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<!--{{Sejarah Belanda}}-->
'''Sejarah Negeri Belanda''' adalah sejarah bangsa maritim yang tumbuh dan berkembang di daerah tanah rendah [[delta sungai]] yang bermuara ke [[Laut Utara]] di kawasan barat laut benua Eropa. Catatan sejarah Negeri Belanda bermula dengan kurun waktu empat abad manakala daerah ini menjadi perbatasan wilayah [[Kekaisaran Romawi]] yang dijaga militer. Daerah perbatasan ini kian lama kian terdesak serbuan [[suku Jermanik|suku-suku rumpun Jermanik]] yang berpindah ke arah barat. Seiring runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi dan bermulanya [[Abad Pertengahan]], tiga suku terbesar dari rumpun bangsa Jermanik tampil menguasai daerah ini, yakni [[bangsa Frisia|orang Frisia]] di sebelah utara serta kawasan pesisir, [[Bahasa Saxon Hilir Belanda|orang Saksen Hilir]] di sebelah timur laut, dan [[orang Franka]] di sebelah selatan.
Pada Abad Pertengahan, [[wangsa Karoling]] berhasil menguasai daerah ini, dan memperluas wilayah kekuasaan mereka hingga mencakup hampir seluruh kawasan barat Eropa. [[Belanda|Negeri Belanda]] kala itu merupakan bagian dari [[Lorraine Hilir|Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir]] di dalam wilayah [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] yang didirikan dan diperintah orang Franka. Selama beberapa abad, Negeri Belanda terbagi-bagi menjadi sejumlah swapraja feodal, antara lain [[Kadipaten Brabant|Brabant]], [[Graafschap Holland|Holland]], [[Zeeland]], [[Friesland]], dan [[Kadipaten Geldern|Gelre]], dengan garis perbatasan yang terus-menerus berubah. Belum ada wilayah kesatuan yang setara dengan wilayah negara Belanda sekarang ini.
'''Sejarah Belanda''' adalah sejarah bangsa bahari yang tumbuh dan berkembang di daerah dataran rendah [[delta sungai]] yang bermuara ke [[Laut Utara]] di kawasan barat laut Eropa. Catatan sejarah Belanda bermula dengan kurun waktu empat abad manakala daerah ini menjadi tapal batas wilayah [[Belanda pada zaman Kekaisaran Romawi|Kekaisaran Romawi]] yang dijaga bala tentara. Daerah tapal batas ini kian lama kian terdesak oleh serbuan [[suku bangsa Jermanik|suku-suku bangsa Jermanik]] yang berpindah ke arah barat. Seiring runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi dan bermulanya [[Abad Pertengahan]], tiga [[suku bangsa Jermanik]] terbesar bangkit menguasai daerah ini, yakni [[Frisii|suku bangsa Frisi]] di sebelah utara dan kawasan pesisir, [[Bahasa Saxon Hilir Belanda|suku bangsa Saksen Hilir]] di sebelah timur laut, dan [[suku Franka|suku bangsa Franka]] di sebelah selatan.
Pada Abad Pertengahan, kaum keturunan [[wangsa Karoling]] berjaya menguasai daerah ini, dan memperluas ruang lingkup kekuasaan mereka ke hampir seluruh kawasan barat Eropa. Negeri [[Belanda]] kala itu merupakan bagian dari [[Lorraine Hilir|Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir]] di dalam wilayah [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] yang didirikan dan diperintah oleh suku bangsa Franka. Selama beberapa abad, wilayah Belanda terbagi-bagi menjadi sejumlah swapraja feodal seperti [[Kadipaten Brabant|Brabant]], [[Kabupaten Holland|Holland]], [[Zeeland]], [[Friesland]], [[Kadipaten Geldern|Gelre]], dan berbagai swapraja feodal lainnya dengan tapal batas yang berubah-ubah. Belum ada wilayah kesatuan yang sama dengan wilayah negara Belanda sekarang ini.
Pada 1433, [[Philippe yang Baik|Adipati Burgundia]] berhasil menguasai seluruh datarandaerah tanah rendah di Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir, dan mendirikan swapraja feodal [[BelandaNegeri Bourgogne|Belanda BurgundiBurgundia]]. ({{lang-nl|BourgondischeWilayah Nederlanden}})swapraja yangini meliputi kawasan yang sekarang menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda, Belgia, Luksemburg, dan sebagian wilayah PerancisPrancis.
Raja-raja Spanyol yang beragama Katolik menindak keras penyebaran mazhabagama Kristen Protestan, yang menimbulkan perseteruan antarkelompok masyarakat di dua kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negara Belgia dan daerah [[Holandia|Holland]] ({{lang-nl|Holland}}) di negaraNegeri Belanda. Tindakan tegas Kerajaan Spanyol ini memicu [[Pemberontakan Belanda|pemberontakanPemberontakan rakyat Belanda]] yang berkobar sesudahnya mengakibatkan swapraja Negeri Belanda BurgundiBurgundia pecah menjadi [[Belanda Spanyol|Negeri Belanda Spanyol]] dan [[Republik Belanda|Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi]]. Negeri Belanda Spanyol adalah wilayah berpendudukdi sebelah selatan yang warganya memeluk agama Kristen Katolik penuturdan menuturkan bahasa PerancisPrancis danmaupun bahasa Belanda (kurang lebih meliputi wilayah negara Belgia dan negara Luksemburg sekarang ini), sementara Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi adalah wilayah utaradi berpenduduksebelah penutur bahasa Belandautara yang mayoritas warganya beragama Kristen Protestan dan minoritashanya sedikit yang beragama Kristen Katolik penutur bahasa Belanda. Wilayah Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi inilah yang di kemudian hari menjadi wilayahcikal negarabakal Negeri Belanda modern.
Pada [[masa keemasanKeemasan Belanda|Zaman Keemasan Negeri Belanda]] yang mencapai puncaknya sekitar tahun 1667, terjadi perkembangan di bidang perniagaanusaha dagang, industri, seni rupa, dan [[Daftar tokoh dari Zaman Keemasan Belanda#Ilmu pengetahuan dan filsafat|ilmu pengetahuan]]. NegaraNegari Belanda berkembang menjadi sebuah [[imperium Belanda|imperium]] yang makmur denganyang wilayahmenguasai koloni-wilayahkoloni jajahandi yangberbagai tersebar di seluruhpelosok dunia, dan [[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie|Kongsi Dagang Hindia Timur]] ({{lang-nl|Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie}}) atau Kompeni Belanda muncul sebagai salah satu perusahaan dagang nasional tertua dan terpenting yang berasaskan kewirausahaan dan perniagaanusaha dagang.<!--
Pada abad ke-18, kekuasaankedigdayaan dan kemakmuran BelandaNegeri mengalamiBelanda kemerosotanmerosot. Negara ini melemah akibat berulang kali berperang melawan negara-negara tetangganyatetangga yang lebih kuat, yakni [[Anglo-DutchPeperangan WarsInggris-Belanda|Inggris]] dan [[FrancoPerang Prancis-Dutch WarBelanda|FrenchPrancis]] neighbors weakened it. BritainKerajaan seized the North American colonyInggris ofmerebut [[NewNieuw Amsterdam]], turningkoloni itBelanda intodi NewAmerika York.Utara, Theredan wasmengganti growingnamanya unrestmenjadi and[[New York]]. Kerusuhan dan [[SecondPeriode StadtholderlessTanpa PeriodMangkubumi Kedua#CrisisKrisis anddan therevolusi Orangistkaum revolutionpendukung ofWillem van Oranje pada 1747|conflictperseteruan sengit]] betweentimbul di theantara [[OrangismOrangisme (NetherlandsRepublik Belanda)|Orangistskaum pendukung Willem van Oranje]] and thedan [[Patriottentijd|Patriotskaum Patriot]]. TheRevolusi FrenchPrancis Revolutionmerembet spilledsampai overke afterNegeri Belanda selepas tahun 1789, anddan abermuara pro-Frenchpada pembentukan negara [[BatavianRepublik RepublicBatavia]] was establishedpada intahun 1795–18061795. Napoleon mademenjadikan itRepublik aBatavia satellitesebagai state,salah thesatu negara satelit Prancis dengan nama [[KingdomKerajaan ofHollandia|Kerajaan Holland]] (1806–1810)pada tahun 1806, andnamun kemudian hari hanya latermenjadi simplysalah asatu Frenchprovinsi imperialKekaisaran provincePrancis.
Setelah rezim Napoleon tumbang pada kurun waktu 1813–1815, berdiri [[Kerajaan Bersatu Belanda|Kerajaan Belanda Serikat]] dengan wilayah yang diperluas, dan diperintah [[Wangsa Oranye-Nassau|wangsa Oranje]] selaku kepala monarki yang juga berdaulat atas Belgia dan Luksemburg. Raja Belanda menerapkan pembaharuan-pembaharuan ala Kristen Protestan secara paksa di Belgia, sehingga rakyat Belgia [[Revolusi Belgia|bangkit memberontak pada tahun 1830]], dan akhirnya merdeka pada tahun 1839. Setelah beberapa waktu tunduk pada pemerintah yang berhaluan konservatif, Negeri Belanda menjadi negara [[demokrasi perwakilan|demokrasi parlementer]] yang dikepalai seorang [[kerajaan konstitusional|kepala monarki konstitusional]] berdasarkan konstitusi tahun 1848. Negara Luksemburg modern secara resmi merdeka dari Negeri Belanda pada tahun 1839, namun masih mengakui Raja Belanda sebagai kepala negara sampai dengan tahun 1890. Mulai dari 1890, jabatan kepala negara Luksemburg beralih ke cabang lain dari wangsa Nassau.
After the collapse of Napoleon in 1813–15, an expanded "[[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]]" was created with the [[House of Orange-Nassau|House of Orange]] as monarchs, also ruling Belgium and Luxembourg. The King imposed unpopular Protestant reforms on Belgium, [[Belgian Revolution|which revolted in 1830]] and became independent in 1839. After an initially conservative period, in the 1848 constitution the country became a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a [[constitutional monarch]]. Modern Luxembourg became officially independent from the Netherlands in 1839, but a personal union remained until 1890. Since 1890 it is ruled by another branch of the House of Nassau.
Negeri Belanda bersikap netral pada [[Perang Dunia I]], tetapi tetap saja diserbu dan diduduki Jerman Nazi pada [[Perang Dunia II]]. Jerman Nazi beserta antek-anteknya menciduk dan membunuh hampir semua warga Yahudi Belanda (yang paling terkenal adalah [[Anne Frank]]). Manakala perlawanan rakyat Belanda semakin sengit, Jerman Nazi menghambat pasokan pangan ke daerah-daerah, sehingga menimbulkan bencana kelaparan dahsyat pada kurun waktu 1944–1945. Pada tahun 1942, Hindia Belanda direbut Jepang, tetapi orang-orang Belanda sudah lebih dahulu menghancurkan sumur-sumur minyak yang sangat dibutuhkan Jepang. [[Indonesia]] memproklamasikan kemerdekaannya pada tahun 1945. [[Suriname]] mendapatkan kemerdekaannya pada tahun 1975. Pada tahun-tahun pascaperang, Negeri Belanda mengalami pemulihan ekonomi (berkat penerapan [[Rencana Marshall]] yang dicetuskan Amerika Serikat), dan selanjutnya menerapkan konsep [[negara kesejahteraan|negara berkesejahteraan]] pada kurun waktu yang aman dan makmur. Negeri Belanda membentuk persekutuan baru di bidang ekonomi dengan Belgia dan Luksemburg, yang dinamakan [[Benelux|Uni Beneluks]]. Ketiga negara ini kelak menjadi anggota pendiri [[Uni Eropa]] dan [[NATO]]. Pada beberapa dasawarsa terakhir ini, ekonomi Negeri Belanda telah terjalin rapat dengan ekonomi negara Jerman, dan kini sangat makmur.
The Netherlands was neutral during the [[First World War]], but during the [[Second World War]], it was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany. The Nazis, including many collaborators, rounded up and killed almost all the Jews (most famously [[Anne Frank]]). When the Dutch resistance increased, the Nazis cut off food supplies to much of the country, causing severe starvation in 1944–45. In 1942, the Dutch East Indies was conquered by Japan, but first the Dutch destroyed the oil wells that Japan needed so badly. [[Indonesia]] proclaimed its independence in 1945. [[Suriname]] gained independence in 1975. The postwar years saw rapid economic recovery (helped by the American Marshall Plan), followed by the introduction of a [[welfare state]] during an era of peace and prosperity. The Netherlands formed a new economic alliance with Belgium and Luxembourg, the [[Benelux]], and all three became founding members of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. In recent decades, the Dutch economy has been closely linked to that of Germany, and is highly prosperous.
{{Sejarah Negeri-Negeri Dataran Rendah}}
{{History Benelux states}}
== PrehistoryPrasejarah (beforesebelum 800 BCSM) ==
=== Perubahan-perubahan bersejarah atas bentang alam ===
===Historical changes to the landscape===
Prasejarah kawasan yang kini menjadi Negeri Belanda lebih banyak dipengaruhi letak geografinya yang rendah dan terus-menerus berubah.
The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by its constantly shifting, low-lying geography.
{|cellspacing="0" border="0" style="background: white"
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|[[FileBerkas:5500vc ex leg.jpg|thumbjmpl|uprightlurus|leftkiri|TheNegeri NetherlandsBelanda inpada 5500 BCSM]]
|[[FileBerkas:3850vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumbjmpl|uprightlurus|leftkiri|TheNegeri NetherlandsBelanda inpada 3850 BCSM]]
|[[FileBerkas:2750vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumbjmpl|uprightlurus|leftkiri|TheNegeri NetherlandsBelanda inpada 2750 BCSM]]
|-
|[[FileBerkas:500vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumbjmpl|uprightlurus|leftkiri|TheNegeri NetherlandsBelanda inpada 500 BCSM]]
|[[FileBerkas:50nc ex leg copy.jpg|thumbjmpl|uprightlurus|leftkiri|TheNegeri NetherlandsBelanda inpada 50 ADM]]
|{{legend|#fff15d|beachGisik ridgesdan and dunesgumuk}}
{{legend|#d2d500|tidalDataran sandendapan flats,pasir tidalakibat pasang surut, [[mudflatdataran endapan lumpur]]s akibat pasang surut, [[saltrawa marshasin]]es}}
{{legend|#b56c03|peatRawa marshesgambut anddan daerah lanau [[floodplaindataran banjir]] silt areas<br>(includingtermasuk oldalur riversungai coursestua anddan riverbankcelah breachesdi whichtepian havesungai filledyang upsudah withterisi siltlanau oratau peatgambut)}}
{{legend|#a1aa95|ValleysLembah-lembah ofsungai the major riversutama (not coveredtidak withtertutup peatgambut)}}
{{legend|#fec901|RiverGumuk dunessungai (gumuk [[PleistocenePleistosen]] dunes)}}
{{legend|#e3f4fc|openPerairan waterterbuka (sealaut, lagoonslaguna, riverssungai)}}
{{legend|#f1f6e2|PleistoceneBentang landscapealam Pleistosen (> −6-6 m compareddibandingkan todengan [[Normaal Amsterdams Peil|NAP]])}}
{{legend|#fffdee|PleistoceneBentang landscapealam Pleistosen ( -6 m – 0 m)}}
{{legend|#fff9c2|PleistoceneBentang landscapealam Pleistosen ( 0 m – 10 m)}}
{{legend|#ffeba6|PleistoceneBentang landscapealam Pleistosen ( 10 m – 20 m)}}
{{legend|#fec901|PleistoceneBentang landscapealam Pleistosen ( 20 m – 50 m)}}
{{legend|#e7a300|PleistoceneBentang landscapealam Pleistosen ( 50 m – 100 m)}}
{{legend|#da600d|PleistoceneBentang landscapealam Pleistosen ( 100 m – 200 m)}}
|}
===Earliest groupsKelompok ofmasyarakat hunterpemburu-gatherersperamu tertua (beforesebelum 5000 BCSM) ===
[[FileBerkas:Mannetje van Willemstad.jpg|thumbjmpl|180px|AnArca oakkecil figurinedari foundkayu inek Willemstadsetinggi 125 cm (49,2 theinci), ditemukan di NetherlandsWillemstad, datingNegeri fromBelanda. aroundDiperkirakan dibuat sekitar tahun 4500 BCSM. OnTerpajang display in thedi [[Rijksmuseum van Oudheden]] in, Leiden. Height: {{convert|12.5|cm|1|abbr=on}}.]]
TheKawasan areayang thatkini is now themenjadi [[NetherlandsBelanda|Negeri Belanda]] wassudah inhabiteddihuni bymanusia earlypurba humanssekurang-kurangnya at leastpada 37,.000 yearstahun yang agolampau, asterbukti attesteddari bypenemuan alat-alat yang terbuat dari [[flintrijang|batu api]] tools discovered indi [[Woerden]] inpada 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-may-not-be-oldest-dutchman |title=Neanderthal may not be the oldest Dutchman | Radio Netherlands Worldwide |publisher=Rnw.nl |accessdate=25 MarchMaret 2012}}</ref> InPada 2009, asisa-sisa fragmentsebuah of a 40,000-year-oldtengkorak [[Neanderthal|manusia Neanderthal]] skullberumur was40.000 foundtahun inditemukan sanddalam dredgedkegiatan frompengerukan thepasir Northdari Seadasar floorLaut offUtara thedi perairan coastlepas ofpantai Zeeland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-fossil-discovered-zeeland-province |title=Neanderthal fossil discovered in Zeeland province | Radio Netherlands Worldwide |publisher=Rnw.nl |date=16 JuneJuni 2009 |accessdate=25 MarchMaret 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519074343/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-fossil-discovered-zeeland-province |archive-date=19 MayMei 2014 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
DuringPada the lastZaman iceEs ageterakhir, theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda hadmerupakan adaerah beriklim [[tundra]] climatedengan withvegetasi scarceyang vegetationjarang, anddan thependuduknya bertahan hidup dengan inhabitantsbermata survivedpencaharian assebagai [[hunterPemburu-gathererspengumpul|pemburu-peramu]]. AfterSelepas theZaman endEs, ofNegeri theBelanda icedidiami age,pelbagai kelompok masyarakat variousberkebudayaan [[Paleolithicpaleolitikum|Batu Tua]] groups inhabited the area. ItDiketahui isbahwa knownsekitar that aroundtahun 8000 BCSM, sekelompok masyarakat aberkebudayaan [[MesolithicMesolitikum|Batu Madya]] tribebermukim resideddi neardekat [[Burgumer MarBergumermeer]] ([[Friesland]]). AnotherSekelompok groupmasyarakat residingyang elsewherebermukim isdi knowntempat tolain havediketahui madesudah canoespandai membuat perahu. The[[Perahu oldestPesse]] recoveredadalah canoeperahu intertua thedi worlddunia isyang theditemukan [[Pessedi canoe]]Negeri Belanda.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Van Zeist | first1 = W. | title = De steentijd van Nederland | journal=Nieuwe Drentse Volksalmanak | volume = 75 | pages = 4–11 | year = 1957}}</ref><ref name="CMC">{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/media/docs/pr148beng.html |title=The Mysterious Bog People – Background to the exhibition |publisher=Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation |date=5 JulyJuli 2001 |accessdate=1 JuneJuni 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309042811/http://www.civilization.ca/media/docs/pr148beng.html |archivedate=9 MarchMaret 2007 }}</ref> AccordingBerdasarkan toanalisis [[RadiocarbonPenanggalan datingradiokarbon|C14penentuan umur datingC14]], analysisperahu itini wasdibuat constructedpada somewherekurun betweenwaktu 82008200–7600 BC and 7600 BCSM.<ref name="CMC"/> ThisPerahu canoePesse iskini exhibitedterpajang in thedi [[Museum Drents Museum]] indi [[Assen]].
Masyarakat pribumi [[wikt:autochthonouspemburu-pengumpul|Autochthonouspemburu-peramu]] ber[[hunter-gathererskebudayaan Swifterbant]] fromterbukti thesudah [[Swifterbantberdiam culture]]di areNegeri attestedBelanda fromsejak aroundsekitar 5600 BC onwardsSM.<ref name=Kooijmans1998>Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]", 1998, ''Spiegel Historiael'' 33, pphlmn. 423–28423–428</ref> TheyKebudayaan areini stronglyberkaitan linkederat todengan riverssungai-sungai anddan openperairan waterterbuka andserta weremasih relatedberkerabat to the southern Scandinaviandengan [[kebudayaan Ertebølle culture]] (5300–4000 BCSM) di kawasan selatan Skandinavia. ToDi thekawasan westbarat Negeri Belanda, thesuku-suku samepengusung tribeskebudayaan mightyang havesama builtboleh huntingjadi campssudah tomendirikan huntpondok-pondok winterperburuan gameuntuk keperluan berburu selama musim dingin, includingtermasuk berburu anjing sealslaut.
