Bahasa Hurri: Perbedaan antara revisi
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JohnThorne (bicara | kontrib) k JohnThorne memindahkan halaman Bahasa Hurria ke Bahasa Hurri: Penamaan baku |
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Baris 1:
{{Infobox Bahasa
{{Infobox Bahasa|familycolor=Caucasian|name=Bahasa Hurri|states=[[Mitanni]]|region=[[Mesopotamia]]|era=attested 2300–1000 BC|iso3=xhu|fam1=[[:en:Hurro-Urartian languages|Hurro-Urartian]]|linglist=xhu|glotto=hurr1240|glottorefname=Hurrian|notice=IPA}}'''Bahasa Hurrian''' adalah suatu bahasa Hurro-Urartian yang sekarang telah punah, dipakai oleh [[bangsa Hurri]] (Khurrites; Hurrian), orang-orang yang masuk [[Mesopotamia]] utara sekitar 2300 SM dan sebagian besar telah lenyap menjelang tahun 1000 SM. Bahasa Hurria adalah bahasa kerajaan [[Mitanni]] di Mesopotamia utara, dan kemungkinan diucapkan setidaknya pada awalnya di permukiman orang Hurria di [[Suriah]]. Umumnya diyakini bahwa penutur bahasa ini awalnya berasal dari Dataran tinggi Armenia dan tersebar di tenggara Anatolia dan Mesopotamia utara pada awal milenium ke-2 SM.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041610/Hurrian-language Hurrian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref>▼
|familycolor=Caucasian
|name=Hurri
|states=[[Mitanni]]
|region=[[Mesopotamia]]
|era= 2300–1000 SM (bukti tertulis)
|iso3=xhu
|fam1=[[Rumpun bahasa Hurri-Urartu|Hurri-Urartu]]
|linglist=xhu|glotto=hurr1240
|glottorefname=Hurrian
|notice=IPA
}}
▲
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== Klasifikasi ==
Baris 5 ⟶ 17:
Some scholars, such as [[I. J. Gelb]] and [[E. A. Speiser]], tried to equate Hurrians and "[[Subarians]]".
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== Sejarah ==
[[Berkas:Hurrian foundation document-AO 19937-IMG 3470-gradient.jpg|jmpl|ka|[[Pasak pondasi Hurri|''Singa Urkesh'']], yaitu sebuah pasak fondasi Hurri, dan prasasti batu yang menyertainya memuat teks bahasa Hurri tertua yang terlestarikan sampai sekarang.]]
Pada [[abad ke-13 SM]], serangan dari barat oleh [[bangsa Het|orang Het]] dan dari selatan oleh [[Asyur]] mengakhiri keberadaan kekaisaran Mitanni, yang terbagi di antara dua kekuasaan yang merebutnya itu. Pada abad berikutnya, serangan dari [[Sea Peoples|"orang-orang Laut"]] membawa akhir yang cepat terhadap pemukiman terakhir yang menggunakan bahasa Hurri. Sekitar waktu itu, bahasa-bahasa lain, seperti [[bahasa Het]] dan [[bahasa Ugarit]] juga punah, dan ini dikenal sebagai [[Bronze Age collapse|keruntuhan Zaman Perunggu]]. Dalam berbagai teks bahasa-bahasa ini, juga dalam [[bahasa Akkadia]] atau Urarti, didapati banyak nama dan tempat dalam bahasa Hurri.
▲The earliest Hurrian text fragments consist of lists of names and places from the end of the third millennium BC. The first full texts date to the reign of king [[Tish-atal]] of [[Urkesh]] and were found on a stone tablet accompanying the [[Hurrian foundation pegs]] known as the "Urkish lions."<ref name="louvre">{{cite web|url=http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/hurrian-foundation-deposit-known-urkish-lion|title=A Hurrian foundation deposit known as the "Urkish Lion"|first1=Claire|last1=Iselin|last2=André-Salvini|first2=Béatrice|publisher=[[Musée du Louvre]]|accessdate=2 December 2012}}</ref> At the start of the second milliennium BC. Archeologists have discovered the texts of numerous spells, incantations, prophecies and letters at sites including [[Hattusha]], [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], [[Tuttul]], [[Babylon]], [[Ugarit]] and others. Early study of the language, however, was entirely based on the [[Amarna letters|Mitanni letter]], found in 1887 at [[Amarna]] in Egypt, written by the Hurrian king [[Tushratta]] to the pharaoh [[Amenhotep III]]. The Hurro-Urartian relation was recognized as early as 1890 by Sayce (ZA 5, 1890, 260-274) and Jensen (ZA 6, 1891, 34-72).
