|first4=A|last5=French|first5=C|last6=Kranke|first6=P|title=Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for acute ischaemic stroke.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=12 November 2014|volume=11|pages=CD004954|pmid=25387992}}</ref>
 
== Catatan ==
{{Notelist}}
 
== Referensi ==
{{reflist|2}}
 
== Pranala luar ==
* [http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/41/11/2525?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=stroke+review&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT Predictors of Hospital Readmission After Stroke]
* [http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/64/6/785?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=stroke+review&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT Consent of thrombolysis IV in Acute stroke]
* [http://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/master.php3?mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=stroke#top Imaging CVA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514035102/http://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/master.php3?mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=stroke#top |date=2011-05-14 }} CT, MR, Angiografi Strok
 
{{Authority control}}
 
[[Kategori:Kedokteran]]
[[Kategori:Strok]]
[[Kategori:Penyakit kardiovaskular]]