===The arrivalKedatangan ofbudaya farmingbercocok tanam (aroundsekitar 5000–4000 BCSM) ===
Kepandaian bercocok tanam masuk ke Negeri Belanda sekitar 5000 SM bersama [[kebudayaan Tembikar Linear]], yang mungkin dibawa masyarakat-masyarakat tani dari kawasan tengah Eropa. Kegiatan bercocok tanam hanya dilakukan di [[dataran tinggi]] [[löss]] (tanah hasil endapan debu yang terbawa angin) di pelosok selatan Negeri Belanda (kawasan selatan [[Limburg (Belanda)|Limburg]]), namun bahkan di tempat itu pun praktik bercocok tanam tidak bertahan lama. Lahan-lahan usaha tani tidak berkembang di semua daerah lain di Negeri Belanda.
Agriculture arrived in the Netherlands somewhere around 5000 BC with the [[Linear Pottery culture]], who were probably central European farmers. Agriculture was practised only on the [[loess]] [[plateau]] in the very south (southern [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]), but even there it was not established permanently. Farms did not develop in the rest of the Netherlands.
ThereAda ispula alsosejumlah somejejak evidencekeberadaan ofpermukiman-permukiman smallkecil settlementsyang intersebar thedi restseluruh ofNegeri the countryBelanda. ThesePara peoplepemukim madedi thenegeri switchini tomulai [[animal husbandrypeternakan|beternak]] sometime betweenantara 4800 BCSM anddan 4500 BCSM. DutchArkeolog archaeologistBelanda, Leendert Louwe Kooijmans wrote, menulis bahwa "Itsemakin islama becomingsemakin increasinglyjelas clearbahwasanya thattransformasi thebercocok agriculturaltanam transformationdari ofkomunitas-komunitas prehistoricprasejarah communitiesmerupakan wassuatu aproses purelyyang indigenoussepenuhnya processalamiah thatdan tookberlangsung placesangat very graduallylamban."<ref name="Kooijmans1998"/> ThisTransformasi transformationini tookterjadi placeseawal-awalnya as early aspada 4300 BC–4000SM–4000 BCSM,<ref>Volkskrant 24 AugustAgustus 2007
"[http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant PrehistoricLahan agriculturalbercocok fieldtanam foundprasejarah inditemukan di Swifterbant, 4300–4000 BCSM]"</ref> anddan featuredmelibatkan thepengenalan introductionbiji-bijian ofdalam grainsjumlah inkecil smallke quantitiesdalam intospektrum aperekonomian traditionaltradisional broad-spectrumyang economyluas.<ref name=Raemakers>Raemakers, Daan. "[http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf De spiegel van Swifterbant] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410084410/http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf |date=10 April 2008 }}", University ofUniversitas Groningen, 2006.</ref>
===Funnelbeaker andKebudayaan otherBejana culturesCorong dan kebudayaan-kebudayaan lainnya (aroundsekitar 4000–3000 BCSM) ===
[[FileBerkas:Grootste hunebed van Nederl.jpg|thumbjmpl|leftka|[[dolmen|Hunebed]] D27, the largest dolmen interbesar thedi NetherlandsNegeri Belanda, locatedberlokasi neardi dekat Desa [[Borger, NetherlandsBelanda|Borger]], inProvinsi Drenthe.]]
[[Kebudayaan Bejana Corong]] adalah sebuah kebudayaan tani yang berkembang mulai dari Denmark melewati Jerman sampai ke kawasan utara Negeri Belanda. Pada kurun waktu dalam prasejarah Negeri Belanda ini, didirikan peninggalan-peninggalan menonjol yang pertama, yakni [[dolmen|dolmen-dolmen]], monumen-monumen makam dari batu berukuran besar. Dolmen-dolmen ini ditemukan di Provinsi [[Drenthe]], dan mungkin sekali didirikan antara 4100 SM dan 3200 SM.
The [[Funnelbeaker culture]] was a farming culture extending from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands. In this period of Dutch prehistory the first notable remains were erected: the [[dolmens]], large stone grave monuments. They are found in [[Drenthe]], and were probably built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC.
Di kawasan barat, [[kebudayaan Vlaardingen]] (sekitar 2600 SM), yang tampaknya merupakan sebuah kebudayaan pemburu-peramu yang lebih primitif, terus bertahan hidup sampai memasuki [[neolitikum|Zaman Batu Muda]].
To the west, the [[Vlaardingen culture]] (around 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the [[Neolithic]] period.
===Corded WareKebudayaan andGerabah BellDawai Beakerdan cultureskebudayaan Bejana Genta (aroundsekitar 3000–2000 BCSM) ===
AroundSekitar 2950 BCESM, thereterjadi wasperalihan adari transitionkebudayaan from thetani [[Funnelbeakerkebudayaan Bejana Corong|Bejana Corong]] farming cultureke tokebudayaan thegembala [[Cordedkebudayaan WareBejana Dawai|Bejana Dawai]], pastoralistsebuah culture,ruang alingkup largearkeologi archeologicalyang horizonluas appearingmuncul indi westernkawasan andbarat centraldan Europetengah Eropa, thatyang isdihubung-hubungkan associateddengan withperkembangan therumpun advancebahasa of IndoIndia-European languagesEropa. ThisPeralihan transitionini wasmungkin probablysekali causedmerupakan bydampak developments{{clarify|date=Aprildari 2016}}perkembangan-perkembangan di inkawasan easterntimur GermanyJerman, anddan itberlangsung occurreddalam withindua two generationsgenerasi.<ref name=Bloemers>{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}, inDalam J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp (Edspenyunting), ''Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen''. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991. {{ISBN|90-269-4448-9}}, NUGI 644</ref>
The [[BellKebudayaan BeakerBejana cultureGenta]] wasjuga alsoberkembang presentdi in theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda.<ref name=Lanting>Lanting, J.N. & J.D. van der Waals, (1976), "Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin", {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}, indalam Lanting et aldkk. (Edspenyunting) ''Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974''. Bussum-Haarlem: Uniehoek N.V.</ref><ref>{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, pHlm. 93, indalam J. P. Mallory anddan John Q. Adams (Edspenyunting), ''The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'', Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.</ref>
Kebudayaan Bejana Dawai dan kebudayaan Bejana Genta bukanlah kebudayaan asli Negeri Belanda namun pada hakikatnya merupakan kebudayaan-kebudayaan lintas Eropa yang berkembang di hampir seluruh kawasan utara dan tengah Eropa.
The Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures were not indigenous to the Netherlands but were pan-European in nature, extending across much of northern and central Europe.
Bukti pertama penggunaan roda berasal dari kurun waktu ini, yakni sekitar 2400 SM. Kebudayaan ini juga mulai mencoba-coba mengolah tembaga. Bukti-bukti mengenai perkembangan ini meliputi paron-paron batu, pisau-pisau tembaga, dan sebilah mata tombak tembaga yang ditemukan di [[Veluwe]]. Temuan-temuan peralatan tembaga menunjukkan bahwa kala itu sudah ada hubungan dagang dengan kawasan-kawasan lain di Eropa karena tanah Negeri Belanda tidak mengandung tembaga.
The first evidence of the use of the wheel dates from this period, about 2400 BC. This culture also experimented with working with copper. Evidence of this, including stone anvils, copper knives, and a copper spearhead, was found on the [[Veluwe]]. Copper finds show that there was trade with other areas in Europe, as natural copper is not found in Dutch soil.
===Bronze AgeZaman Perunggu (aroundsekitar 2000–800 BCSM) ===
[[FileBerkas:Zwaard van Jutphaas.jpg|thumbjmpl|rightka|80px|ASarana bronzeupacara ceremonialdari objectperunggu (notbukan a swordpedang, butnamun called thedisebut "Sword ofPedang Jutphaas"), datingdiperkirakan fromberasal dari 1800–1500 BCSM dan andditemukan founddi southkawasan ofselatan [[Utrecht]].]]
The [[BronzeZaman AgePerunggu]] probablymungkin startedsekali somewherebermula aroundsekitar 2000 BCSM anddan lastedberakhir until aroundsekitar 800 BCSM. The earliestAlat-alat [[bronzeperunggu]] toolstertua haveditemukan beendi foundsebuah inmakam thepribadi gravedari ofZaman aPerunggu Bronzeyang Agedisebut individual calledmakam "the smithPandai ofLogam [[Wageningen]]". MoreLebih Bronzebanyak Agelagi objectsbenda fromZaman laterPerunggu periodsdari havemasa-masa beenyang foundlebih inkemudian telah ditemukan di [[Epe, NetherlandsBelanda|Epe]], [[Drouwen]], anddan elsewheredaerah-daerah lain. BrokenKepingan benda-benda bronzeperunggu objectsyang foundditemukan indi [[Voorschoten]] weretampaknya apparentlydisiapkan destineduntuk fordidaur recyclingulang. ThisKegiatan indicatesdaur howulang valuablemenunjukkan bronzebetapa wasberharganya consideredperunggu inbagi themasyarakat BronzeZaman AgePerunggu. TypicalBenda-benda bronzeperunggu objectsyang fromlumrah thisdari periodkurun includedwaktu knivesini meliputi pisau, swordspedang, axeskapak, [[fibulaefibula (peniti)]], dan andgelang braceletstangan.
[[FileBerkas:BronzAgeElp.png|thumbjmpl|leftkiri|Location of theLokasi [[Elpkebudayaan culture|Elp]] anddan [[kebudayaan Hilversum culture]]s in thepada BronzeZaman AgePerunggu.]]
Sebagian besar benda peninggalan Zaman Perunggu di Negeri Belanda ditemukan di [[Drenthe]]. Salah satu jenis dari benda-benda peninggalan ini menunjukkan bahwa jaringan dagang pada kurun waktu ini sudah membentang sampai ke tempat-tempat yang jauh, yakni sejumlah ''situlae'' (ember) perunggu berukuran besar hasil temuan di Drenthe yang agaknya dibuat di kawasan timur Prancis atau di [[Swiss]]. Benda-benda ini digunakan sebagai wadah untuk mencampur minuman anggur dengan air (adat Romawi/Yunani). Banyaknya barang temuan di Drenthe yang berupa barang-barang langka dan bernilai tinggi, misalnya beberapa untai kalung manik-manik timah, menyiratkan bahwa Drenthe merupakan sebuah pusat dagang di Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Perunggu.
Most of the Bronze Age objects found in the Netherlands have been found in [[Drenthe]]. One item shows that trading networks during this period extended a far distance. Large bronze ''situlae'' (buckets) found in Drenthe were manufactured somewhere in eastern France or in [[Switzerland]]. They were used for mixing wine with water (a Roman/Greek custom). The many finds in Drenthe of rare and valuable objects, such as tin-bead necklaces, suggest that Drenthe was a trading centre in the Netherlands in the Bronze Age.
Masyarakat-masyarakat pribumi ber[[kebudayaan Bejana Genta]] (2700–2100 SM) berkembang menjadi masyarakat-masyarakat berkebudayaan Bejana Kawat Duri (2100–1800 SM). Pada milenium kedua SM, Negeri Belanda merupakan daerah perbatasan antara kawasan ber[[Zaman Perunggu Atlantik|kebudayaan Zaman Perunggu Atlantik]] dan kawasan ber[[Zaman Perunggu Nordik|kebudayaan Zaman Perunggu Nordik]], dan terbagi menjadi wilayah utara dan wilayah selatan yang dipisahkan aliran [[Sungai Rhein]].
The [[Beaker culture|Bell Beaker cultures]] (2700–2100) locally developed into the Bronze Age Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800). In the second millennium BC, the region was the boundary between the [[Atlantic Bronze Age|Atlantic]] and [[Nordic Bronze Age|Nordic]] horizons and was split into a northern and a southern region, roughly divided by the course of the [[Rhine]].
InDi thewilayah northutara, theberkembang [[kebudayaan Elp culture]] (c.sekitar 18001800–800 to 800 BCSM),<ref>AccordingMenurut too "Het Archeologisch Basisregister" (ABR), versionversi 1.0 November 1992, [http://www.racm.nl/content/documenten%5Cabr%20website.pdf], ''Elp Kümmerkeramik'' isdiberi datedtarikh BRONSMA (earlyawal MBA) tosampai BRONSL (LBA) anddan thisperkiraan hastarikh beenini standardizedtelah bydistandardisasi "De Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten" (RACM)" assebagai beingkurun atwaktu theyang periodberawal starting atpada 1800 BCSM anddan endingberakhir atpada 800 BCSM.{{Failed verification|date=October 2011}} {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> wasyakni kebudayaan arkeologi aZaman BronzePerunggu Ageyang archaeologicalditandai culturepembuatan havingtembikar [[earthenwaregerabah]] potterybermutu ofrendah lowyang quality known asdisebut "''Kümmerkeramik''" (oratau "''Grobkeramik''"). asTahap apermulaan marker.dari Thekurun initialwaktu phaseperkembangan waskebudayaan characterizedElp bybercirikan [[tumulus|tumuli]] atau gundukan-gundukan makam (1800–1200 BCSM) thatyang wereberkaitan stronglyerat tieddengan totumuli contemporarysemasa tumulidi inkawasan northernutara GermanyJerman andserta ScandinaviaSkandinavia, and weredan apparentlytampaknya relatedmasih toberkerabat thedengan [[Tumuluskebudayaan cultureTumulus]] (1600–1200 BCSM) indi centralkawasan Europetengah Eropa. ThisTahap phasepermulaan wasini followeddisusul bytahap aperkembangan subsequentberikutnya changeyang featuringbercirikan adat penguburan [[Urnfieldkebudayaan Padang Tempayan]] (atau adat [[cremationkremasi]]) burial customs (1200–800 BCSM). TheWilayah southernselatan region became dominated by thedidominasi [[kebudayaan Hilversum culture]] (1800–800 M), whichyang apparentlytampaknya inheritedmewarisi theketerkaitan culturalbudaya tiesdengan withBritania Britaindari ofkebudayaan theBejana previous Barbed-WireKawat BeakerDuri culturesebelumnya.
== TheZaman prepra-Roman periodRomawi (800 BCSM – 58 BCSM) ==
===Iron ageZaman Besi ===
[[FileBerkas:Boerderij IJzertijd Reijntjesveld.jpg|thumbjmpl|ARekonstruksi reconstructiontempat of antinggal [[ironZaman ageBesi]] dwellingdi onReijntjesveld, the Reijntjesvelddekat nearDesa [[Orvelte]], inProvinsi [[Drenthe]].]]
[[FileBerkas:Verbogen Keltische zwaard.jpg|thumbjmpl|ThePedang originalbesi curvedlengkung ironasli sword from thedari [[Vorstengraf, (Oss)]], tersimpan di [[Rijksmuseum van Oudheden]].]]
[[Zaman Besi]] mendatangkan kemakmuran bagi masyarakat yang bermukim di Negeri Belanda. Bijih besi terdapat di seluruh pelosok Negeri Belanda, termasuk [[besi rawa gambut]] yang diekstrasi dari [[bijih]] di [[rawa gambut|daerah rawa gambut]] (''moeras ijzererts'') di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda, bola-bola berkandungan besi alami yang ditemukan di [[Veluwe]], dan bijih besi merah dekat sungai-sungai di Brabant. [[tukang besi|Para pandai logam]] berkelana dari satu permukiman kecil ke permukiman kecil lainnya dengan membawa serta [[perunggu]] dan besi untuk ditempa menjadi alat-alat berdasarkan pesanan, yakni kapak, pisau, jarum peniti, mata panah, dan pedang. Beberapa temuan bahkan menyiratkan bahwa para pandai logam ini sudah pandai pula membuat pedang berbahan [[baja Damaskus]] dengan menggunakan metode [[Tempa (metalurgi)|penempaan]] yang sudah lebih maju sehingga mampu memadukan kelenturan besi dengan kekuatan baja.
The [[Iron Age]] brought a measure of prosperity to the people living in the area of the present-day Netherlands. Iron ore was available throughout the country, including [[bog iron]] extracted from the [[ore]] in [[peat bogs]] (''moeras ijzererts'') in the north, the natural iron-bearing balls found in the [[Veluwe]] and the red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant. [[Blacksmith|Smiths]] travelled from small settlement to settlement with [[bronze]] and iron, fabricating tools on demand, including axes, knives, pins, arrowheads and swords. Some evidence even suggests the making of [[Damascus steel]] swords using an advanced method of [[forging]] that combined the flexibility of iron with the strength of steel.
InDi [[Oss]], asebuah gravemakam datingyang fromdiperkirakan aroundberasal dari tahun 500 BCSM wasditemukan founddi indalam asebuah burialgundukan moundmakam selebar 52 metres widemeter (andgundukan thusmakam theterbesar largestdi ofkawasan itsbarat kind in western EuropeEropa). DubbedMakam theyang dijuluki "king'skubur graveraja" (''[[Vorstengraf, (Oss)|Vorstengraf]]''), itini containedberisi extraordinarybenda-benda objects,yang includingluar biasa, anantara ironlain swordsebilah withpedang anbesi inlaybertatahkan ofemas golddan andbatu coralkoral.
InPada theabad-abad centuriesmenjelang justkedatangan beforebangsa theRomawi, arrivalwilayah ofutara theyang Romans,dahulu northerndihuni areasmasyarakat formerlyberkebudayaan occupiedElp byberkembang themenjadi Elpmasyarakat cultureyang emergedmungkin assekali theberkebudayaan probably GermanicJermanik Harpstedt culture,<ref name=Mallory>Mallory, J.P., ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth'', London: Thames & Hudson, 1989, phlm. 87.</ref> whilesementara thewilayah southernselatan parts were influenced by thedipengaruhi [[Hallstattkebudayaan cultureHallstatt]] anddan assimilatedberasimilasi intoke thedalam Celtickebudayaan Keltik [[kebudayaan La Tène|La cultureTène]]. TheSuku-suku contemporaryrumpun southernJermanik andyang westernberpindah migrationke ofarah Germanicselatan groupsdan andbarat, theserta northernkebudayaan expansionHallstatt ofyang themeluas Hallstattke culturearah drewutara thesekala peoplesitu intomenarik eachmasyarakat other'syang spherebermukim ofdi Negeri Belanda ke dalam ruang lingkup pengaruh influencemereka.<ref>Butler, J.J., ''Nederland in de bronstijd'', Bussum: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1969, p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}.</ref> ThisKeadaan isini consistentselaras withdengan keterangan dalam catatan [[Julius Caesar|CaesarYulius Kaisar]]'s accountbahwasanya ofSungai theRhein Rhinemerupakan formingbatas theantara boundarywilayah betweenmasyarakat CelticKeltik anddan wilayah Germanicmasyarakat tribesJermanik.
=== Kedatangan suku-suku rumpun Jermanik ===
===Arrival of Germanic groups===
[[FileBerkas:Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD).png|thumbjmpl|leftkiri|DistributionPersebaran ofsuku-suku theutama primarydari Germanicrumpun groupsJermanik c''[[circa|ca.]]'' 1 ADM.]]