Minat yang baru terhadap bahasa Hurri dibangkitkan oleh teks-teks yang diketemukan di [[Boğazkale|Boğazköy]] pada tahun 1910-an dan Ugarit pada tahun 1930-an. Speiser (1941) mempublikasi gramatika komprehensif pertama dari bahasa Hurri. Sejak tahun 1980-an, korpus [[Nuzi]] dari arsip Silwa-tessup telah disunting oleh G. Wilhelm. Sejak akhir tahun 1980-an, kemajuan berarti telah dicapai berkat penemuan suatu teks dwibahasa Hurri-Het, yang disunting oleh E. Neu ([[StBoT]] 32).
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==Dialects==
The Hurrian of the Mitanni letter differs significantly from that used in the texts at Hattusha and other Hittite centres, as well as from earlier Hurrian texts from various locations. The non-Mitanni letter varieties, while not entirely homogeneous, are commonly subsumed under the designation ''Old Hurrian''. Whereas in Mitanni the vowel pairs ''i''/''e'' and ''u''/''o'' are differentiated, in the Hattusha dialect they have merged into ''i'' and ''u'' respectively. There are also differences in morphology, some of which are mentioned in the course of the exposition below. Nonetheless, it is clear that these represent [[dialects]] of one language. Another Hurrian dialect is likely represented in several texts from Ugarit, but they are so poorly preserved that little can be said about them, save that spelling patterns used elsewhere to represent Hurrian phonemes are virtually ignored in them. There was also a Hurrian-Akkadian creole, called [[Nuzi]], spoken in the Mitanni provincial capital of [[Arrapha]].
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==
===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Fonem konsonan bahasa Hurri
!
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
Baris 33 ⟶ 46:
|
|- align=center
![[Plosive consonant|
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|t}}
Baris 69 ⟶ 82:
|
|}
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As can be seen from the table, Hurrian did not possess a [[voiced]]-[[voiceless]] distinction. There is no voiced consonant with an unvoiced counterpart, nor vice versa. However, based on evidence from the cuneiform script, there seem to have been voiced [[allophones]] of consonants other than /ts/, which occurred in certain environments: between two voiced phonemes (sonorants or vowels), and, surprisingly, also word-finally.<ref>Wilhelm, Gernot. 2008. Hurrian. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. P.85</ref> Sometimes a voiced consonant is written in these situations, i.e. ''b'' (for ''p''), ''d'' (for ''t''), ''g'' (for ''k''), ''v'' (for ''f'') or ''ž'' (for ''š''), and, very rarely, ''ǧ'' (for ''h'', ''ḫ''). All consonants except /w/ and /j/ can be long or short. The long ([[geminate]]) consonants occur only between vowels. In the cuneiform, as in the Latin transcription, geminated consonants are indicated by doubling the corresponding symbol, so ''...VC-CV..''. Short consonants are written ''...V-CV...'', for example ''mānnatta'' ("I am") is written ''ma-a-a'''n-n'''a-a'''t-t'''a''.
Since /f/ was not found in the [[Sumerian cuneiform]] script, the Hurrians used the symbols representing /p/, /b/ or /w/. An /f/ can be recognised in words where this transcription varies from text to text. In cases where a word occurs only once, with a ''p'', it cannot be known if it was originally meant to represent a /p/ or an /f/. In final syllables containing ''a'', /f/ becomes diphthongised to /u/, e.g. ''tānōšau'' (<*tān-ōš-af)) "I did". /s/ is traditionally transcribed by /š/, because the cuneiform script adapted the sign indicating /š/ for this phoneme. /ts/ is regularly transcribed by ''z'', and /x/ by ''ḫ'' or ''h''. In Hurrian, /r/ and /l/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.
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===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
![[Front vowel|
![[Central vowel|
![[Back vowel|
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|
|{{IPA|i}} || || {{IPA|u}}
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|
|{{IPA|e}} || || {{IPA|o}}
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|
| || {{IPA|a}} ||
|}
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Vowels, just like consonants, can be either long or short. In the cuneiform script, this is indicated by placing an additional vowel symbol between the ''CV'' and ''VC'' syllables, giving ''CV-V-VC''. Short vowels are indicated by a simple ''CV-VC'' pairing. In the Latin transcription, long vowels are indicated with a macron, ''ā'', ''ē'', ''ī'', ''ō'', and ''ū''. For /o/, which is absent in the Sumerian script, the sign for ''U'' is used, whereas /u/ is represented by ''Ú''.