TheSuku-suku rumpun [[Germanicsuku peoplesbangsa Jermanik|GermanicJermanik]] tribesmula-mula originallymendiami inhabitedkawasan southernselatan [[ScandinaviaSkandinavia]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], anddan [[Hamburg]],<ref name="Werner Hilgemann phlm.109">Kinder, Hermann anddan Werner Hilgemann, ''The Penguin Atlas of World History''; translated byditerjemahkan Ernest A. Menze ; withdengan mapspeta-peta designedyang bydirancang Harald anddan Ruth Bukor. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-051054-0}} VolumeJilid 1. phlm. 109.</ref> buttetapi subsequentmasyarakat-masyarakat berkebudayaan [[IronZaman AgeBesi]] cultures ofdari thekawasan sameyang regionsama, likeseperti masyarakat berkebudayaan [[Wessenstedt]] (800–600 BCSM) anddan masyarakat ber[[Jastorfkebudayaan culture|Jastorf]], maymungkin alsopula havetermasuk belongeddalam tokelompok this groupingini.<ref>''The New Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 15thedisi editionke-15, 20:67</ref>
TheMemburuknya climateiklim deterioratingdi inSkandinavia Scandinaviasekitar around850–760 850SM BCyang tosemakin 760pesat BCsekitar and650 laterSM andmungkin fastermemicu aroundperpindahan 650suku-suku BCini. mightBukti-bukti havearkeologi triggeredmenyiratkan migrations. Archaeological evidencebahwa suggestspada aroundsekitar 750 BC a relatively uniform Germanic people from theSM, [[NetherlandsBelanda|Negeri Belanda]] tosampai theke [[Vistula]] anddan southernkawasan Scandinaviaselatan Skandinavia didiami masyarakat Jermanik yang relatif seragam.<ref name="Werner Hilgemann phlm.109"/> InDi thekawasan westbarat Negeri Belanda, thedataran-dataran newcomersbanjir settleddi thedaerah coastalpesisir floodplainsuntuk forpertama thekalinya firstdidiami timekaum pendatang baru ini, sincekarena indaerah-daerah adjacentyang higherlebih groundstinggi thedi populationsekitarnya hadsudah increasedmengalami andpertambahan thepopulasi soildan hadmenjadi becomelahan exhaustedtandus.<ref name="Verhart">Verhart, Leo ''Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn'', {{ISBN|90-5345-303-2}}, 2006, pphlmn. 67, 81–82</ref>
ByKetika theproses timeperpindahan thisini migrationrampung was complete, aroundsekitar 250 BCSM, a few general cultural andterbentuklah linguistickelompok-kelompok groupingsbudaya haddan emergedbahasa.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15thedisi editionke-15, 22:641–642</ref><ref name="Verhaal">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pphlmn. 12, 21–27</ref>
OneKelompok groupingpertama, -yang diberi labellednama themasyarakat "[[NorthJermanik SeaLaut GermanicUtara]]", –mendiami inhabitedkawasan theutara northernNegeri partBelanda of(daerah thedi Netherlandssebelah (northutara ofsungai-sungai thebesar) greatdan rivers)menyebar andke extendingseluruh along thepesisir [[NorthLaut SeaUtara]] andsampai intoke [[Jutland]]. ThisKelompok groupini is also sometimes referredkadang-kadang todisebut aspula themasyarakat "[[IngvaeonesIngveon]]"., Includeddan inmencakup thissuku-suku groupyang arekemudian thehari peoplesberkembang whomenjadi wouldantara later develop into, among others, thelain [[Frisii|earlyorang FrisiansFrisia purwa]] and the earlydan [[Saxonsbangsa sachsen|orang Saksen purwa]].<ref name="Verhaal"/>
Kelompok kedua, yang oleh para ahli diberi nama masyarakat "[[Jermanik Weser-Rhein]]" (atau "Jermanik Rhein-Weser"), tersebar di sepanjang kawasan tengah dari daerah aliran Sungai Rhein serta [[Sungai Weser]], dan mendiami kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda (daerah di sebelah selatan sungai-sungai besar). Kelompok ini kadang-kadang disebut pula masyarakat "[[Istveon]]", dan terdiri atas suku-suku yang kemudian hari berkembang menjadi [[orang Franka Sali|suku Franka Sali]].<ref name="Verhaal"/>
A second grouping, which scholars subsequently dubbed the "[[Weser-Rhine Germanic]]" (or "Rhine-Weser Germanic"), extended along the middle Rhine and [[Weser]] and inhabited the southern part of the Netherlands (south of the great rivers). This group, also sometimes referred to as the "[[Istvaeones]]", consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the [[Salian Franks]].<ref name="Verhaal"/>
{{Clear}}
=== Masyarakat Keltik di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda ===
===Celts in the south===
[[File:Celtic expansion in Europe.png|thumbjmpl|DiachronicPersebaran distributiondiakronik ofmasyarakat Celtic peoplesKeltik, showingmenunjukkan perluasan wilayah expansiondi intokawasan theselatan southernNegeri NetherlandsBelanda: <br />
{{legend|#ffff43|corePusat [[Hallstattkebudayaan culture|Hallstatt]] territory, by thepada 6thabad centuryke-6 BCSM}}
{{legend|#97ffb6|maximalPerluasan Celticwilayah expansionmaksimal masyarakat Keltik, bypada 275 BCSM}}
{{legend|#b7ffc6|Daerah orang [[Lusitania]]n area ofdi Iberia, tempat keberadaan wheremasyarakat CelticKeltik presencetidak isdapat uncertaindipastikan}}
{{legend|#27c600|areasdaerah-daerah wheretempat Celticbahasa-bahasa languagesKeltik remainmasih widelydituturkan spokensecara todayluas sampai sekarang}}]]
TheKebudayaan [[Celts|CelticKelt]]ik cultureberasal had its origins in the central Europeandari [[kebudayaan Hallstatt culture]] (c''[[circa|ca.]]'' 800–450 BCSM) di kawasan tengah Eropa, namedyakni forkebudayaan theyang richmeninggalkan jejak berupa benda-benda gravebekal findskubur inyang ditemukan di [[Hallstatt]], Austria.<ref>Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Ancient Celts''. Penguin Books, 1997, pphlmn. 39–67.</ref> ByKemudian thehari, laterpada kurun waktu perkembangan [[Lakebudayaan Tène culture|La Tène]] period (c''ca.'' 450 BCSM upsampai toNegeri theBelanda Romanditaklukkan conquest), this Celtic culture had, whether by [[Trans-cultural diffusion|diffusion]] or [[human migration|migration]], expanded over a wide range, including into the southern area of the Netherlands. This would have been the northern reach of the [[Gauls]].
bangsa Romawi), kebudayaan Keltik ini, baik melalui [[Difusi lintas budaya|difusi]] maupun [[perpindahan manusia|migrasi]], menyebar luas sampai ke kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda. Kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda ini merupakan batas utara dari daerah persebaran [[Galia|orang Galia]].
InPada Marchbulan Maret 2005, 17 Celtickeping coinsuang werelogam foundKeltik inditemukan di [[Echt, (Limburg)]]. TheKepingan-kepingan silveruang coins,perak mixedyang withbercampur coppertembaga anddan gold,emas dateini diperkirakan berasal dari fromsekitar aroundtahun 50 BCSM tosampai 20 ADM. InPada Octoberbulan Oktober 2008, aharta hoardkarun ofberupa 39 goldkeping coinsuang andemas dan 70 silverkeping Celticuang coinsperak wasKeltik foundditemukan indi thedaerah [[Amby]] area of, [[Maastricht]].<ref>[http://www.maastricht.nl/maastricht/servlet/nl.gx.maastricht.client.http.GetFile?id=352412&file=Bijlage_-__Unieke_Keltische_muntschat_ontdekt_in_Maastricht.pdf ''Achtergrondinformatie bij de muntschat van Maastricht-Amby''], Municipality ofKotapraja Maastricht, 2008.</ref> TheKepingan-kepingan golduang coinsemas werediyakini attributedberasal todari themasyarakat [[Eburones]] people.<ref>[http://www.archeonet.be/?p=4289 Unieke Keltische muntschat ontdekt in Maastricht] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402174540/http://www.archeonet.be/?p=4289 |date=2012-04-02 }}, Archeonet.be, 15 November 2008. RetrievedDiakses 6 OctoberOktober 2011.</ref> CelticBenda-benda objectsbuatan havemasyarakat alsoKeltik beenjuga found intelah theditemukan areadi ofdaerah [[Zutphen]].<ref name="Zutphen">[http://www.zutphen.nl/eCache/16161/urnenveld.pdf ''Het urnenveld van het Meijerink''], Municipality ofKotapraja Zutphen, Retrieved 0Diakses OctoberOktober 20116.</ref>
Meskipun harta karun sangat jarang ditemukan, pada beberapa dasawarsa terakhir, sejumlah kepingan uang logam dan benda-benda buatan Keltik lainnya telah ditemukan di seluruh kawasan tengah, timur, dan selatan Negeri Belanda. Menurut para arkeolog, barang-barang temuan ini membuktikan bahwa sekurang-kurangnya daerah Lembah Sungai [[Meuse (sungai)|Maas]] di Negeri Belanda termasuk dalam ruang lingkup pengaruh [[kebudayaan La Tène]]. Para arkeolog Belanda bahkan berspekulasi bahwa [[Zutphen]] (yang terletak di kawasan tengah wilayah Negeri Belanda) merupakan daerah permukiman masyarakat Keltik sebelum kedatangan bangsa Romawi, dan sama sekali bukan daerah permukiman masyarakat Jermanik.<ref name="Zutphen"/>
Although it is rare for hoards to be found, in past decades loose Celtic coins and other objects have been found throughout the central, eastern and southern part of the Netherlands. According to archaeologists these finds confirmed that at least the [[Meuse (river)|Maas]] river valley in the Netherlands was within the influence of the [[La Tène culture]]. Dutch archaeologists even speculate that [[Zutphen]] (which lies in the centre of the country) was a Celtic area before the Romans arrived, not a Germanic one at all.<ref name="Zutphen"/>
ScholarsPara debateahli theberbeda actualpendapat extentmengenai ofluas theyang Celticsebenarnya influencedari ruang lingkup pengaruh budaya Keltik.<ref name="Verhart"/><ref>Delrue, Joke, UniversityUniversitas of Ghent{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}Gent</ref> ThePengaruh Celticbudaya influenceKeltik anddan contactskontak-kontak betweenantara Gaulishkebudayaan andGalia earlydan Germanickebudayaan cultureJermani alongperdana thedi Rhinesepanjang isSungai assumedRhein todiduga besebagai thesumber sourcedari ofsejumlah akata numberserapan ofdari Celticbahasa loanwordsKeltik indalam kosakata [[Protobahasa proto-GermanicJermanik|bahasa proto Jermanik]].{{Citation needed|date=OctoberNamun 2011}}menurut Butahli accordingbahasa toberkebangsaan Belgian linguistBelgia, Luc van Durme, toponymicbukti evidencetoponim ofdari akeberadaan formermasyarakat CelticKeltik presencedi in the LowNegeri-Negeri CountriesRendah isnyaris neartidak toada utterlysama absentsekali.<ref>van Durme, Luc, "Oude taaltoestanden in en om de Nederlanden. Een reconstructie met de inzichten van M. Gysseling als leidraad" indalam ''Handelingen van de Koninklijke commissie voor Toponymie en Dialectologie'', LXXV/2003.</ref> AlthoughMeskipun theremasyarakat wereKeltik Celtspernah inbermukim thedi NetherlandsNegeri Belanda, Ironinovasi-inovasi AgeZaman innovationsBesi didtidak notmenampakkan involvepengaruh budaya Keltik yang cukup berarti, substantialdan Celticjustru intrusionsmenampakkan andhasil featuredpengembangan akebudayaan localZaman developmentPerunggu fromyang Bronzedilakukan Agemasyarakat culturesetempat.<ref name="Verhart"/>
===The NordwestblockTeori Blok Barat Laut theory===
SomeBeberapa scholarsorang ahli (De Laet, Gysseling, [[Rolf Hachmann|Hachmann]], Kossack, &dan Kuhn) havemenduga speculatedada thatmasyarakat a separate ethnic identitylain, neitherbukan GermanicJermanik normaupun CelticKeltik, survivedyang inmendiami theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda untilsampai thedengan RomanZaman periodRomawi. TheyAhli-ahli seeini theberpandangan Netherlandsbahwa asNegeri havingBelanda beenpada partZaman ofBesi anadalah Ironbagian Agedari "[[NordwestblockBlok Barat Laut]]" stretching({{lang-nl|Noordwestblok}}) fromyang themembentang mulai dari Sungai Somme tosampai ke theSungai Weser.<ref>Hachmann, Rolf, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, ''Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten'', 1986, pphlmn. 183–212</ref><ref name="Lendering">Lendering, Jona, [http://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm "Germania Inferior"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607071937/https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm |date=2020-06-07 }}, Livius.org. RetrievedDiakses 6 OctoberOktober 2011.</ref> TheirMenurut viewpandangan is that this culturemereka, whichperadaban hadyang itsmemiliki ownbahasa language,sendiri wasini beingmelebur absorbedke by thedalam [[CeltsKelt|peradaban Keltik]] toyang thedatang southdari andarah theselatan Germanicdan peoplesperadaban fromJermanik theyang eastdatang asdari latearah astimur theselambat-lambatnya immediatepada pre-RomanZaman periodPra-Romawi.
== RomanZaman eraRomawi (57 BCSM – 410 ADM) ==
{{utama|Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Romawi}}
{{Main article|Romans in the Netherlands}}
===Native tribesSuku-suku pribumi ===
DuringPada themasa [[GallicPerang WarsGalia]], thewilayah suku-suku [[BelgicBelgae|Belgi]] area southdi ofsebelah theselatan [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht anddan SouthBelanda HollandSelatan)|Oude Rijn]] anddan westdi ofsebelah thebarat [[RhineSungai Rhein]] wasditaklukkan conqueredbala bytentara RomanRomawi forcesdi underbawah pimpinan [[Julius Caesar|Yulius Kaisar]] indalam serangkaian aaksi seriesmiliter ofyang campaignsdilancarkan fromsejak 57 BCSM tosampai 53 BCSM.<ref name="Lendering"/> TheSuku-suku tribesyang locatedmendiami inNegeri theBelanda areakala ofitu thetidak Netherlandsmeninggalkan atketerangan this time did not leave behind written recordstertulis, sosehingga allsegala theinformasi informationmengenai knownsuku-suku aboutini thempada duringkurun thiswaktu prepra-RomanRomawi periodbersumber isdari basedketerangan onyang whatditulis theorang RomansYunani anddan GreeksRomawi wrotemengenai about themmereka. OneSalah ofsatu theketerangan mosttertulis importantsemacam is Caesar'sini ownadalah ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' (Ulasan Perihal Perang Galia) yang ditulis sendiri oleh Yulius Kaisar. TwoMenurut mainketerangan tribesYulius heKaisar, describeddua assuku livingutama inpenghuni whatkawasan isyang nowkini themenjadi Netherlandswilayah werekedaulatan theNegeri Belanda adalah suku [[Menapii]], anddan thesuku [[Eburones]], bothkedua-duanya inbermukin thedi southkawasan selatan Negeri Belanda, whichyakni iskawasan whereyang Caesardiperangi wasYulius activeKaisar. He establishedYulius theKaisar principlemencetuskan thatgagasan thebahwa RhineSungai definedRhein aadalah naturalpembatas boundaryalam betweenantara [[GaulGalia]] anddan [[Germania|Germania magnaMagna]]. ButAkan tetapi theSungai RhineRhein wasbukanlah notgaris aperbatasan strongyang borderkaku, andkarena heYulius madeKaisar itjuga clearmenerangkan thatbahwa theresebagian waswilayah aGalia partBelgika ofdidiami Belgicbanyak Gaulsuku where many of the local tribespribumi (includingtermasuk thesuku Eburones) wereyang tergolong suku-suku "[[Germani cisrhenani|''Germani Cisrhenani'']]", or(suku-suku inJermanik otherseberang casessini, ofsuku-suku mixedJermanik origindi tepi barat Sungai Rhein) atau campuran berbagai suku bangsa yang berbeda-beda asal-usulnya.
TheSuku Menapii stretchedmendiami fromwilayah theyang southmembentang ofdari kawasan selatan Zeeland, throughmelewati [[North Brabant Utara]] (anddan possiblymungkin sekali [[South Holland Selatan]]), intosampai theke southeastkawasan oftenggara [[Gelderland]]. InPada laterpenghujung RomanZaman times their territoryRomawi, seemswilayah tokekuasaan havemereka beentampaknya dividedterbagi-bagi oratau reducedmenyusut, sosehingga thatakhirnya ithanya becamemeliputi mainlydaerah containedyang inkini whatmenjadi iskawasan nowbarat westernnegara BelgiumBelgia.
TheSuku [[Eburones]], thesuku largestterbesar ofdi theantara suku-suku ''Germani Cisrhenani'' group, coveredmendiami awilayah largeyang arealuas includingtermasuk atsekurang-kurangnya leastsebagian partdari of modernwilayah [[Limburg (NetherlandsBelanda)|Dutch Limburg Belanda]], stretchingmembentang eastke tosebelah thetimur sampai ke [[RhineSungai Rhein]] indi GermanyJerman, anddan alsojuga northwestke tosebelah thebarat laut sampai ke kawasan delta, givingsehingga themberbatasan alangsung borderdengan withwilayah thekekuasaan suku Menapii. TheirWilayah kekuasaaan kekuasaan suku Eburones territorymungkin maypula havemembentang stretchedsampai intoke Gelderland.
InMengenai thedaerah delta itselfitu sendiri, CaesarYulius makesKaisar asecara passingsambil commentlalu aboutmengulas thetentang ''Insula Batavorum'' ("Islandpulau of theorang Batavi") in thedi [[RhineSungai riverRhein]], withouttanpa discussingmenjelaskan whoapa-apa livedmengenai therepenghuninya. LaterKemudian hari, inpada zaman imperialKekaisaran timesRomawi, asuku tribeyang called thebernama Batavi becamemenjadi suku veryyang importantpenting indi thisdaerah regionini.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0001:book=4:chapter=10&highlight=batavi|title=C. Julius Caesar,
Gallic War, Buku 4, bab 10|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Kemudian hari, sejarawan [[Tacitus]] mencatat bahwa suku Batavi pada mulanya merupakan salah satu puak suku [[Chatti]], yakni salah satu suku di Jerman yang tidak pernah disebut-sebut Yulius Kaisar.<ref>Cornelius Tacitus, ''Germany and its Tribes'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D29 1.29]</ref> Meskipun demikian, para arkeolog mendapati bukti-bukti adanya peradaban yang berkelanjutan di daerah delta. Oleh karena itu, para arkeolog menduga bahwa mungkin suku Chatti adalah suku kecil yang berpindah ke daerah delta, lalu berbaur dengan masyarakat (mungkin sekali bukan suku rumpun Jermanik) yang sudah lebih dahulu mendiami daerah itu, dan mungkin saja suku Chatti adalah bagian dari suku yang lebih terkenal, misalnya suku Eburones.<ref>Nico Roymans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qfpKN-oMaWoC Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power. The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire]''. Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 10. Amsterdam, 2004. Bab 4. Lihat pula hlm. 249.</ref>
Gallic War,
Book 4, chapter 10|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Much later [[Tacitus]] wrote that they had originally been a tribe of the [[Chatti]], a tribe in Germany never mentioned by Caesar.<ref>Cornelius Tacitus, ''Germany and its Tribes'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D29 1.29]</ref> However, archaeologists find evidence of continuity, and suggest that the Chattic group may have been a small group, moving into a pre-existing (and possibly non-Germanic) people, who could even have been part of a known group such as the Eburones.<ref>Nico Roymans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qfpKN-oMaWoC Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power. The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire]''. Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 10. Amsterdam, 2004. Chapter 4. Also see page 249.</ref>
{{Gallery
|width=250 |height=300 |perrow=2
|File:Netherlands in time of Caesar.png|TribesSuku-suku namedyang bytercatat dalam laporan [[Julius Caesar|Yulius Kaisar]].
|File:Netherlands in the time of the Roman empire.png|TribesSuku-suku duringpada zaman [[RomanKekaisaran EmpireRomawi]].
}}
Kurun waktu [[Romawi Kuno|penjajahan Romawi]] sekitar 450 tahun lamanya menimbulkan perubahan besar di kawasan yang kelak menjadi wilayah kedaulatan Negeri Belanda. Seringkali perubahan itu melibatkan konflik berskala besar antara bangsa Romawi dan suku-suku Jermanik merdeka di sepanjang Sungai Rhein.
The approximately 450 years of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] rule that followed would profoundly change the area that would become the Netherlands. Very often this involved large-scale conflict with the free Germanic tribes over the Rhine.
OtherSuku-suku tribeslain whoyang eventuallypada inhabitedakhirnya themendiami islandspulau-pulau indi thedaerah delta duringpada Romanzaman timespenjajahan areRomawi mentionedsebagaimana byyang diriwayatkan [[PlinyPlinius theyang Eldertua|Plinius Tua]] are theadalah [[Cananefatesorang Kananefati]] in Southdi Holland; theSelatan, [[Frisii|orang Frisi]], coveringdi mostsebagian ofbesar thekawasan modernyang Netherlandskini northmenjadi ofwilayah thekedaulatan Negeri Belanda di sebelah utara [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht and Southdan Holland Selatan)|Oude Rijn]]; the [[Frisiabones|Orang Frisiaboni]], whodi apparentlykawasan stretchedyang frommembentang themulai deltadari intodaerah thedelta Northsampai ofke Northsebelah utara Brabant; theUtara, [[Marsacii|orang Marsaci]], whodi stretchedkawasan fromyang themembentang Flemishmulai coast,dari intopesisir theVlaanderen delta;sampai andke thedaerah delta, dan [[Sturii|orang Sturi]].<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=4:chapter=29 Plin. Nat. 4.29]</ref>
CaesarYulius reportedKaisar thatmelaporkan hebahwa eliminatedia thetelah namemembinasakan oforang theEburoni, Eburonesnamun butsebagai in their place thegantinya [[TexuandriTeksuandri|orang Teksuandri]] inhabitedmendiami mostsebagian ofbesar Northdaerah Brabant Utara, anddan thedaerah modernyang provincesekarang ofmenjadi Limburg,wilayah withprovinsi theLimburgh, Maasyakni runningkawasan throughyang it,dilewati appearsaliran toSungai haveMaas beendan inhabitedtampaknya inpada imperialzaman timesKekaisaran byRomawi dihuni (fromdari northutara toke southselatan) theorang [[Baetasii|orang Betasi]], the [[Catualinum|Catualiniorang Katualini]], the [[Sunuci|orang Sunuci]], and thedan [[Tungri|orang Tungri]]. (sejarawan Tacitus reported thatmelaporkan thebahwa Tungri wasadalah anama newbaru namebagi formasyarakat theyang earliersebelumnya disebut orang ''Germani cisrhenaniCisrhenani''.).
NorthPlinius ofTua themeriwayatkan Oldbahwa Rhine,di apartsebelah fromutara theAlter FrisiiRhein, Plinyselain reportsorang someFrisi, ada pula sejumlah [[Chauci|orang Chauci]] reachedyang intobermukim thesampai ke daerah delta, anddan twodua othersuku tribeslain knownyang fromdiketahui theberasal easterndari Netherlandskawasan weretimur Negeri Belanda, theyakni [[Tuihanti|orang Tuihanti]] (oratau Tubantesorang Tubanti) fromdari daerah [[Twenthe]] indi Overijssel, and thedan [[Chamaviorang Kamavi]], fromdari [[Hamaland]] indi northernkawasan utara Gelderland, who became one ofsalah thesatu firstdari tribessuku-suku topertama beyang namedkelak asdinamakan [[Franks|Frankishorang Franka]] (see below). The [[Saliansorang Franka Sali|Orang Sali]], alsoyang juga tergolong orang FranksFranka, probablymungkin originatedberasal indari daerah [[Salland]] indi Overijssel, beforesebelum theyterpaksa movedpindah intoke thewilayah empire,Kekaisaran forcedRomawi byakibat Saxonsrongrongan inmasyarakat theSaksen 4thpada century,abad firstke-4. intoMula-mula orang Sali berpindah ke Batavia, and thenkemudian intoke ToxandriaToksandria.
=== Permukiman-permukiman bangsa Romawi di Negeri Belanda ===
===Roman settlements in the Netherlands===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| title = RomanPermukiman-Permukiman settlementsBangsa Romawi
| image1 = Ruitermasker matilo.jpg|caption1=MaskTopeng ofprajurit aberkuda Roman horsemanRomawi, discoveredditemukan di dekat nearkota [[Leiden]].
| image2 = Germania 70.svg|caption2=RhinePerbatasan Frontier of thewilayah [[RomanKekaisaran EmpireRomawi]] arounddi sekitar Sungai Rhein sekitar tahun 70 CEM.
}}
StartingMulai aboutsekitar tahun 15 BCSM, thedaerah sekitar [[RhineSungai Rhein]], in the Netherlands came todi beNegeri defendedBelanda bymenjadi thedaerah Lowerpertahanan [[Limes Germanicus]] Hilir. AfterSetelah aberkali-kali seriesdilanda ofpeperangan, militarySungai actions,Rhein theakhirnya Rhinemenjadi becamegaris fixedbatas aroundutara 12wilayah ADkekuasaan asbangsa Rome'sRomawi northerndi frontierdaratan onEropa. theSejumlah Europeankota mainland.kecil Aberdiri numberdan ofsejumlah townsperkembangan andberlangsung developmentsdi wouldsepanjang arisegaris alongbatas this lineini. The areaDaerah todi thesebelah southselatan wouldgaris beperbatasan integrateddiintegrasikan intoke thedalam [[RomanKekaisaran EmpireRomawi]]. AtDaerah firstyang partdulunya ofmerupakan wilayah [[Gallia Belgica]], this area becameini partdijadikan ofbagian thedari [[Romanprovinsi provinceRomawi|provinceprovinsi]] of [[Germania Inferior]]. The tribesSuku-suku alreadyyang within,sudah orlebih relocateddahulu to,mendiami thisatau areadipindahkan becameke partdaerah ofini thewarga [[RomanKekaisaran Empire]]Romawi. TheDaerah areadi tosebelah theutara northSungai of the RhineRhein, inhabited byyang thedidiami [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] and thedan [[Chauci|orang Chauci]], remainedtetap berada di luar outsidepemerintahan RomanRomawi ruletetapi butkerap notdidatangi itsdan presencedikendalikan andbangsa controlRomawi.
RomansBangsa builtRomawi militarymendirikan fortsbenteng-benteng alongmiliter thedi sepanjang [[Limes Germanicus]], andberikut asejumlah numberkota ofkecil townsdan andpermukiman smalleryang settlementslebih inkecil thelagi Netherlandsdi Negeri Belanda. TheKota-kota morebangsa notableRomawi Romanyang townslebih weremenonjol atberlokasi di [[Nijmegen]] ([[:nl:Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum|Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum]]) and atdan [[Voorburg]] ([[Forum Hadriani]]).
PerhapsMungkin thereruntuhan mostpeninggalan evocativebangsa RomanRomawi ruinyang ispaling themenarik mysteriousadalah puing-puing [[Brittenburg]], whichyang emergedmisterius fromitu, themuncul sanddari atbalik thepasir beachpantai indi Katwijk severalbeberapa centuriesabad ago,yang onlylalu, tohanya beuntuk burieddikubur againkembali. ThesePuing-puing ruinsini weremerupakan partbagian ofdari [[:nl:Lugdunum Batavorum|Lugdunum Batavorum]].
OtherBekas-bekas Roman settlementspermukiman, fortificationsbenteng kuil, templesdan andbangunan-bangunan otherbangsa structuresRomawi havelainnya beentelah foundditemukan atdi [[Alphen aan de Rijn]] ([[Albaniana (Romanbenteng fortRomawi)|Albaniana]]);, [[Bodegraven]];, [[Cuijk]];, [[Elst, Overbetuwe|Elst Overbetuwe]];, [[Ermelo]];, [[Esch, NetherlandsBelanda|Esch]];, [[Heerlen]];, [[Houten]];, [[Kessel, North Brabant|Kessel di Brabant Utara]];, [[Oss]], i.e.(yakni De Lithse Ham neardekat Maren-Kessel;), Kesteren indi [[Neder-Betuwe]];, [[Leiden]] ([[Matilo]]);, [[Maastricht]];, Meinerswijk (nowsekarang partbagian ofdari [[Arnhem]]);, [[Tiel]];, [[Utrecht]] ([[Traiectum (Utrecht)|Traiectum]]);, [[Valkenburg (South Holland Selatan)|Valkenburg di Holland Selatan]] ([[Praetorium Agrippinae]]);, Vechten ([[Fectio]]) nowsekarang partbagian ofdari [[Bunnik]];, [[Velsen]];, [[Vleuten]];, [[Wijk bij Duurstede]] ([[:nl:Levefanum|Levefanum]]);, [[Woerden]] ([[:nl:Laurium (Woerden)|Laurium]] oratau [[:nl:Laurium (Woerden)|Laurum]]); anddan [[Zwammerdam]] ([[:nl:Nigrum Pullum|Nigrum Pullum]]).
=== Pemberontakan orang Batavi ===
===Batavian revolt===
{{Mainutama|Suku article|Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Revolt ofPemberontakan theorang Batavi}}
[[FileBerkas:"Batavians defeating Romans on the Rhine" by Otto van Veen.jpg|thumbjmpl|ThroughoutSepanjang Dutchsejarah historyNegeri Belanda, butteristimewa especially during thesemasa [[EightyPerang Years'Delapan Puluh WarTahun]], theorang BataviansBatavi havediagung-agungkan beensebagai romanticallypejuang-pejuang portrayedgagah asberani theyang heroicmenjadi ancestorscikal ofbakal the Dutchbangsa peopleBelanda. "TheOrang BataviansBatavi DefeatingMengalahkan theBangsa RomansRomawi ondi theSungai RhineRhein", c''ca.'' 1613, bykarya [[Otto van Veen]].]]
[[FileBerkas:Bataafseeed.jpg|thumb|''The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis by Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg|jmpl|''Konspirasi Klaudius Sivilis'', 1661, bykarya [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], depictsmenggambarkan aperistiwa sumpah setia [[Bataviisuku batavi|Batavianorang Batavi]] oath tokepada [[Gaius JuliusIulius Civilis]], the head of thepemimpin [[Batavianpemberontakan orang rebellionBatavi]] against themelawan [[ancientRomawi RomeKuno|Romanspenjajah Romawi]] inpada tahun 69 CEM.]]
The [[suku Batavi|Orang (Germanic tribe)|BataviansBatavi]], Cananefatesorang Kananefati, anddan thesuku-suku otherperbatasan borderlainnya tribessangat weredisegani heldsebagai inprajurit-prajurit hightangguh regarddi asseluruh soldierswilayah throughoutkekaisaran. theMenurut empiretradisi, andwarga traditionallysuku-suku servedini inmenjalani themasa bakti sebagai prajurit dalam barisan [[Ala (Romanmiliter militaryRomawi)|Romanpasukan berkuda cavalryRomawi]].<ref>Roymans, Nico, ''Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire'', Amsterdam: AmsterdamLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Amsterdam, 2005, pphlmn. 226–27</ref> TheBudaya frontierdaerah cultureperbatasan wasdipengaruhi influenced by thebangsa RomansRomawi, [[Germanicsuku peoplebangsa Jermanik|suku-suku rumpun Jermanik]], anddan Gaulsmasyarakat Galia. InPada theabad-abad firstpertama centuriessesudah after Rome'sGalia conquestditaklukkan ofbangsa GaulRomawi, tradeusaha flourisheddagang tumbuh subur. AndPeninggalan-peninggalan Roman,budaya Gaulishbendawi andbangsa GermanicRomawi, materialGalia, culturedan areJermanik foundditemukan combinedbercampur inbaur thedi kawasan regionini.
HoweverMeskipun demikian, theorang BataviansBatavi rosememberontak againstmelawan thebangsa RomansRomawi indalam theperistiwa [[BatavianPemberontakan rebellionBatavia]] ofpada tahun 69 ADM. The leader of thisPemimpin [[RevoltPemberotakan of theorang Batavi|revoltpemberontak]] wasadalah seorang pribumi Batavi yang Batavianbernama [[Gaius JuliusIulius Civilis]]. OneSalah ofsatu thepenyebab causespemberontakan ofadalah thekarena rebellionpemuda-pemudi wasBatavia that the Romans had taken young Batavians asdijadikan [[Slaveryperbudakan|slavesbudak belian]]. Aoleh numberbangsa ofRomawi. RomanSejumlah ''[[puri|castella]]'' wereRomawi attackeddiserang anddan burntdibakar. OtherPrajurit-prajurit RomanRomawi soldiers indi [[Xanten]] anddan elsewheretempat-tempat andlain, auxiliaryserta troopspasukan-pasukan ofbantu Bataviansyang andberanggotakan orang Batavi dan [[Canninefates|Canninefataeorang Kananefati]] in thedalam legionslegiun-legiun ofpimpinan [[Vitellius]]) joinedturut thebergabung revoltdengan kubu pemberontak, thussehingga splittingmemecah thekesatuan northernbala parttentara ofRomawi theyang Romanbertugas armydi kawasan utara wilayah kekaisaran. InPada bulan April 70 ADM, a fewbeberapa legionslegiun sentyang bydikerahkan [[Vespasianus]] anddi commandedbawah bypimpinan [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] eventuallypada defeatedakhirnya theberhasil Bataviansmengalahkan andorang negotiatedBatavi surrenderdan withmerundingkan penyerahan diri pemberontak dengan [[Gaius JuliusIulius Civilis]] somewheredi suatu tempat yang terletak di betweendaerah theantara [[WaalSungai (river)|Waal]] and thedan [[Sungai Meuse|Sungai River|Maas]] neardekat Noviomagus ([[Nijmegen]]), whichyang wasmungkin probablysekali calleddisebut "Batavodurum" byoleh theorang BataviansBatavi.<ref>[http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/histories.html ''Historiae''], Tacitus, 109 ADM, Translated byditerjemahkan Alfred John Church anddan William Jackson Brodribb.</ref> TheKemudian Batavianshari, laterorang mergedBatavi withberbaur otherdengan tribessuku-suku andlain becamedan partmenjadi ofbagian thedari [[Salianorang Franka FranksSali]].
DutchPara writerspujangga inBelanda thepada 17thabad andke-17 18thdan centurieske-18 sawmemandang thepemberontakan rebellionorang ofBatavi, theyang independentdidorong andrasa freedom-lovingcinta Bataviansakan askemerdekaan mirroringdan thedilakukan Dutchdemi revoltmemerdekakan againstdiri Spainsendiri andini, othersebagai formsaksi ofyang tyranny.serupa Accordingdengan topemberontakan thisbangsa nationalistBelanda view,melawan thebangsa Spanyol dan segala bentuk lain dari tirani. Menurut pandangan nasionalis ini, [[Bataviansorang Batavia]] wereadalah theleluhur "truesejati" forefathersbangsa ofBelanda. thePandangan Dutch,semacam whichinilah explainsyang themenyebabkan recurringnama use of"Batavia" theberulang namekali overdipergunakan thebangsa centuriesBelanda. [[Jakarta]] wasdulunya namedadalah sebuah kota yang diberi nama "Batavia" byoleh thebangsa DutchBelanda inpada tahun 1619. TheRepublik Belanda Dutchyang republicdibentuk createdpada intahun 1795 onberdasarkan theprinsip-prinsip basisrevolusioner ofPrancis French revolutionary principles was called thedisebut [[BatavianRepublik RepublicBatavia]]. EvenBahkan todaysekarang ini "Batavianorang Batavia" ismerupakan aistilah termyang sometimeskadang-kadang useddipakai tosebagai describesebutan thebagi Dutchorang people.Belanda, (Thissama isseperti similaristilah to"orang useGalia" ofdijadikan "Gallic"sebutan tobagi describeorang thePrancis Frenchdan andistilah "Teutonicorang Teuton" todijadikan sebutan describebagi theorang GermansJerman.)<ref name="Marnix Beyen 1850">Beyen, Marnix, "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850" in ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(4):493–532. {{ISSN|0265-6914}} Fulltext: [[EBSCO]]</ref>
=== Munculnya orang Franka ===
===Emergence of the Franks===
[[FileBerkas:Frankischetalen.png|leftkiri|thumbjmpl|MapPeta showingsebaran roughlyorang the[[orang distributionFranka ofSali|Franka [[Salian FranksSali]] (in greenhijau) anddan [[Ripuarianorang FranksFranka Ripuari|Franka Ripuari]] (in redmerah) at the end ofpada theakhir Romanera periodRomawi.]]
Modern scholars ofPara thepengkaji [[Migrationperiode Periodmigrasi]] arepada inZaman agreementModern thatsepakat thebahwa Frankishidentitas identityorang emergedFranka atmuncul thepada firstparuh halfpertama ofabad theke-3 3rddari centuryberbagai outkelompok-kelompok ofkecil various earlier, smallermasyarakat [[Germanicsuku peoplesbangsa Jermanik|GermanicJermanik]] groups,yang includingsudah theada sebelumnya, termasuk [[Salianorang FranksFranka Sali|Saliiorang Sali]], [[Sicambriorang Sikambri]], [[Chamaviorang Kamavi]], [[Bructeriorang Brukteri]], [[Chattiorang Kati]], [[Chattuariiorang Katuari]], [[Ampsivariiorang Ampsivari]], [[Tencteriorang Tenkteri]], [[Ubiiorang Ubi]], [[Bataviansorang Batavia|orang Batavi]], and thedan [[orang Tungri]], whoyang mendiami bagian inhabitedhilir thedan lowerbagian andtengah middlelembah RhineSungai valleyRhein betweendi theantara [[Zuyder Zee]] and the riverdan [[Sungai Lahn]] and extended eastwardsserta asmembentang farke astimur thesejauh [[Weser]], buttetapi werelebih thebanyak mostbermukim denselydi settled around thesekitar [[IJssel]] anddan betweendaerah thedi antara [[LippeSungai River|Lippe]] and thedan [[SiegSungai (river)|Sieg]]. Konfederasi Theorang FrankishFranka confederationmungkin probablysekali beganmulai toterbentuk coalescepada inera the 210s210-an.<ref name="Previté-Orton">Previté-Orton, Charles, ''The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History'', voljld. I, pphlmn. 51–52, 151</ref>
Orang Franka pada akhirnya terbagi menjadi dua kelompok, yakni [[orang Franka Ripuari]] ({{lang-la|Ripuari}}) yang mendiami daerah tengah lembah Sungai Rhein pada zaman penjajahan Romawi, dan [[orang Franka Sali]] yang berasal dari Negeri Belanda.
The Franks eventually were divided into two groups: the [[Ripuarian Franks]] (Latin: Ripuari), who were the Franks that lived along the middle-Rhine River during the Roman Era, and the [[Salian Franks]], who were the Franks that originated in the area of the Netherlands.
FranksOrang appearFranka indicatat Romansebagai textskawan asmaupun both allies and enemieslawan (''[[laeti]]'' andmaupun ''dediticii'') dalam karya-karya tulis Romawi. BySekitar abouttahun 320, theorang FranksFranka hadberhasil themenguasai regiondaerah ofsekitar theSungai [[Scheldt]] river (presentsekarang daymenjadi westdaerah FlandersVlaanderen andBarat southwestdan Netherlands)kawasan underbarat controldaya Negeri Belanda), anddan weremelakukan raidingperompakan thedi [[EnglishSelat Channel|ChannelInggris]], disruptingmenghambat kelancaran angkutan transportationlaut tomenuju [[RomanBritania BritainRomawi|BritainBritania]]. RomanPasukan-pasukan forcesRomawi pacifieddapat themengamankan region,kawasan butitu, didtetapi nottidak expelmengusir theorang FranksFranka, whoyang continuedtetap tosaja beditakuti fearedsebagai asgerombolan piratesperompak alongdi thesepanjang shoresdaerah atpesisir leastsetidaknya untilsampai themasa time ofpemerintahan [[JulianFlavius theClaudius ApostateJulianus|Yulianus Si Murtad]] (358), whenyakni masa ketika [[Salianorang Franka FranksSali]] werediizinkan allowedmenetap todi settle[[Toksandria]] sebagai salah assatu ''[[foederatus|foederati]]'' inKekaisaran [[Toxandria]]Romawi, accordingmenurut toketerangan [[Ammianus Marcellinus]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/>
=== Lenyapnya orang Frisi ===
===Disappearance of the Frisii===
[[FileBerkas:North.Sea.Periphery.250.500.jpg|thumbjmpl|200px|rightka|Kawasan sekitar [[NorthLaut SeaUtara]] Periphery c''ca.'' 250-500 CEM.]]