==
===Word derivation===
While Hurrian could not combine multiple stems to form new stems, a large number of [[suffix]]es could be attached to existing stems to form new words. For example, ''attardi'' (ancestor) from ''attai'' (father), ''futki'' (son) from ''fut'' (to beget), ''aštohhe'' (feminine) from ''ašti'' (woman). Hurrian also provided many verbal suffixes, which often changed the [[valency (linguistics)|valency]] of the verb they modify.
===
====
The nominal morphology of Hurrian employs numerous suffixes and/or enclitics, which always follow a certain order. The resulting "morpheme chain" is as follows:<ref>Wegner, I. 2000. Einführung in die hurritische Sprache. P.46-65</ref><ref>Wilhelm, Gernot. 2008. Hurrian. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.) The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. P.88</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
Baris 175 ⟶ 188:
The so-called [[essive case]] can convey the meaning "as" and a condition, but also to express direction, the aim of a demand, the transition from one condition to another, the [[direct object]] in [[antipassive]] constructions (where the transitive subject receives the absolutive case instead of the ergative), and, in the variety of [[Nuzi]], also the dative.<ref name=wegnercase>Wegner, I. 2000. Einführung in die hurritische Sprache. P.56-57</ref>
-->
====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| style="background:#eee;"| '''
|-
| style="background:#eee;"|
|}
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In Hurrian, the function of the so-called "[[Article (grammar)|article]]" is not entirely clear, inasmuch as its use does not seem to resemble closely a typical [[definite article]].<ref>Wegner, I. 2000. Einführung in die hurritische Sprache. P.54-55</ref> It is attached directly to the noun, but before any case endings, e.g. ''tiwē-na-še'' (object.''art''.''gen.pl'') (of the object). The article is unmarked in the absolutive singular – e.g. ''kāzi'' 'cup'. The /n/ of the article merges with a preceding /n/, /l/ or /r/ giving /nn/, /ll/ and /rr/ respectively, e.g. ''ēn-na'' (the gods), ''ōl-la'' (the others), ''awar-ra'' (the fields). In these cases, the stem-final vowel /i/ has been dropped; the singulars of these words are ''ēni'' (god), ''ōli'' (another), ''awari'' (field). If there are two consonants preceding the final /i/, an epenthetic vowel /u/ is inserted between them, e.g. ''hafur'''u'''n-ne-ta'' (heaven-''art''-''all.sg'', to heaven), the stem of which is ''hafurni'' (heaven).
Baris 264 ⟶ 277:
| colspan="2" |Ergative 3PL ''-it-'' (OH)
|}
As with the noun, not all of these elements must be present in each verb form, and indeed some of them are mutually incompatible. The marker -t- in position (4) may indicate intransitivity in non-present tenses. Position (5) may carry the suffix ''-imbu-'' (5) of unclear function or the ergative third-person plural suffix ''-it-''
==== Indicative mood ====
Baris 433 ⟶ 446:
The desiderative form is used to express an urgent request. It is also only found in the third person, and only with transitive verbs. The ending for the third person singular is ''-ilanni'', and for the plural, ''-itanni''.
====
The following tables give examples of verb forms in various syntactic environments, largely from the Mitanni letter:
Baris 510 ⟶ 523:
The infinitive, which can also be found nominalised, is formed with the suffix ''-umme'', e.g. ''fahrumme'', "to be good", "the state/property of being good"
===
====
Hurrian uses both enclitic and independent personal pronouns. The independent pronouns can occur in any case, whereas the enclitic ones represent only the absolutive. It is irrelevant to the meaning of the sentence to which word in the sentence the enclitic pronoun is attached, so it is often attached either to the first phrase or to the verb. The following table gives the attested forms of the personal pronouns, omitting those that cannot be determined.