ThreeAda factorstiga contributedfaktor toyang the disappearance of themenyebabkan [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] frommenghilang thedari northernkawasan Netherlands.utara First,Negeri accordingBelanda. toYang pertama, themenurut ''[[Panegyrici Latini]]'' (ManuscriptNaskah VIII), the ancient [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] werekuno forceddipaksa topindah resettleke withinpermukiman Romanbaru territorydi asdalam wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi sebagai ''[[laeti]]'' (i.e., Roman-erakaum [[serf|hamba tani]]s Romawi) insekitar c.tahun 296.<ref>{{Citation
|last=Grane
|first=Thomas
|contribution=From Gallienus to Probus – Three decades of turmoil and recovery
|title=The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia–a Northern Connection! (PhD thesis)
|publisher=University ofUniversitas Copenhagen
|publication-date=2007
|publication-place=Copenhagen
|page=109
}}</ref> ThisKeterangan isini theadalah lastkabar referencepaling toakhir the ancientmengenai [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] indalam thecatatan historical recordsejarah. WhatNasib happenedmereka toselanjutnya them,hanya however, is suggesteddapat indiduga themelalui archaeologicalcatatan recordarkeologi. ThePenemuan discoverysejenis ofgerabah a type of earthenware unique to 4th-centurykhas [[Frisia]] dari abad ke-4, calledyang disebut ''terp Tritzum'', showsmenyiratkan thatbahwa anorang-orang unknownFrisi, numberdalam ofjumlah themyang weretidak diketahui, resettledberpindah inke [[FlandersFlandria|Vlaanderen]] anddan [[Kent]],<ref>{{Citation
|last=Looijenga
|first=Jantina Helena
|editor-last=SSG Uitgeverij
|contribution=History, Archaeology and Runes
|title=Runes Around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700; Texts and Contexts (PhDdisertasi dissertationPhD)
|publisher=GroningenUniversitas UniversityGroningen
|publication-date=1997
|publication-place=Groningen
|page=30
|isbn=90-6781-014-2
|url=http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/thesis.pdf}}. For this contention, Looijenga cites D.A. Gerrets (1995), "The Anglo-Frisian Relationship Seen from an Archaeological Point of View" in ''Friesische studien'' 2, pp. 119–28.</ref> likely as ''laeti'' under Roman coercion.
|accessdate=2018-08-09
Second, the environment in the low-lying coastal regions of northwestern Europe began to lower c. 250 and gradually receded over the next 200 years. Tectonic [[subsidence]], a rising [[water table]] and [[storm surge]]s combined to flood some areas with [[marine transgression]]s. This was accelerated by a shift to a cooler, wetter climate in the region. If there had been any [[Frisii]] left in Frisia, they would have drowned.<ref name="Berglund 2002 10">{{Citation
|archive-date=2005-05-02
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050502101056/http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/thesis.pdf
|dead-url=yes
}}. Untuk kesimpulan ini, Looijenga mengutip D.A. Gerrets (1995), "The Anglo-Frisian Relationship Seen from an Archaeological Point of View" dalam ''Friesische studien'' 2, hlmn. 119–128.</ref> agaknya sebagai ''laeti'' di bawah paksaan bangsa Romawi.
Yang kedua, lingkungan daerah pesisir yang rendah di kawasan barat laut Eropa mulai semakin amblas sekitar tahun 250, dan perlahan-lahan terhenti sepanjang 200 tahun berikutnya. [[Subsiden tanah|Subsidensi]] tektonik, naiknya [[permukaan air tanah]], dan [[pusuan ribut]] mengakibatkan sejumlah daerah terendam [[transgresi laut]]. Keadaan ini semakin diperparah perubahan iklim di daerah pesisir sehingga menjadi lebih dingin dan lebih lembap. Andaikata masih ada [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] yang tersisa di daerah pesisir, tentunya mereka punah akibat tenggelam.<ref name="Berglund 2002 10">{{Citation
|last=Berglund
|first=Björn E.
|contribution=
|title=Climate Changes during the Holocene and their Impact on Hydrological Systems
|publisher=CambridgeUniversitas UniversityCambridge
|publication-date=2003
|publication-place=Cambridge
|year=1974
|contribution=
|title=The Rhine/Meuse Delta. Four studies on its prehistoric occupation and Holocene geology (PhDdisertasi DissertationPhD)
|publisher=LeidenLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Leiden
|publication-date=1974
|publication-place=Leiden
|url=http://hdl.handle.net/1887/2787
}}</ref>
Third,Yang afterketiga, theselepas collapseruntuhnya ofKekaisaran the Roman EmpireRomawi, thereterjadi waspenurunan ajumlah declinependuduk inseiring populationterhentinya asakitivitas Romanbangsa activityRomawi stoppeddan andpenarikan Romanmundur institutionslembaga-lembaga withdrewbangsa Romawi. AsSebagai aakibat resultdari ofketiga thesefaktor three factorsini, the [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] anddan [[Frisii|Frisiaevonesorang Frisievoni]] disappearedmenghilang dari daerah bekas frompermukiman theasli areamereka. TheSebagian coastalbesar landsdaerah remainedpesisir largelytetap unpopulatedtidak forberpenghuni theselama nextdua twoabad centuriesselanjutnya.<ref name="Berglund 2002 10"/><ref name="Ejstrud"/><ref name="Issar 2003"/><ref name="Louwe"/>
==Early MiddleAbad AgesPertengahan Awal (411–1000) ==
===Frisians Orang Frisia ===
{{Main articleUtama|FrisianKerajaan orang KingdomFrisia|Dorestad}}
[[FileBerkas:Frisia 716-la.svg|thumbjmpl|leftkiri|MapPerkiraan showingkasar roughlypersebaran theorang distributionFranka ofdan Franksorang andFrisia Frisianssekitar c.tahun 716 CE.M]]
Seiring membaiknya keadaan iklim, suku-suku rumpun Jermanik sekali lagi beramai-ramai hijrah meninggalkan kampung halaman mereka di sebelah timur menuju tempat-tempat lain. Kurun waktu berlangsungnya migrasi besar-besaran ini dikenal dengan sebutan "[[Zaman Migrasi]]" (''Volksverhuizingen''). Kawasan utara Negeri Belanda dibanjiri kaum pendatang, yakni [[orang Angli]], [[orang Yuti]], dan terutama [[orang Saksen]]. Banyak di antara kaum pendatang ini tidak menetap di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda tetapi terus bergerak menuju Inggris, dan kini dikenal dengan sebutan [[orang Angli-Saksen]]. Kaum pendatang yang tidak melanjutkan perjalanan menuju Inggris kelak dikenal dengan sebutan "orang Frisia", sekalipun bukan keturunan [[Frisii|orang Frisi]]. Para warga Frisia yang baru ini menetap di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda, dan menjadi cikal bakal [[bangsa Frisia]] modern.<ref>{{Citation
As climatic conditions improved, there was another mass migration of [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] peoples into the area from the east. This is known as the "[[Migration Period]]" (''Volksverhuizingen''). The northern Netherlands received an influx of new migrants and settlers, mostly [[Saxons]], but also [[Angles]] and [[Jutes]]. Many of these migrants did not stay in the northern Netherlands but moved on to England and are known today as the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. The newcomers who stayed in the northern Netherlands would eventually be referred to as "Frisians", although they were not descended from the ancient [[Frisii]]. These new Frisians settled in the northern Netherlands and would become the ancestors of the modern [[Frisians]].<ref>{{Citation
|last=Bazelmans
|first=Jos
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321
|title=Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition
|publisher=AmsterdamUniversitas UniversityAmsterdam
|publication-date=2009
|publication-place=Amsterdam
|pages=321–37321–337
|isbn=978-90-8964-078-9
|url=http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183
|accessdate=2018-08-09
}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (Dutch)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003101550/http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html |date=3 October 2011 }}, Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Retrieved 6 October 2011</ref> (Because the early [[Frisians]] and [[Anglo-Saxons]] were formed from largely identical tribal confederacies, their respective languages were very similar. [[Old Frisian]] is the most closely related language to [[Old English]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/1937/1/344_121.pdf |title=The origin of the Old English dialects revisited|first=Frederik |last=Kortlandt |year=1999|publisher=[[University of Leiden]]}}</ref> and the modern Frisian dialects are in turn the closest related languages to contemporary English.) By the end of the 6th century, the Frisian territory in the northern Netherlands had expanded west to the [[North Sea]] coast and, by the 7th century, south to [[Dorestad]]. During this period most of the northern Netherlands was known as [[Frisia]]. This extended Frisian territory is sometimes referred to as ''[[Frisian Kingdom|Frisia Magna]]'' (or [[Greater Frisia]]).
|archive-date=2017-08-30
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830194912/http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183
|dead-url=yes
}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (bahasa Belanda)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003101550/http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html |date=3 Oktober 2011 }}, Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Diakses 6 Oktober 2011</ref> [[Orang Frisia]] maupun [[orang Angli-Saksen]] terdahulu lahir dari konfederasi-konfederasi kesukuan yang identik, sehingga bahasanya pun sangat mirip. [[bahasa Frisia Lama]] berkerabat dekat dengan [[bahasa Inggris Lama]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/1937/1/344_121.pdf |title=The origin of the Old English dialects revisited|first=Frederik |last=Kortlandt |year=1999|publisher=[[Universitas Leiden]]}}</ref> sehingga dialek-dialek bahasa Frisia modern pun pada gilirannya berkerabat dekat dengan bahasa Inggris modern. Pada akhir abad ke-6, daerah kekuasaan orang Frisia di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda telah meluas sampai ke daerah pesisir [[Laut Utara]], dan meluas sampai ke [[Dorestad]] di sebelah selatan pada abad ke-7. Selama kurun waktu ini, sebagian besar kawasan utara Negeri Belanda dikenal dengan sebutan [[Frisia]]. Daerah kekuasaan orang Frisia yang sangat luas ini adakalanya juga disebut ''[[Kerajaan orang Frisia|Frisia Magna]]'' atau [[Frisia Raya]].
[[FileBerkas:Dorestad and trade routes.jpg|thumbjmpl|[[Dorestad]] anddan mainjalur-jalur traderoutes.]]dagang utama
]]
In the 7th and 8th centuries, the [[Franks|Frankish]] chronologies mention this area as the [[Frisian Kingdom|kingdom of the Frisians]]. This kingdom comprised the coastal provinces of the [[Netherlands]] and the German [[North Sea]] coast. During this time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. The 7th-century [[Frisian Kingdom]] (650–734) under King [[Aldegisel]] and King [[Redbad, King of the Frisians|Redbad]], had its centre of power in [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].
Pada abad ke-7 dan ke-8, daerah ini disebut-sebut dalam catatan sejarah [[orang Franka]] sebagai [[kerajaan orang Frisia]]. Wilayah kerajaan ini meliputi provinsi-provinsi yang terletak di daerah pesisir Negeri Belanda dan daerah pesisir [[Laut Utara]] Jerman. Pada kurun waktu ini, bahasa Frisia dipertuturkan di seluruh kawasan selatan daerah pesisir Laut Utara. Pada abad ke-7, [[kerajaan orang Frisia]] (650–734) di bawah pemerintahan Raja [[Aldegisel]] dan Raja [[Redbad, raja orang Frisia|Redbad]] berpusat di [[Utrecht (kota)|kota Utrecht]].
[[Dorestad]] wasadalah the largest settlementpekan ([[EmporiaEmporium (earlyAbad Pertengahan medievalAwal)|emporiaemporium]]) interbesar northwesterndi Europe.kawasan Itbarat hadlaut grownEropa, aroundyang aberkembang formerdi Romansekitar fortresssebuah bekas benteng Romawi. ItPekan wasini aadalah large,tempat flourishingberdagang tradingyang placeramai, threetiga kilometerskilometer longpanjangnya, anddan situatedterletak wheredi thedaerah riverstempat aliran [[RhineSungai Rhein]] anddan [[LekSungai river|Lek]] divergeberbelok southeastke ofsebelah tenggara kota [[Utrecht (citykota)|Utrecht]], neartak thejauh moderndari town ofkota [[Wijk bij Duurstede]] modern.<ref>Willemsen, A. (2009), ''Dorestad. Een wereldstad in de middeleeuwen,'' Walburg Pers, Zutphen, pp. 23–27, {{ISBN|978-90-5730-627-3}}</ref><ref name="Atlas">{{cite book | title=Atlas of Medieval Europe| url=https://books.google.com/?id=q50IyzCMQxgC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=dorestad#PPA57,M1| last=MacKay| first=Angus|author2=David Ditchburn| year=1997| page=57| publisher=[[Routledge]]| isbn=0-415-01923-0}}</ref> AlthoughSekalipun inland,terletak itjauh wasdari apesisir, NorthDorestad Seamerupakan tradingpusat centredagang thatdi primarilykawasan handledLaut goodsUtara fromyang thebanyak Middlememperjualbelikan barang-barang dari [[RhinelandRheinland]] Tengah.<ref name="Atlas"/><ref name="MC&OE">{{cite book | title=Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe| url=https://books.google.com/?id=6utbT529jLcC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=dorestad#PPA99,M1| last=Hodges| first=Richard|author2=David Whitehouse| year=1983| page=99| publisher=CornellLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Cornell| isbn=978-0-8014-9262-4}}</ref> Salah Winesatu wasbarang amongdagangan theutama majoryang productsdiperjualbelikan traded atdi Dorestad adalah minuman anggur, likelyyang fromagaknya vineyardsdidatangkan southdari ofkebun-kebun anggur di sebelah selatan [[Mainz]].<ref name="MC&OE"/> Dorestad Itjuga was also widely known because ofterkenal itskarena [[Mintpercetakan (coin)|mintuang logam]]nya. BetweenAntara tahun 600 andsampai kira-kira aroundtahun 719, Dorestad wasberulang oftenkali foughtdiperebutkan over[[bangsa betweenFrisia|orang the [[FrisiansFrisia]] and thedan [[Franksorang Franka]].
===Franks Orang Franka ===
{{utama|Orang Franka|Orang Franka Sali}}
{{Main article|Franks|Salian Franks}}
[[FileBerkas:Franks expansion.gif|thumbjmpl|leftkiri|ExpansionGerak of theekspansi [[Franksorang Franka]] fromdari tahun 481 tosampai tahun 870 CE.M]]
AfterSetelah pemerintahan [[RomanKekaisaran EmpireRomawi|RomanRomawi]] governmentdi inkawasan theini area collapsedruntuh, the [[Franksorang Franka]] expandedbergerak memperluas daerah kekuasaan mereka theirsampai territoriessehingga untiltumbuh therebanyak werekerajaan numerouskecil smallbentukan Frankishorang kingdomsFranka, especiallyterutama atdi [[CologneKöln]], [[Tournai|Doornik]], [[Le Mans]], anddan [[Cambrai|Kamerijk]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/><ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pphlmn. 6-18">Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" indalam J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts ''History of the Low Countries'', pphlmn. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}.</ref> TheRaja-raja kingsDoornik ofakhirnya Tournaimenundukkan eventuallyraja-raja cameorang toFranka subduelainnya. thePada otherkurun Frankishwaktu kings. By the 490s490-an, [[Clovis I|Klovis I]] hadberhasil conqueredmenundukkan anddan unitedmempersatukan allseluruh thedaerah Frankishkekuasaan territoriesorang toFranka thedi westsebelah of thebarat [[Meuse (sungai)|Sungai Maas]], includingtermasuk thosekerajaan-kerajaan inorang theFranka southerndi Netherlandskawasan selatan Negeri Belanda. HeKlovis kemudian meneruskan continuedaksi hispenaklukannya conquestske intowilayah [[GaulGalia]].
Setelah [[Clovis I|Klovis I]] wafat pada tahun 511, keempat putranya membagi-bagi wilayah kerajaannya. [[Thierry I|Theuderik I]] mendapatkan daerah-daerah yang kelak menjadi wilayah Kerajaan Austrasia (termasuk kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda). Anak dan cucu Theuderik I berturut-turut memerintah menggantikannya sampai Kerajaan [[Austrasia]] dipersatukan dengan kerajaan-kerajaan orang Franka lainnya pada tahun 555 oleh [[Clotaire I|Klothar I]], yang menjadi penguasa tunggal atas seluruh wilayah kekuasaan orang Franka pada tahun 558. Klothar I membagi-bagikan wilayah kerajaannya kepada keempat putranya, tetapi keempat wilayah hasil pembagian ini berubah menjadi tiga kerajaan saja sepeninggal [[Caribert I|Karibert I]] pada tahun 567. Kerajaan Austrasia (termasuk kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda) diberikan kepada [[Sigebert I]]. Kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda seterusnya menjadi bagian dari wilayah Kerajaan [[Austrasia]] until sampai pada masa pemerintahan [[wangsa Karoling]].
After the death of [[Clovis I]] in 511, his four sons partitioned his kingdom amongst themselves, with [[Theuderic I of Austrasia|Theuderic I]] receiving the lands that were to become Austrasia (including the southern Netherlands). A line of kings descended from Theuderic ruled [[Austrasia]] until 555, when it was united with the other Frankish kingdoms of [[Chlothar I]], who inherited all the Frankish realms by 558. He redivided the Frankish territory amongst his four sons, but the four kingdoms coalesced into three on the death of [[Charibert I]] in 567. Austrasia (including the southern Netherlands) was given to [[Sigebert I]]. The southern Netherlands remained the northern part of [[Austrasia]] until the rise of the [[Carolingians]].
TheOrang-orang FranksFranka whoyang expandedberekspansi southsampai intoke [[GaulGalia]] settledakhirnya theremenetap anddan eventually adopted themengadopsi [[Vulgarbahasa Latin Umum]] ofyang thedituturkan localmasyarakat populationsetempat.<ref name="Verhaal"/> HoweverMeskipun demikian, abahasa GermanicJermanik languagemasih tetap wasdigunakan spokensebagai asbahasa akedua secondoleh tonguepara bypejabat publicpublik officialsdi inkawasan westernbarat [[Austrasia]] anddan [[Neustria]] assampai latekurun aswaktu the 850s850-an. ItBahasa completelyJermanik disappearedpunah asdi adaerah-daerah spokenini languagepada fromabad these regions during the 10th centuryke-10.<ref>[[Urban T. Holmes Jr.|Holmes, U.T]] anddan A. H. Schutz (1938), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjX4ebc2lsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=history+of+french+language&hl=en&ei=jRjOTtqdDNPR4QTr1pQ8&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20french%20language&f=false A History of the French Language]'', phlm. 29, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, {{ISBN|0-8196-0191-8}}</ref> DuringPada thismasa expansionekspansi toke the southGalia, manybanyak Frankishpuak peopleorang remainedFranka inyang thetetap northtinggal di utara (i.e.yakni southerndi Netherlands,kawasan Flandersselatan andNegeri aBelanda, smallVlaanderen, partdan ofsebagian northernkecil Francekawasan utara Prancis). AMuncul wideningkesenjangan culturalbudaya divideyang grewkian betweenmelebar theantara Franksmasyarakat remainingFranka inyang thetetap northtinggal anddi theutara rulersdan farpara topemimpin theFranka di Galia, yakni di kawasan southyang insekarang whatmenjadi iswilayah nownegara FrancePrancis.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pphlmn. 6-18"/> SalianOrang FranksFranka continuedSali totetap residetinggal indi theirkampung originalhalaman homelandaslinya anddan thedi areadaerah-daerah directlytetangga todi thesebelah southselatan andserta totetap speakmenuturkan theirbahasa original languageaslinya, [[Oldbahasa FrankishFranka Lama]], whichyang byberkembang themenjadi 9th[[bahasa centuryBelanda hadLama]] evolvedpada intoabad [[Old Dutch]]ke-9.<ref name="Verhaal"/> AGaris Dutch-Frenchbatas languageantara boundarywilayah camepenutur intobahasa existenceBelanda (butdan thiswilayah waspenutur originallybahasa southPrancis ofakhirnya whereterbentuk, ittetapi ismula-mula today)jauh lebih ke selatan dari letaknya saat ini.<ref name="Verhaal"/><ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pphlmn. 6-18"/> InDi thedaerah-daerah yang dilewati Sungai Maas anddan RhineSungai areasRhein ofdi theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda, theorang FranksFranka hadmenguasai politicalpusat-pusat andpolitik tradingdan centresperdagangan, especiallykhususnya atdi [[Nijmegen]] anddan [[Maastricht]].<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pphlmn. 6-18"/> TheseOrang-orang FranksFranka remaineddi indaerah contactini withmasih thetetap Frisiansberhubungan todengan theorang northFrisia di utara, especiallyterutama indi placestempat-tempat likeseperti [[Dorestad]] anddan [[Utrecht]].
=== Keraguan pada Zaman Modern mengenai perbedaan antara orang Frisia, orang Franka, dan orang Saksen ===
===Modern doubts about the traditional Frisian, Frank and Saxon distinction===
[[FileBerkas:Willibrord e.jpg|thumbjmpl|[[SaintWilibrordus|Santo WillibrordWilibrordus]], misionaris [[Anglo-Saxon|Angli-Saksen]] missionary fromdari [[Northumberland]], ApostleRasul to the FrisiansFrisia, firstUskup bishopUtrecht ofyang Utrechtpertama.]]
Pada akhir abad ke-19, para sejarawan Belanda meyakini bahwa orang Franka, orang Frisia, dan orang Saksen adalah cikal bakal bangsa Belanda. Beberapa sejarawan bahkan melangkah lebih jauh lagi dengan menjabarkan atribut-atribut, nilai-nilai, dan kelebihan-kelebihan tertentu yang konon dimiliki suku-suku bangsa ini, dan mengedepankannya sebagai cerminan pandangan-pandangan kebangsaan dan keagamaan pada abad ke-19. Pada khususnya, diyakini bahwa teori ini menjelaskan mengapa warga Belgia dan kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda (yakni orang Franka) memeluk agama Kristen Katolik, sementara warga kawasan utara Negeri Belanda (orang Frisia dan orang Saksen) memeluk agama Kristen Protestan. Salah satu penyebab kesuksesan teori ini adalah teori-teori antropologi yang didasarkan atas suatu paradigma kesukuan. Karena bersifat inklusif secara politis dan geografis, tetapi menjunjung tinggi keberagaman, teori ini selaras dengan kebutuhan bina bangsa dan integrasi pada kurun waktu 1890–1914. Teori ini diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah Negeri Belanda kala itu.
In the late 19th century, Dutch historians believed that the Franks, Frisians, and Saxons were the original ancestors of the Dutch people. Some went further by ascribing certain attributes, values and strengths to these various groups and proposing that they reflected 19th-century nationalist and religious views. In particular, it was believed that this theory explained why Belgium and the southern Netherlands (i.e. the Franks) had become Catholic and the northern Netherlands (Frisians and Saxons) had become Protestant. The success of this theory was partly due to anthropological theories based on a tribal paradigm. Being politically and geographically inclusive, and yet accounting for diversity, this theory was in accordance with the need for nation-building and integration during the 1890–1914 period. The theory was taught in Dutch schools.
Meskipun demikian, kerugian-kerugian dari tafsir sejarah ini mulai muncul ke permukaan. Teori berasas kesukuan ini menyiratkan bahwa garis-garis perbatasan eksternal sesungguhnya lemah atau tidak wujud, dan bahwasanya ada garis-garis perbatasan internal yang jelas. Mitos asal usul ini menyajikan sebuah premis historis, teristimewa pada Perang Dunia II, bagi separatisme regional dan aneksasi ke Jerman. Selepas tahun 1945, paradigma kesukuan kehilangan daya pikatnya di kalangan antropolog dan sejarawan. Manakala keakuratan landasan tema tiga-suku dipertanyakan, teori ini pun tidak lagi diminati orang.<ref name="Marnix Beyen 1850"/>
However, the disadvantages of this historical interpretation became apparent. This tribal-based theory suggested that external borders were weak or non-existent and that there were clear-cut internal borders. This origins myth provided an historical premise, especially during the Second World War, for regional separatism and annexation to Germany. After 1945 the tribal paradigm lost its appeal for anthropological scholars and historians. When the accuracy of the three-tribe theme was fundamentally questioned, the theory fell out of favour.<ref name="Marnix Beyen 1850"/>
DueKarena tolangkanya the scarcity of writtensumber-sumber sourcestertulis, knowledgepengetahuan ofmengenai thiskurun periodwaktu dependsini tosangat abergantung largepada degreepenafsiran ondata thearkeologi. interpretationPandangan oftradisional archaeologicalyang data.menyatakan Thebahwa traditionalada viewketerpisahan ofyang ajelas clear-cutantara division[[bangsa betweenFrisia|orang [[FrisiansFrisia]] indi thesebelah northutara andserta coastdaerah pesisir, [[Franksorang Franka]] indi thesebelah southselatan, anddan [[Saxonsorang Saksen]] indi thesebelah easttimur hasterbukti provensecara historicallyhistoris problematicbermasalah.<ref>Blok, D.P. (1974), ''De Franken in Nederland'', Bussum: Unieboek, 1974, pphlmn. 36–38 onmengenai theketidakpastian uncertainjati identitydiri oforang theFrisia Frisiansdalam in earlysumber-sumber FrankishFranka sourcesterdahulu; pphlmn. 54–55 onmengenai the problemsmasalah-masalah concerningterkait “Saxon”“Saksen” assebagai asebuah tribalnama namesuku.</ref><ref>van Eijnatten, J. anddan F. van Lieburg, ''Nederlandse religiegeschiedenis'' (Hilversum, 2006), pphlmn. 42–43, onmengenai theketidakpastian uncertainjati identitydiri of"orang theFrisia" “Frisians”dalam in earlysumber-sumber FrankishFranka sourcesterdahulu.</ref><ref>de Nijs, T, E. Beukers anddan J. Bazelmans, ''Geschiedenis van Holland'' (Hilversum, 2003), pphlmn. 31–33 onmengenai thesifat fluctuatingfluktuatif characterdari ofciri tribalkhas andkesukuan ethnicdan distinctionskesukubangsaan forpada thekurun earlywaktu MedievalAbad periodPertengahan Awal.</ref> ArcheologicalBukti-bukti arkeologi secara dramatis menunjukkan model-model evidenceyang suggestsberlainan dramaticallydari differentsatu modelsdaerah forke differentdarah regionslain, withdengan demographickesinambungan continuitydemografi foruntuk somesejumlah partskawasan ofdi theNegeri countryBelanda anddan depopulationdepopulasi andserta possiblekemungkinan replacementbergantinya inpopulasi otherdi kawasan-kawasan partslain, notablyterutama thedi coastaldaerah areas ofpesisir Frisia anddan Holland.<ref>Blok (1974), pphlmn. 117 ff.; de Nijs et aldll. (2003), pphlmn. 30–33</ref>
=== Kemunculan bahasa Belanda ===
===The emergence of the Dutch language===
{{utama|Bahasa Belanda Lama|Bahasa Frisia Lama|Bahasa Belanda Saksen Hilir}}
{{Main article|Old Dutch|Old Frisian|Dutch Low Saxon}}
Bahasa yang menjadi cikal bakal [[bahasa belanda Lama]] (atau [[bahasa Franken Hilir Barat]]) dan [[bahasa Franken Hilir Lama]] (atau [[bahasa Franka Lama]]) tidak diketahui secara pasti, tetapi diduga bahwa bahasa tersebut adalah bahasa yang dituturkan [[orang Franka Sali]]. Kendati orang Franka sudah lama digolongkan ke dalam rumpun [[suku Jermanik Weser-Rhein]], bahasa Belanda memiliki sejumlah ciri khas [[rumpun bahasa Ingvaeonik]], dan digolongkan ke dalam rumpun bahasa tersebut oleh ahli-ahli bahasa modern. Bahasa Belanda juga memiliki sejumlah ciri kas [[bahasa Saksen Lama]]. [[Bahasa Belanda Lama]], [[bahasa Saksen Lama]], [[bahasa Inggris Lama]], dan [[bahasa Frisia Lama]] masih berkerabat dekat. Nyaris tidak ada peninggalan tertulis dalam bahasa yang dituturkan orang Franka, dan peninggalan tertulis dalam bahasa Belanda Lama sangat langka serta tidak lagi utuh, sehingga tidak banyak yang dapat diketahui mengenai perkembangan [[bahasa Belanda Lama]]. Bahasa Belanda Lama bertransisi menjadi [[bahasa Belanda Pertengahan]] sekitar tahun 1150.<ref name="Verhaal"/>
The language from which [[Old Dutch]] (also sometimes called [[Old West Low Franconian]], [[Old Low Franconian]] or [[Old Frankish]]) arose is not known with certainty, but it is thought to be the language spoken by the [[Salian Franks]]. Even though the Franks are traditionally categorized as [[Weser-Rhine Germanic]], Dutch has a number of [[Ingvaeonic]] characteristics and is classified by modern linguists as an [[Ingvaeonic]] language. Dutch also has a number of [[Old Saxon]] characteristics. There was a close relationship between [[Old Dutch]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old English]] and [[Old Frisian]]. Because texts written in the language spoken by the Franks are almost non-existent, and [[Old Dutch]] texts scarce and fragmentary, not much is known about the development of [[Old Dutch]]. [[Old Dutch]] made the transition to [[Middle Dutch]] around 1150.<ref name="Verhaal"/>
=== Masuknya agama Kristen ===
===Christianization===
TheAgama ChristianityKristen thatyang arriveddibawa inmasuk theke NetherlandsNegeri withBelanda theoleh Romansbangsa appearsRomawi nottampaknya tohilang havesama diedsekali out(setidaknya completely (indi [[Maastricht]],) at least)setelah afterbangsa theRomawi withdrawalhengkang ofdari theNegeri RomansBelanda insekitar abouttahun 411.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pphlmn. 6-18"/>
[[Orang Franka]] menerima agama Kristen setelah raja mereka, [[Clovis I|Klovis I]], memeluk agama Kristen Katolik pada tahun 496. Agama Kristen masuk ke kawasan utara sesudah orang Franka menaklukkan [[Friesland]]. [[bangsa Sachsen|Orang Saksen]] di kawasan timur sudah memeluk agama Kristen sebelum [[Sachsen]] ditaklukkan, dan menjadi sekutu orang Franka.
The [[Franks]] became Christians after their king [[Clovis I]] converted to Catholicism, an event which is traditionally set in 496. Christianity was introduced in the north after the conquest of [[Friesland]] by the [[Franks]]. The [[Saxons]] in the east were converted before the conquest of [[Saxony]], and became Frankish allies.
Para misionaris [[Misi Hiberno-Skotlandia|Hibernia-Skotlandia]] dan [[Misi Angli-Saksen|Angli-Saksen]], teristimewa [[Wilibrordus]], [[Wolframus dari Sens|Wolframus]], dan [[Bonifasius]], berjasa memperkenalkan agama Kristen kepada masyarakat Franka dan Frisia pada abad ke-8. Bonifasius gugur sebagai martir karena dibunuh [[bangsa Frisia|orang Frisia]] di [[Dokkum]] pada tahun 754.
[[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Hiberno-Scottish]] and [[Anglo-Saxon mission|Anglo-Saxon]] missionaries, particularly [[Willibrord]], [[Wulfram of Sens|Wulfram]] and [[Boniface]], played an important role in converting the Frankish and Frisian peoples to Christianity by the 8th century. Boniface was martyred by the [[Frisians]] in [[Dokkum]] (754).
=== Penjajahan Franka dan penggabungan dengan Kekaisaran Romawi Suci ===
===Frankish dominance and incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire===
{{utama|Perang-perang Frisia-Franka}}
{{Main article|Frisian-Frankish Wars}}
[[FileBerkas:Radboud doopvont.jpg|thumbjmpl|left|AnDewangga earlydari 16th-centuryawal tapestryabad depictingke-16, thebergambar nearperistiwa baptism ofpembaptisan [[RedbadRadboud, KingRaja ofOrang the FrisiansFrisia]], whoyang diedmangkat inpada 719tahun CE719.]]
Pada permulaan abad ke-8, mulai sering timbul konflik antara orang Frisia dan [[orang Franka]] di sebelah selatan. Konflik-konflik ini menimbulkan [[Perang-perang Frisia–Franka|serangkaian perang]] yang mengakibatkan Frisia menjadi jajahan [[Negeri Franka|Kekaisaran Orang Franka]]. Dalam [[Pertempuran Boorne]] pada tahun 734, orang Frisia di wilayah Belanda dikalahkan orang Franka, dan dengan demikian kawasan di sebelah barat [[Sungai Lauwers]] pun menjadi jajahan mereka. Kawasan di sebelah timur Sungai Lauwers menjadi jajahan orang Franka tahun 785 setelah [[Karel Agung]] mengalahkan [[Widukind]].
In the early 8th century the Frisians came increasingly into conflict with the [[Franks]] to the south, resulting in a [[Frisian–Frankish wars|series of wars]] in which the [[Frankish Empire]] eventually subjugated Frisia. In 734, at the [[Battle of the Boarn]], the Frisians in the Netherlands were defeated by the [[Franks]], who thereby conquered the area west of the [[Lauwers]]. The Franks then conquered the area east of the Lauwers in 785 when [[Charlemagne]] defeated [[Widukind]].
TheKeturunan linguisticorang descendantsFranka ofberdasarkan the Franksbahasa, the modernyakni [[Dutchbangsa peopleBelanda|Dutchmasyarakat penutur]] [[Dutchbahasa language|-speakersBelanda]] of thedi [[NetherlandsBelanda|Negeri Belanda]] anddan [[FlandersFlandria|Vlaanderen]], seemsekarang toini, havetampaknya brokensudah withlepas thedari [[ExonymEksonim anddan endonymendonim|endonymendonim]] "FrankFranka" aroundsekitar theabad 9th centuryke-9. ByPada thismasa time Frankishitu, identityidentitas hadFranka changedsudah fromberubah andari ethnicidentitas identitysuku tobangsa amenjadi nationalidentitas identitybangsa, becomingmenjadi localizedterlokalisasi anddan confinedterbatas topada thedaerah modernyang sekarang bernama ''[[FranconiaFranken]]'' anddan principallyteristimewa todaerah theyang Frenchsekarang provincemenjadi ofProvinsi ''[[Île-de-France]]'' di Prancis.<ref>van der Wal, M., ''Geschiedenis van het Nederlands'', 1992 {{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref>
AlthoughMeskipun thetidak peoplelagi nomenyebut longerdirinya referred to themselves as"orang "FranksFranka", themasyarakat NetherlandsNegeri wasBelanda stillmasih partmenjadi ofbagian thedari [[FrankishNegeri empireFranka|Kekaisaran Orang Franka]] ofdi bawah kepemimpinan [[CharlemagneKarel Agung]]. Indeed,Karena becausewangsa ofKaroling theberasal Austrasiandari originsAustrasia, ofyang theterletak Carolingiansdi inantara theSungai areaRhein betweendan the Rhine and theSungai Maas, the cities ofkota Aachen, kota Maastricht, kota Liège anddan Nijmegenkota wereNijmegen atmenjadi thejantung heartkebudayaan ofzaman Carolingianwangsa cultureKaroling.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pphlmn. 6-18"/> CharlemagneKarel maintainedAgung hismemenuhi kebutuhan ''palatium'' (majelis istana)<ref>{{cite web|title=Charlemagne: Court and administration|work= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/106546/Charlemagne/256621/Court-and-administration}} ''("CharlemagneKarel reliedAgung on hismengandalkan ''palatium'', ayakni shiftingsebuah assemblagemajelis ofdengan familyanggota membersyang senantiasa berganti-ganti, trustedterdiri layatas andkerabat, pengiring kepercayaan dari kalangan rohaniwan ecclesiasticalmaupun companionsnonrohaniwan, anddan assortedbermacam-macam hangerspengikut. Orang-on,orang whichini constitutedmembentuk ansuatu itinerantmajelis courtistana followingyang theberpindah-pindah kingtempat asmengikuti heperjalanan carriedsang outraja hisbilamana militarysedang campaignsmelancarkan andkampanye-kampanye soughtmiliter, todan takeberusaha advantagemencari ofkeuntungan thedari incomepenghasilan fromlahan-lahan widelyyasan scatteredmilik royalraja estatesyang tersebar di mana-mana.")</ref> indi [[Nijmegen]] atpaling leastsedikit fourempat timeskali.
Wilayah kekuasaan [[Kekaisaran Karoling|Kekaisaran Wangsa Karoling]] pada akhirnya meliputi Prancis, Jerman, kawasan utara [[Italia]], dan banyak lagi tempat lain di Eropa Barat. Pada tahun 843, kekaisaran orang Franka dipecah menjadi tiga bagian, sehingga terciptalah [[Francia Barat|Negeri Franka Barat]] di kawasan barat, [[Francia Timur|Negeri Franka Timur]] di kawasan timur, dan [[Francia Tengah|Negeri Franka Tengah]] di kawasan tengah wilayah kekuasaan orang Franka. Sebagian besar wilayah Negeri Belanda sekarang ini adalah bekas bagian wilayah [[Francia Tengah|Negeri Franka Tengah]], sementara daerah Vlaanderen adalah bekas bagian wilayah [[Francia Barat|Negeri Franka Barat]]. Inilah salah satu faktor penting yang turun-temurun membedakan daerah Vlaanderen dari daerah-daerah penutur bahasa Belanda lainnya.
The [[Carolingian empire]] would eventually include France, Germany, northern [[Italy]] and much of Western Europe. In 843, the Frankish empire was divided into three parts, giving rise to [[West Francia]] in the west, [[East Francia]] in the east, and [[Middle Francia]] in the centre. Most of what is today the Netherlands became part of [[Middle Francia]]; Flanders became part of [[West Francia]]. This division was an important factor in the historical distinction between Flanders and the other Dutch-speaking areas.
[[Middle Francia Tengah|Negeri Franka Tengah]] ({{lang-la|Francia mediaMedia}}) was anadalah ephemeralkerajaan [[Francia|Frankishorang Franka]] kingdomberumur thatpendek hadtanpa noidentitas historicalsejarah ormaupun ethnicsuku identitybangsa tosebagai bindpemersatu itswarganya variedyang peoples.terdiri Itatas bermacam-macam suku bangsa. wasKerajaan createdini bydibentuk theberdasarkan [[Treaty ofPerjanjian Verdun]] intahun 843, whichyang dividedmembagi thewilayah [[CarolingianKekaisaran EmpireKaroling|Kekaisaran wangsa Karoling]] amongkepada the sons ofputra-putra [[LouisLudwig theyang PiousSaleh|Ludwig Si Warak]]. SituatedWilayah betweenkerajaan theyang realmsdiapit ofNegeri [[EastFranka Francia|East]]Timur anddan [[WestNegeri Francia]],Franka MiddleBarat Franciaini comprisedterdiri theatas Frankishdaerah-daerah territorykekuasaan betweenorang theFranka riversdi antara [[RhineSungai Rhein]] anddan [[ScheldtSchelde|Sungai Schelde]], thedaerah pesisir [[Frisia|Vlaanderen]]n coast ofdi thetepi [[NorthLaut SeaUtara]], thebekas formerwilayah [[KingdomKerajaan ofBourgogne|Kerajaan BurgundyBurgundia]] (exceptkecuali forbagian abaratnya westernyang portion,kemudian laterhari knowndikenal asdengan nama [[DuchyKadipaten of BurgundyBourgogne|''Bourgogne'']]), [[Provence]], and thedan [[KingdomKerajaan ofItalia Italy(Abad (medievalPertengahan)|Kingdom ofKerajaan ItalyItalia]].
MiddleNegeri FranciaFranka fellTengah tojatuh ke tangan [[Lothair I]], theputra eldestsulung sondan andpengganti successorLudwig ofSi [[Louis the Pious]]Warak, aftersesudah anberperang intermittentmelawan civil war with his younger brothersadik-adiknya, [[LouisLudwig thesi GermanJerman|Ludwig Si Jerman]] anddan [[CharlesKarl theyang BaldBotak|Karel Si Gundul]]. InSebagai acknowledgementwujud ofpengakuan Lothair'sterhadap gelar [[HolyKaisar RomanRomawi EmperorSuci|Imperialkaisar]] titleyang disandang Lothair I, Middlewilayah FranciaNegeri containedFranka theTengah imperialmencakup citieskota-kota ofkekaisaran, yakni [[Aachen]], thekota residence oftempat [[CharlemagneKarel Agung]] bermastautin, as well asdan RomeRoma. InPada tahun 855, onsebelum hismenghembuskan deathbednapas atterakhirnya di [[PrümBiara AbbeyPrüm]], EmperorKaisar Lothair I again partitioned hismembagi realmwilayah amongstkekuasaannya hiskepada sonsputra-putranya. MostSebagian ofbesar thedaerah landsdi northsebelah of theutara [[AlpsPegunungan Alpen]], includingtermasuk theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda, passeddiwariskan tokepada [[LothairLothaire II ofdari LotharingiaLorraine|Lothair II]] andsehingga consecutively were nameddisebut [[Lotharingia]] ({{lang-fr|Lorraine}}). AfterSesudah Lothair II diedwafat inpada tahun 869, Lotharingia wasdibagi-bagi partitionedkedua bypamannya, hisLudwig unclesSi LouisJerman thedan GermanKarel andSi CharlesGundul, thesesuai Balddengan inkesepakatan theyang tertuang dalam [[Treaty ofPerjanjian Meerssen]] intahun 870. AlthoughMeskipun somebeberapa ofdaerah thedi NetherlandsNegeri hadBelanda comedikuasai underorang Viking control, inNegeri 870Belanda itsecara technicallyteknis becamemenjadi partbagian ofdari [[EastNegeri FranciaFranka Timur]], whichpada becametahun the870. Negeri Franka Timur akhirnya berubah nama menjadi [[HolyKekaisaran RomanRomawi EmpireSuci]] inpada tahun 962.
=== Serbuan orang Viking raids===
[[FileBerkas:Rorik by H. W. Koekkoek.jpg|thumbjmpl|[[Rorik ofdari Dorestad|Rorik]], pahlawan [[Viking]] conqueroryang andmenaklukkan rulerdan ofmemerintah [[Friesland]], agambar romanticromantisasi dari tahun 1912, depiction bykarya [[Johannes Hermanus Koekkoek|Johannes H. Koekkoek]].]]