Baris 593 ⟶ 606:
| || colspan="3"| "But I really am thus"
|}
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===
{| class="wikitable"
Baris 610 ⟶ 623:
!9
!10
!13
!17
!18
!10000
!30000
|-
!
|''šukko'',<br/>''šuki''
|''šini''
Baris 633 ⟶ 646:
|''kike nupi''
|-
!
|belum dapat dipastikan
|''šinzi''
|''kiški''
|''tumnušše''
|''narišše''
|belum dapat dipastikan
|''šintišše''
|belum dapat dipastikan
|belum dapat dipastikan
|''ēmanze''
|belum dapat dipastikan
|belum dapat dipastikan
|''kirmanze''
|belum dapat dipastikan
|belum dapat dipastikan
|}
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===Syntax===
The normal word order of a Hurrian sentence is [[subject–object–verb|SOV]]. Within [[noun phrase]]s, the noun regularly comes at the end. Adjectives, numbers, and genitive modifiers come before the noun they modify. [[Relative clause]]s, however, tend to surround the noun, which means that the noun the relative clause modifies stands in the middle of the relative clause. Hurrian has at its disposal several paradigms for constructing relative clauses. It can either use the relative pronouns ''iya'' and ''iye'', which has already been described under 'pronouns' above, or the nominalising suffix ''-šše'' attached to a verb, which undergoes Suffixaufnahme. The third possibility is for both these markers to occur (see example 16 below). The noun, which is represented by the relative clause, can take any case, but within the relative clause can only have the function of the absolutive, i.e. it can only be the subject of an intransitive relative clause or the object of a transitive one.
Baris 682 ⟶ 695:
==Vocabulary==
The attested Hurrian lexicon is quite homogenous, containing only a small number of [[loanwords]] (e.g. ''tuppi'' (clay tablet), ''Mizri'' (Egypt) both from [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]). The relative pronouns ''iya'' and ''iye'' may be a loan from the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language of the Mitanni people who had lived in the region before the Hurrians; cf. [[Sanskrit]] ''ya''. Conversely, Hurrian gave many loan words to the nearby Akkadian dialects, for example ''hāpiru'' (nomad) from the Hurrian ''hāpiri'' (nomad). There may also be Hurrian loanwords among the [[languages of the Caucasus]], but this cannot be verified, as there are no written records of Caucasian languages from the time of the Hurrians. The source language of similar sounding words is thus unconfirmable.
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== Contoh
''Untomān iyallēnīn tiwēna šūallamān šēniffuš katōšāššena ūriāššena, antillān ēmanāmḫa tānōšau.'' (aus dem Mitanni-Brief, Kolumne IV, Zeilen 30-32)
Baris 689 ⟶ 703:
|-
!Kata dalam morfem
!Analisis tata bahasa
|-
| ''unto=mān''
|
|-
| ''iya=llē=nīn''
| kata ganti relatif = ''orang ketiga mutlak tunggal'' = sesungguhnya
|-
| ''tiwē-na-Ø''
|
|-
| ''šū-a=lla=mān''
|
|-
| ''šēn-iffu-š''
|
|-
| ''kat-ōš-ā-šše-na-Ø''
| berkata-''preterit.transitif''-''subjek ketiga tunggal''-''[[nominalisasi]]''-''[[Artikel (kelas kata)|kata sandang]] jamak''-''absolutif''
|-
| ''ūr-i-ā-šše-na-Ø''
|
|-
| ''anti=lla=an''
|
|-
| ''ēman-āmḫa''
|
|-
| ''tān-ōš-au''
|
|}
Baris 725 ⟶ 739:
== Kesusastraan Hurri ==
Tidak ada teks bahasa Hurri yang dapat dipastikan pada milenium ke-1 SM (kecuali jika bahasa Urarti dianggap dialek muda bahasa Hurri), tetapi banyak kata pinjaman terus tersebar dalam bahasa Asyur, seperti dewi ''Savuska'' yang disebutkan oleh [[Sargon II]].<ref>Wegner (2000:25)</ref>
▲-->
== Lihat pula ==
▲*[[:en:Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|Superstrata Indo-Arya di Mitanni]]
== Referensi ==
=== Catatan kaki ===
{{Reflist}}
===
* Speiser, E. A. (1941). ''Introduction to Hurrian''. New Haven: Pub. by the American schools of Oriental research under the Jane Dows Nies publication fund.
* Wegner, I., ''Hurritisch, eine Einführung'', Harassowitz (2000), {{ISBN|3-447-04262-1}}.
== Pranala luar ==
Baris 749 ⟶ 763:
{{Authority control}}
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