InPada theabad 9thke-9 anddan 10th centurieske-10, theorang VikingsViking raidedmenyerbu thekota-kota largelypantai defencelessdan tepi sungai yang tak terlindung, milik [[Frisiansbangsa Frisia|Frisianorang Frisia]] anddan [[Franks|Frankishorang Franka]], towns lying on the coast and along the rivers ofdi thekawasan [[LowNegara-negara Dataran Rendah|Negeri-Negeri CountriesRendah]] ({{lang-nl|Nederlanden}}). AlthoughMeskipun Vikingstidak neverpernah settledmenetap indalam largejumlah numbersbesar, inorang thoseViking areas,membangun theypangkalan-pangkalan diddi setdaerah-daerah uptersebut long-termyang basesdigunakan anddalam werejangka evenpanjang, acknowledgedbahkan asdalam lordskasus-kasus intertentu adiakui fewsebagai casespenguasa. InDalam Dutchtradisi andsejarah Frisianbangsa historicalBelanda traditiondan Frisia, the trading centrepusat ofdagang [[Dorestad]] declinedmengalami afterkemerosotan akibat serbuan-serbuan orang Viking raidsyang fromdilancarkan dari tahun 834 tosampai tahun 863;. Meskipun howeverdemikian, sincekarena notidak convincingada Vikingbukti archaeologicalarkeologi evidencemeyakinkan hasterkait beenkeberadaan foundorang atViking theyang siteditemukan (asdi ofDorestad (per 2007), doubtstradisi aboutsejarah thistersebut haveakhir-akhir grownini inmulai recentdiragukan yearskebenarannya.<ref>MoreInformasi infolebih aboutlanjut Vikingmenganai raidsserbuan-serbuan canorang beViking foundtersaji onlinedaring atdi L. van der Tuuk, [http://home.tiscali.nl/gjallar/index.html Gjallar. Noormannen in de Lage Landen]</ref>
OneSalah ofsatu the most importantkeluarga Viking familiesterkemuka indi the Low CountriesNegeri-Negeri wasRendah thatadalah ofkeluarga [[Rorik ofdari Dorestad]] (basedberbasis indi [[Wieringen]]) anddan his brother theadiknya, "younger Harald Muda" (basedberbasis indi [[Walcheren]]),. bothKedua thoughtadik-beradik toini bediduga nephewssebagai ofkemenakan [[Harald Klak]].<ref>Baldwin, Stephen, [http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2002-09/1031544685 "DanishWangsa HaraldsHarald inasal 9thDenmark Centurydi FrisiaFriesland pada abad ke-9"]. RetrievedTemu balik tanggal 9 OctoberOktober 2011.</ref> AroundSekitar tahun 850, [[Lothair I]] acknowledgedmengakui Rorik assebagai rulerpenguasa ofsebagian mostbesar ofwilayah Friesland., Anddan againpada intahun 870, selaku raja bawahan wangsa Karoling, Rorik wasditerima receivedmenghadap byKaisar [[CharlesKarl theyang BaldBotak|Karel Si Gundung]] indi [[Nijmegen]],. toSerbuan-serbuan whom he became a vassal.orang Viking raidsberlanjut continuedpada duringkurun thatwaktu periodtersebut. Harald’s son Rodulf, andputra hisHarald, mendan werepengawal-pengawalnya killedtewas bydibunuh the people oforang-orang [[Oostergo]] inpada tahun 873. Rorik diedsendiri wafat sometimesebelum beforetahun 882.
Buriedkumpulan-kumpulan Vikingharta treasuresterpendam consistingpeninggalan mainlyorang ofViking silveryang havesebagian beenbesar foundberupa inbarang-barang theperak Lowtelah Countries.ditemukan Twodi suchkawasan treasuresNegeri-Negeri haveRendah. beenDua foundkumpulan inditemukan di Wieringen. ASekumpulan largebesar treasureharta foundkarun inyang Wieringenditemukan indi 1996Wieringen datespada fromtahun around1996 850diperkirakan andberasal isdari thoughtsekitar perhapstahun to850 havedan beendiduga connectedberkaitan todengan Rorik. ThePenguburan burialharta ofkekayaan suchsemacam aini valuabledipandang treasuresebagai issalah seensatu asindikasi ankeberadaan indicationsebuah thatpermukiman therepermanen was a permanent settlement indi Wieringen.<ref>"[http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html Vikingschat van Wieringen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718064223/http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html |date=18 July 2011 }}, Museumkennis.nl. RetrievedTemu balik tanggal 9 OctoberOktober 2011.</ref>
AroundSekitar tahun 879, Godfrid arrived in Frisian lands astiba thedi headFriesland ofmembawa asepasukan largebesar forceprajurit thatyang terrorisedmeneror thekawasan LowNegeri-Negeri CountriesRendah. UsingDengan menjadikan [[Ghent]] assebagai his basepangkalannya, theypasukan Godfried ravagedmenggempur Ghent, [[Maastricht]], [[Liège]], [[Stavelot]], [[Prüm]], [[CologneKoln]], anddan [[Koblenz]]. ControllingKarena mostberhasil ofmenguasai Frisiasebagian betweenbesar wilayah Friesland dari tahun 882 andsampai hisakhir deathhayatnya inpada tahun 885, Godfrid became knowndikenal todalam historysejarah assebagai [[Godfrid, Duke ofAdipati Frisia|Godfrid, Adipati Friesland]]. HisKekuasaannya lordshipatas overFriesland Frisiaselaku wasraja acknowledgedbawahan bywangsa [[CharlesKaroling thediakui Fat]],Kaisar to[[Karl whomyang heGendut|Karel becameSi a vassalTambun]]. Ketika Godfried wastewas terbunuh assassinatedpada intahun 885, after which [[Gerolf ofdari Holland]] assumedmengambil lordshipalih andtampuk Vikingpemerintahan ruleFriesland, ofdan Frisiazaman kekuasaan orang Viking camedi toFriesland anpun endberakhir.
VikingSerbuan raidsorang ofViking thedi Lowkawasan CountriesNegeri-Negeri continuedRendah forberlanjut overlebih adari centuryseabad. RemainsJejak-jejak ofserbuan orang Viking attacksyang diperkirakan berasal dari kurun datingwaktu fromtahun 880 tosampai tahun 890 havetelah beenditemukan found indi [[Zutphen]] anddan [[Deventer]]. InPada tahun 920, King [[HenryHeinrich I ofdari GermanySachsen|HenryRaja Hendrik Si Pemburu Unggas Liar]] ofasal GermanySaksen liberatedmembebaskan kota [[Utrecht (citykota)|Utrecht]]. Accordingdari topenjajahan aViking. numberMenurut ofsejumlah chroniclestawarikh, theserbuan lastterakhir attacksorang tookViking placeterjadi inpada thedasawarsa firstpertama decadeabad ofke-11 the 11th century and were directed atdi [[Tiel]] anddan/oratau [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].<ref>Jesch, Judith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RkNY2KrdvscC&pg=PA82 Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse]'', Boydell & Brewer, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-85115-826-6}}. phlm. 82.</ref>
Serbuan-serbuan orang Viking terjadi bertepatan dengan perang perebutan supremasi di Negeri Franka Tengah (mencakup Negeri Belanda) di antara para penguasa Prancis dan Jerman, sehingga melemahkan kekuasaan mereka atas kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Perlawanan terhadap orang Viking, kalaupun ada, dilakukan para menak lokal, yang membuat mereka semakin kuat dan berkuasa.
These Viking raids occurred about the same time that French and German lords were fighting for supremacy over the middle empire that included the Netherlands, so their sway over this area was weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result.
==High &Abad LatePertengahan MiddleMadya Agesdan Abad Pertengahan Akhir (1000–1432) ==
[[Berkas:Valkhofkapel.JPG|jmpl|Kapel Santo Nikolaus ({{lang-nl|Sint-Nicolaaskapel}}) atau Kapel Valkhof ({{lang-nl|Valkhofkapel}}) di [[Nijmegen]], salah satu bangunan tertua di Negeri Belanda]]
===Part ofBagian thedari HolyKekaisaran RomanRomawi Suci Empire===
Raja-raja dan kaisar-kaisar Jerman berdaulat atas Negeri Belanda pada abad ke-10 dan ke-11. Jerman disebut Kekaisaran Romawi Suci setelah [[Otto I, Kaisar Romawi Suci|Raja Otto Agung]] dinobatkan menjadi kaisar. Kota [[Nijmegen]] di Negeri Belanda pernah menjadi salah satu daerah penting bagi kaisar-kaisar Jerman. Sejumlah kaisar Jerman lahir dan wafat di Nijmegen, demikian pula [[Theophano|Teofanu]], Permaisuri Romawi Suci asal Romawi Timur. Utrecht juga merupakan salah satu kota sekaligus bandar niaga yang penting kala itu.
The German kings and emperors ruled the Netherlands in the 10th and 11th century. Germany was called the Holy Roman Empire after the coronation of [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|King Otto the Great]] as emperor. The Dutch city of [[Nijmegen]] used to be the spot of an important domain of the German emperors. Several German emperors were born and died there, including for example [[Byzantine]] empress [[Theophanu]], who died in Nijmegen. Utrecht was also an important city and trading port at the time.
=== Keterpecahan politik ===
===Political disunity===
Kekaisaran Romawi Suci tidak mampu mempertahankan kesatuan politiknya. Selain kian merdekanya kota-kota, para penguasa lokal mengubah kabupaten-kabupaten dan kadipaten-kadipaten mereka menjadi kerajaan-kerajaan partikelir dan hanya memiliki sedikit rasa wajib berbakti kepada kaisar yang memerintah sebagian besar wilayah kekaisaran secara atas-nama saja. Sebagian besar kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda diperintah Bupati Holland, Adipati [[Gelre]], Adipati Brabant, dan Uskup Utrecht. [[Friesland]] dan [[Groningen (provinsi)|Groningen]] di sebelah utara mempertahankan kemerdekaan mereka dan diperintah para menak yang lebih rendah tingkatannya.
[[File:Valkhofkapel.JPG|thumb|Chapel of St Nicholas ({{Interlanguage link multi|Sint-Nicolaaskapel|nl}} or Valkhofkapel) in [[Nijmegen]], one of the oldest buildings in the Netherlands.]]
Negara-negara feodal tersebut nyaris terus-menerus saling memerangi. [[Gelre]] dan Holland bertempur memperebutkan kekuasaan atas [[Utrecht (provinsi)|Utrecht]]. Utrecht, yang uskupnya memerintah setengah dari keseluruhan wilayah Negeri Belanda saat ini pada tahun 1000, kian terpinggirkan seiring kian sukarnya memilih uskup baru, sementara wangsa-wangsa penguasa negara-negara tetangga justru semakin kuat mengakar. [[Groningen (provinsi)|Groningen]], [[Drenthe]], dan sebagian besar Gelre, yang dulunya merupakan bagian dari Swapraja Utrecht, akhirnya merdeka. Brabant mencoba menaklukkan swapraja-swapraja tetangganya, tetapi tidak berhasil. Holland juga mengalami kegagalan ketika berusaha mendaulat Zeeland dan Friesland.
The Holy Roman Empire was not able to maintain political unity. In addition to the growing independence of the towns, local rulers turned their counties and duchies into private kingdoms and felt little sense of obligation to the emperor who reigned over large parts of the nation in name only. Large parts of what now comprise the Netherlands were governed by the Count of Holland, the Duke of [[Gelre]], the Duke of Brabant and the Bishop of Utrecht. [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] in the north maintained their independence and were governed by the lower nobility.
=== Orang Frisia ===
The various feudal states were in a state of almost continual war. [[Gelre]] and Holland fought for control of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. Utrecht, whose bishop had in 1000 ruled over half of what is today the Netherlands, was marginalised as it experienced continuing difficulty in electing new bishops. At the same time, the dynasties of neighbouring states were more stable. [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], [[Drenthe]] and most of Gelre, which used to be part of Utrecht, became independent. Brabant tried to conquer its neighbours, but was not successful. Holland also tried to assert itself in Zeeland and Friesland, but its attempts failed.
Masyarakat yang mula-mula mendiami daerah Holland adalah [[Frisia|orang Frisia]]. Kala itu, daerah yang jarang penduduknya tersebut dikenal dengan sebutan "Friesland Barat" ({{lang-nl|Westfriesland}}). Seiring pertambahan jumlah permukiman orang Franka, orang Frisia pun bermigrasi atau berbaur dengan masyarakat pendatang, dan daerah tersebut dengan cepat berubah menjadi daerah penutur [[bahasa Belanda Lama]]. Bagian dari daerah Holland Utara yang terletak di sebelah utara [[Alkmaar]] masih disebut Friesland Barat dalam percakapan sehari-hari.
Daerah [[Friesland]] di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda tetap merdeka pada kurun waktu ini. Friesland memiliki lembaga pemerintahan sendiri (yang secara kolektif disebut "[[Kemerdekaan Frisia]]") dan menolak pemberlakuan sistem feodal maupun tatanan kebangsawanan seperti yang ada di praja-praja Eropa lainnya. Orang Frisia memandang dirinya sebagai sekutu Swiss. Pekik perang orang Frisia adalah "lebih baik mati daripada membudak". Kemudian hari, orang Frisia kehilangan kemerdekaannya setelah dikalahkan pada tahun 1498 oleh tentara-tentara bayaran [[Landsknecht]] dari Jerman yang dikerahkan [[Albrecht III dari Sachsen|Adipati Saksen-Meißen, Albrecht III]].
===The Frisians===
The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the area that is now Holland were originally [[Frisia]]n. The sparsely populated area was known as "West Friesland" (''Westfriesland''). As Frankish settlement progressed, the Frisians migrated away or were absorbed and the area quickly became [[Old Dutch|Dutch]]. (The part of North Holland situated north of [[Alkmaar]] is still colloquially known as West Friesland).
=== Kebangkitan Holland ===
The rest of [[Friesland]] in the north continued to maintain its independence during this time. It had its own institutions (collectively called the "[[Frisian freedom]]") and resented the imposition of the feudal system and the patriciate found in other European towns. They regarded themselves as allies of Switzerland. The Frisian battle cry was "better dead than a slave". They later lost their independence when they were defeated in 1498 by the German [[Landsknecht]] mercenaries of [[Albert, Duke of Saxony|Duke Albrecht of Saxony-Meissen]].
[[Berkas:Rochussen Egmond.jpg|jmpl|[[Dirk VI dari Holland|Dirk VI, Bupati Holland]] (1114–1157) meninjau pekerjaan pembangunan [[Biara Egmond]] bersama ibunya, Petronella, lukisan karya Charles Rochussen, 1881. Karya seni ukir di dalam lukisan ini adalah [[commons:File:Egmond tympanum.jpg|Timpanum Egmond]], yang menampilkan sosok Dirk dan ibunya mengapit Santo Petrus.]]
[[Berkas:The Saint Elizabeth’s Day Flood by Master of the St Elizabeth Panels c1490-1495.jpg|jmpl|Lukisan peristiwa bencana [[Banjir Santa Elisabet (1421)|Banjir Santa Elisabet]] yang menggenangi daerah Grote Waard dari tanggal 18 sampai tanggal 19 November 1421]]
Pusat kekuasaan di kawasan yang kian merdeka ini adalah [[Graafschap Holland|Kabupaten Holland]]. Cikal bakal wilayah Kabupaten Holland adalah daerah [[Kennemerland]] (daerah sekitar [[Haarlem]] sekarang) yang dianugerahkan kaisar kepada pemimpin orang Dani, [[Rorik dari Dorestad|Rorik]], sebagai tanah pertuanan pada tahun 862. Di bawah kepemimpinan anak cucu Rorik, daerah ini mengalami pemekaran dan menjadi salah satu daerah penting di Negeri belanda. Pada tahun-tahun permulaan abad ke-11, [[Dirk III, Graaf Holland|Bupati Dirk III]] mengutip tol di [[estuari|muara]] Sungai Maas dan mampu membendung intervensi militer atasannya, Adipati Lotharingia Hilir.
===The rise of Holland===
[[File:Rochussen Egmond.jpg|thumb|left|[[Dirk VI, Count of Holland]], 1114–1157, and his mother Petronella visiting the work on the [[Egmond Abbey]], Charles Rochussen, 1881. The sculpture is the [[commons:File:Egmond tympanum.jpg|Egmond Tympanum]], depicting the two visitors on either side of Saint Peter.]]
[[File:Master of the St Elizabeth Panels 001.jpg|thumb|Two wings of an altar piece, c. 1500, depicting the [[St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)|St Elizabeth Flood]] of 18–19 November 1421, with Dordrecht at the front left.]]
Pada tahun 1083, nama "Holland" muncul untuk pertama kalinya dalam sebuah akta sebagai sebutan bagi daerah yang kurang lebih sama dengan wilayah provinsi Holland Selatan ditambah bagian selatan dari wilayah provinsi Holland Utara saat ini. Pamor Holland terus meningkat selama dua abad selanjutnya. [[Graaf Holland|Bupati Holland]] menaklukkan hampir seluruh daerah [[Zeeland]], tetapi orang Frisia di Friesland Barat (bagian utara dari wilayah provinsi Holland Utara sekarang ini) baru dapat ditundukkan pada tahun 1289 oleh Bupati [[Floris V]].
The center of power in these emerging independent territories was in the [[County of Holland]]. Originally granted as a fief to the Danish chieftain [[Rorik of Dorestad|Rorik]] in return for loyalty to the emperor in 862, the region of [[Kennemerland|Kennemara]] (the region around modern [[Haarlem]]) rapidly grew under Rorik's descendants in size and importance. By the early 11th century, [[Dirk III, Count of Holland]] was levying tolls on the Meuse estuary and was able to resist military intervention from his overlord, the Duke of Lower Lorraine.
=== Ekspansi dan pertumbuhan ===
In 1083, the name "Holland" first appears in a deed referring to a region corresponding more or less to the current province of South Holland and the southern half of what is now North Holland. Holland's influence continued to grow over the next two centuries. The [[counts of Holland]] conquered most of [[Zeeland]] but it was not until 1289 that Count [[Floris V]] was able to subjugate the Frisians in West Friesland (that is, the northern half of North Holland).
{{utama|Sejarah pusat-pusat kawasan perkotaan di Negeri Belanda}}
Sekitar tahun 1000 Masehi, terjadi perkembangan-perkembangan di bidang pertanian (kadang-kadang disebut revolusi pertanian) yang menghasilkan peningkatan produksi, terutama produksi pangan. Ekonomi mulai tumbuh dengan pesat, dan produktivitas yang tinggi memungkinkan petani untuk menggarap lebih banyak lahan atau menjadi pedagang.
Dari akhir kurun waktu penjajahan Romawi, sebagian besar kawasan barat Negeri Belanda tidak berpenghuni, sampai para petani dari [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] dan [[Utrecht]] mulai membeli tanah rawa-rawa di kawasan itu, mengeringkannya, dan menggarapnya sekitar tahun 1100. Proses tersebut berlangsung dengan cepat sehingga dalam beberapa generasi saja kawasan tersebut sudah ramai penghuninya. Mereka membuka lahan-lahan usaha tani mandiri yang bukan bagian dari desa-desa. Usaha tani semacam ini merupakan hal yang unik di Eropa kala itu.
===Expansion and growth===
{{Main article|History of urban centers in the Dutch Low Countries}}
[[Gilda|Serikat-serikat usaha]] terbentuk dan pasar-pasar tumbuh ramai karena hasil produksi sudah melebihi kebutuhan masyarakat setempat. Selain itu, pengenalan mata uang membuat urusan-urusan dagang menjadi lebih mudah ditangani daripada sebelumnya. Kota-kota yang sudah ada kian bertumbuh, dan kota-kota baru terbentuk di sekitar [[biara (tempat tinggal)|biara-biara]] dan [[kastel|puri-puri]]. Suatu golongan masyarakat kelas menengah yang menggeluti usaha dagang mulai terbentuk di kawasan-kawasan perkotaan ini. Usaha dagang dan pemekaran kota mengalami peningkatan seiring pertumbuhan populasi.
Around 1000 AD there were several agricultural developments (described sometimes as an agricultural revolution) that resulted in an increase in production, especially food production. The economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}
[[Perang Salib]] cukup populer di Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Banyak warganya yang ikut serta berjuang di [[Tanah Suci]], sementara Negeri-Negeri Rendah sendiri relatif damai. Aksi-aksi penjarahan orang Viking sudah terhenti. Baik Perang Salib maupun keadaan relatif damai di Negeri-Negeri Rendah merupakan faktor-faktor yang ikut memajukan perdagangan.
Much of the western Netherlands was barely inhabited between the end of the Roman period until around 1100 AD, when farmers from [[Flanders]] and [[Utrecht]] began purchasing the swampy land, draining it and cultivating it. This process happened quickly and the uninhabited territory was settled in a few generations. They built independent farms that were not part of villages, something unique in Europe at the time.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}
Kota-kota muncul dan berkembang, khususnya di [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] dan [[Kadipaten Brabant|Brabant]]. Seiring peningkatan kemakmuran dan keberdayaannya, kota-kota mulai membeli hak-hak istimewa tertentu dari [[monarki|penguasa]], antara lain [[Hak-hak kota di Negeri-Negeri Rendah|hak-hak kota]], yakni hak swatantra dan hak mengesahkan hukum sendiri. Pada praktiknya, ini berarti kota-kota termakmur menjadi republik-republik kuasi-independen atas usaha sendiri. Dua di antara kota-kota terpenting adalah [[Brugge]] dan [[Antwerpen]] (di [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]]), yang kemudian hari terbilang di antara kota-kota dan bandar-bandar terpenting di Eropa.
[[Guilds]] were established and markets developed as production exceeded local needs. Also, the introduction of currency made trading a much easier affair than it had been before. Existing towns grew and new towns sprang into existence around [[monasteries]] and [[castles]], and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas. Commerce and town development increased as the population grew.
=== Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw ===
The [[Crusade]]s were popular in the Low Countries and drew many to fight in the [[Holy Land]]. At home, there was relative peace. Viking pillaging had stopped. Both the Crusades and the relative peace at home contributed to trade and the growth in commerce.
{{utama|Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw}}
[[File:Jacoba van Beieren (1401-1436), gravin van Holland en Zeeland.jpg|thumb|[[Jacqueline dari Hainaut|Jacqueline, Gravin Henegouwen]], 1401–1436, tokoh yang dikenal orang Belanda dengan nama "Jacoba van Bayern".]]
[[Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw]] ({{lang-nl|Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten}}) adalah serangkaian perang dan pertempuran di [[Graafschap Holland|Kabupaten Holland]] yang berlangsung antara tahun 1350 sampai tahun 1490. Sebagian besar dari perang dan pertempuran tersebut berkaitan dengan perebutan gelar [[Graaf Holland|Bupati Holland]], tetapi sementara pihak berpendapat bahwa alasan hakikinya adalah perebutan kekuasaan antara kaum [[borjuis]] di kota-kota dan kaum menak yang memegang tampuk pemerintahan.
Anggota faksi Kabelyauw pada umumnya adalah kota-kota di [[Holland]] yang berhaluan progresif, sementara sebagian besar anggota Faksi Gancu adalah kaum menak yang berhaluan konservatif. Tokoh-tokoh utama dalam konflik multigenerasi ini antara lain [[Guillaume II dari Hainaut|Willem IV]] (Bupati Henegouwen merangkap Bupati Holland), [[Marguerite II dari Hainaut|Margaretha]] (Permaisuri Romawi Suci merangkap Gravin Holland), [[Guillaume V dari Hainaut|Willem V]] (Adipati Bayern merangkap Bupati Holland), [[Wilhelm II dari Bayern|Willem VI]] (Adipati Bayern-Straubing merangkap Bupati Holland), [[Johann III dari Bayern|Jan]] (Adipati Bayern-Straubing merangkap Bupati Holland), dan [[Philippe yang Baik|Filips Sang Budiman]] ([[Daftar Adipati Bourgogne|Adipati Burgundia]] merangkap Bupati Holland), tetapi mungkin yang paling terkenal adalah [[Jacqueline dari Hainaut|Jacoba]] (Gravin Henegouwen merangkap Gravin Holland).
Cities arose and flourished, especially in [[Flanders]] and [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]]. As the cities grew in wealth and power, they started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the [[monarch|sovereign]], including [[City rights in the Low Countries|city rights]], the right to self-government and the right to pass laws. In practice, this meant that the wealthiest cities became quasi-independent republics in their own right. Two of the most important cities were [[Brugge]] and [[Antwerp]] (in [[Flanders]]) which would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.
Pendaulatan Kabupaten Holland oleh Adipati Burgundia, [[Philippe yang Baik|Filips Sang Budiman]], merupakan urusan yang pelik. Para menak terkemuka di Holland mengundang sang adipati untuk mendaulat Holland, meskipun sang adipati tidak memiliki klaim bersejarah atas Holland. Menurut beberapa sejawaran, golongan yang berkuasa di Holland menghendaki agar daerah itu diintegrasikan ke dalam tatanan ekonomi [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] dan mengadopsi lembaga-lembaga hukum Vlaanderen. Ketika Eropa diguncang berbagai perang saudara pada abad ke-14 dan ke-15, Vlaanderen justru semakin sejahtera dan aman tenteram.
===Hook and Cod Wars===
{{Main article|Hook and Cod wars}}
[[File:Jacoba van Beieren (1401-1436), gravin van Holland en Zeeland.jpg|thumb|[[Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut]], 1401–1436, known to the Dutch as "Jacoba of Bavaria".]]
The [[Hook and Cod Wars]] ({{lang-nl|Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten}}) were a series of wars and battles in the [[County of Holland]] between 1350 and 1490. Most of these wars were fought over the title of [[count of Holland]], but some have argued that the underlying reason was because of the power struggle of the [[bourgeois]] in the cities against the ruling nobility.
== Zaman penjajahan Burgundia dan wangsa Habsburg Spanyol (1433–1567) ==
The Cod faction generally consisted of the more progressive cities of [[Holland]]. The Hook faction consisted for a large part of the conservative noblemen. Some of the main figures in this multi-generational conflict were [[William IV, Count of Holland|William IV]], [[Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut|Margaret]], [[William V, Count of Hainaut|William V]], [[William VI, Count of Holland|William VI, Count of Holland and Hainaut]], [[John, Duke of Bavaria-Straubing|John]] and [[Philip III, Duke of Burgundy|Philip the Good]], [[Duke of Burgundy]]. But perhaps the most well known is [[Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut]].
[[File:Political map of the Low Countries (1350)-NL.svg|thumb|Negeri-Negeri Rendah pada akhir abad ke-14]]
=== Zaman penjajahan Burgundia ===
The conquest of the county of Holland by the Duke [[Philip the Good]] of Burgundy was an odd affair. Leading noblemen in Holland invited the duke to conquer Holland, even though he had no historical claim to it. Some historians{{Who|date=February 2010}} say that the ruling class in Holland wanted Holland to integrate with the [[Flanders|Flemish]] economic system and adopt Flemish legal institutions. Europe had been wracked by many civil wars in the 14th and 15th centuries, while Flanders had grown rich and enjoyed peace.
{{utama|Negeri Belanda Burgundia}}
Sebagian besar dari kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negeri Belanda dan Belgia digabungkan ke dalam wilayah [[Kadipaten Burgundia]] pada tahun 1433. Sebelum penggabungan, orang Belanda mengidentifikasi diri sebagai warga kota, kadipaten, atau kabupaten tempat mereka berdiam, maupun sebagai kawula [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]]. Zaman penjajahan Burgundia adalah titik awal perjalanan orang Belanda menemukan jati diri sebagai sebuah bangsa.
Usaha dagang Holland mengalami perkembangan pesat, teristimewa di daerah-daerah pengapalan dan pengangkutan. Para penguasa baru memperjuangkan kepentingan-kepentingan dagang orang Belanda. Armada-armada Holland bahkan mampu beberapa kali mengalahkan armada-armada [[Liga Hansa]]. Pada abad ke-15, Amsterdam tumbuh menjadi bandar niaga utama untuk komoditas gandum dari kawasan Baltik. Amsterdam menyalurkan gandum ke kota-kota besar di Belgia, kawasan utara Prancis, dan Inggris. Usaha dagang komoditas gandum sangat penting bagi warga Holland, karena gandum yang dihasilkan Holland sudah tidak memadai untuk mencukupi kebutuhannya sendiri. Pengatusan tanah menyebabkan merosotnya permukaan bekas lahan-[[lahan basah]] sampai ke taraf yang tidak lagi memungkinkan diteruskannya pengatusan.
== Burgundian and Habsburg period (1433–1567) ==
[[File:Political map of the Low Countries (1350)-NL.svg|thumb|left|The Low Countries in the late 14th century CE.]]
=== Zaman penjajahan wangsa Habsburg Spanyol ===
===Burgundian period===
{{utama|Karl V, Kaisar Romawi Suci}}
{{Main article|Burgundian Netherlands}}
{{Multiple image
Most of what is now the Netherlands and Belgium was eventually united by the Duke of [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] in 1433. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in, their local duchy or county or as subjects of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Burgundian period is when the Dutch began the road to nationhood.
|total_width=300
|image1=Hadrian VI.jpg
Holland's trade developed rapidly, especially in the areas of shipping and transport. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests. The fleets of Holland defeated the fleets of the [[Hanseatic League]] several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital to the people of Holland, because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former [[wetland]]s to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.
|image2=Hans Holbein d. J. - Erasmus - Louvre.jpg
|footer=Kiri: Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, teolog berpengaruh asal [[Utrecht (kota)|Utrecht]] yang menjadi salah seorang penasihat Kaisar Karel V, dan kemudian hari terpilih menjadi [[Paus Adrianus VI|Paus Hadrianus VI]] (1522–1523).{{pb}}Kanan: [[Desiderius Erasmus]] (1466–1536), padri, teolog, sekaligus humanis Renaisans asal [[Rotterdam]], potret karya [[Hans Holbein Muda]], 1523.
}}
[[Karl V, Kaisar Romawi Suci|Kaisar Karel V]] (1500–1558) lahir dan besar di kota [[Gent]], [[Graafschap Vlaanderen|Kabupaten Vlaanderen]]. Ia fasih bertutur dalam bahasa Prancis. Karel menambah luas wilayah Kadipaten Burgundia dengan mendaulat [[Tournai]], Artois, [[Utrecht (provinsi)|Utrecht]], [[Groningen (provinsi)|Groningen]], dan [[Kadipaten Gelre|Gelre]]. [[Tujuh Belas Provinsi]] dahulu kala dipersatukan orang-orang besar Burgundia, leluhur Karel, tetapi secara nominal menjadi daerah-[[fief|daerah pertuanan]] Prancis atau [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]]. Selama Karel karel belum akil balig, tugas jabatannya diwakilkan kepada bibinya, [[Margarete dari Austria, Istri Adipati Savoia|Margaretha van Oostenrijk]] selaku pemangku sampai tahun 1515. Prancis melepaskan klaim lamanya atas Vlaanderen pada tahun 1528.<ref>{{cite book|author=James D. Tracy|title=Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXKMvr09dB4C&pg=PA258|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=258|isbn=9780521814317}}</ref>
===Habsburg rule from Spain===
{{Main article|Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor}}
[[File:Hadrian VI.jpg|thumb|Influential [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] theologian Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, 1459–1523, was an advisor to Charles; in the last year of his life he became pope as [[Pope Adrian VI]] (1522–23).]]
[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] (1500–58) was born and raised in the [[County of Flanders|Flemish]] city of [[Ghent]]; he spoke French. Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of [[Tournai]], Artois, [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]], [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] and [[Guelders]]. The [[Seventeen Provinces]] had been unified by Charles's Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were [[fief]]s of either France or the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. When he was a minor, his aunt [[Margaret of Austria (1480-1530)|Margaret]] acted as regent until 1515. France relinquished its ancient claim on [[Flanders]] in 1528.<ref>{{cite book|author=James D. Tracy|title=Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXKMvr09dB4C&pg=PA258|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=258|isbn=9780521814317}}</ref>
Dari tahun 1515 sampai 1523, pemerintahan Karel di Negeri Belanda dirongrong pemberontakan [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop|kaum tani Friesland]] (dipimpin [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] dan [[Wijard Jelckama]]). [[Gelre]] berusaha mendirikan negara sendiri di daerah yang mencakup kawasan timur laut Negeri Belanda dan kawasan barat daya Jerman. Akibat kekurangan dana pada abad ke-16, para prajurit Gelre harus mengisi sendiri pundi-pundinya dengan cara menyerbu dan menjarah daerah lawan. Prajurit-prajurit Gelre menjadi ancaman besar bagi Negeri Belanda Burgundia ketika mereka menyerbu [[Den Haag]].
[[File:Hans Holbein d. J. - Erasmus - Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|[[Desiderius Erasmus]], 1466–1536, [[Rotterdam]] Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest and theologian, by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], 1523.]]
From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands had to contend with the rebellion of [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop|Frisian peasants]] (led by [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] and [[Wijard Jelckama]]). [[Gelre]] attempted to build up its own state in northeast Netherlands and northwest Germany. Lacking funds in the 16th century, Gelre had its soldiers provide for themselves by pillaging enemy terrain. These soldiers were a great menace to the Burgundian Netherlands, as when they pillaged [[The Hague]].
TheDari dukestahun ofke Burgundytahun overpara theAdipati yearsBurgundia throughmengambil astutealih marriages,kekuasaan purchasesatas and[[Tujuh wars,Belas hadProvinsi]] takenpembentuk controlkawasan ofNegeri-Negeri theRendah [[Seventeenbaik Provinces]]melalui perkawinan thatberpamrih, madepembelian uptanah, themaupun Lowlewat Countriesperang. TheyProvinsi-provinsi aretersebut nowkini themenjadi Netherlandswilayah in theNegeri northBelanda, the [[SouthernBelanda NetherlandsSelatan|Negeri Belanda Selatan]] (nowsekarang Belgium[[Belgia]]) in the south, anddan LuxemburgLuksemburg. inNegeri-negeri theyang southeast.dikenal Knowndengan as thesebutan "BurgundianLingkungan Circle,Burgundia" theseini landsakhirnya camedikuasai under the control of thekeluarga Habsburg family. [[CharlesKarl V, HolyKaisar RomanRomawi EmperorSuci|CharlesKarel]] (1500–581500–1558) becamemenjadi thepenguasa ownerNegeri-Negeri inRendah pada tahun 1506,. butPada intahun 1515, heKarel leftdinobatkan tomenjadi becomeRaja kingSpanyol ofkemudian Spaindinobatkan andpula latermenjadi becameKaisar theRomawi HolySuci. RomanKekuasaannya Emperor.atas CharlesNegeri-Negeri turnedRendah overia controlwakilkan tokepada regentspara raja muda (hismasih closeterhitung relativeskerabat dekatnya), andsehingga inpemerintahan practiceNegeri-Negeri ruleRendah waspraktis exerciseddiselenggarakan byorang-orang SpaniardsSpanyol heyang controlleddapat ia kendalikan sepenuhnya. TheSetiap provincesprovinsi eachmemiliki hadlembaga theirpemerintahan owndan governmentsmahkamah andistana courtsmasing-masing, controlledyang bydidominasi thekaum localmenak nobilitysetempat. Selain itu, andtiap-tiap theirprovinsi ownmengamalkan traditionstradisi andsendiri rightsdan memiliki hak-hak istimewa ("libertieskebebasan") datingsendiri backyang centuries.sudah Likewiseberabad-abad theusianya. numerousBanyak citieskota hadmemiliki theirhak-hak ownsah legaldan rightspemerintahan and locallokal governmentssendiri, usuallyyang controlledbiasanya bydikendalikan thepara merchants,saudagar. OnDi topatas ofsemuanya thisitu, thebangsa SpanishSpanyol hadmemaksakan imposedsuatu anbadan overallpemerintahan governmentmenyeluruh, theyakni Estates[[Dewan GeneralNegara ofBelanda]], thelengkap Netherlands,dengan withpejabat-pejabat itsdan ownmahkamah officials andistana courtssendiri.<ref>H.G. Koenigsberger, "The Beginnings of the States General of the Netherlands," ''Parliaments, Estates and Representation'' (1988) 8#2 pphlmn. 101–14101–114.</ref> Para Thepejabat SpanishSpanyol officialsyang sentdiutus byKaisar CharlesKarel ignoredmengabaikan traditionstradisi anddan thekaum Dutchmenak nobilityBelanda asmaupun wellpejabat-pejabat aslokal localsehingga officials,menumbuhkan incitingrasa annasionalisme anti-SpanishSpanyol senseyang ofkemudian nationalism,hari andmengobarkan leading[[Pemberontakan toBelanda|pemberontakan the [[Dutchrakyat RevoltBelanda]]. WithKetika thegerakan emergenceReformasi ofProtestan themeletus Protestantdi ReformationNegeri Belanda, Charles—nowKarel the(saat Emperor—wasitu determinedsudah tomenjadi crushKaisar ProtestantismRomawi andSuci) bertekad nevermemberantas compromiseajaran withProtestan ittanpa kompromi. UnrestKerusuhan beganbermula indi thekawasan southselatan, centeredberpusat indi themetropolis largeAntwerpen richyang metropolismakmur. ofNegeri Antwerp.Belanda Theketika Netherlandsitu wasmerupakan andaerah especiallyyang richkaya unitdi ofdalam thewilayah kedaulatan Spanishnegara realmSpanyol, especiallykhususnya aftersesudah thepenandatanganan [[TreatyPerang ofItalia 1551–59|Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis]] oftahun 1559;, ityang endedmenuntaskan fourperang decadesPrancis-Spanyol ofyang warfaresudah betweenberlangsung Franceselama andempat Spaindasawarsa, anddan allowedmemungkinkan SpainSpanyol tountuk repositionmereposisi itsangkatan armybersenjatanya.<ref name="Albert Guerard 1959 pphlm. 134">Albert Guerard, ''France, A Modern History'', (1959), pphlmn. 134–36134–136.</ref>
InDengan 1548,menandatangani CharlesPerjanjian grantedBurgundia thetahun Netherlands1548, statusyang asdijuluki an"Transaksi entityAugsburg", inKarel whichmengesahkan manystatus ofNegeri theBelanda lawssebagai ofsebuah theentitas Holytempat Romanbanyak Empireundang-undang becameKekaisaran obsolete.Romawi TheSuci "Transactiontidak of Augsburgberlaku."<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin van Gelderen|title=The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt 1555-1590|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXK2fxzn2lAC&pg=PA18|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=18|isbn=9780521891639}}</ref> createdBerdasarkan thePerjanjian Burgundianini, Circleterbentuklah ofLingkungan theBurgundia Holydi Romandalam EmpireKekaisaran Romawi Suci, whichyang comprisedterdiri theatas Negeri NetherlandsBelanda anddan Franche-Comté. ASetahun yearkemudian, laterKarel themenerbitkan [[PragmaticSanksi SanctionPragmatik oftahun 1549]] statedyang thatmenetapkan thebahwa SeventeenTujuh ProvincesBelas couldProvinsi onlyhanya bedapat passeddiwarisi onpara toahli hiswarisnya heirssebagai assatu aentitas compositeyang entityutuh.<ref name="Kamen">{{cite book
| last = Kamen
| first = Henry
| deadurl = yes
| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329032322/http://www.pearsoned.co.uk/
| archivedate = 29 MarchMaret 2017
| df = dmy-all
}}</ref>
===The ReformationReformasi Protestan ===
[[File:Statenvertaling title page.jpg|thumb|right|TitleHalaman page of the 1637judul [[Statenvertaling]] tahun 1637, theAlkitab firstbahasa BibleBelanda translatedpertama fromyang thediterjemahkan originalsecara Hebrewlangsung anddari Greekbahasa intoIbrani Dutch,dan commissionedYunani bysesuai the Calvinistamanat [[Synod ofSinode DortDordrecht]], useddan wellterus intodigunakan thesampai 20thabad centuryke-20.]]
During[[Reformasi theProtestan]] 16thdengan century,cepat theberakar [[Protestantdi Reformation]]kawasan rapidlyutara gainedEropa groundpada inabad northern Europeke-16, especiallyteristimewa in itsbentuk [[Lutheran]] anddan [[CalvinistCalvinisme|Kalvinis]] formsnya.<ref>R. Po-chia Hsia, ed(penyunting). ''A Companion to the Reformation World'' (2006) pphlmn. 118–34118–134</ref> Meskipun Dutchmula-mula ditindas, [[ProtestantsProtestanisme|umat Kristen Protestan]], afterBelanda initial repression,akhirnya wereditoleransi toleratedpara bypenguasa local authoritieslokal. ByPada thetahun-tahun 1560sera 1560-an, thekomunitas ProtestantProtestan communitysudah hadsangat becomeberpengaruh adi significantNegeri influence in the NetherlandsBelanda, although it clearlysekalipun formedmasih amerupakan minoritykelompok thenminoritas.<ref>Jonathan I. Israel, ''The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806'' (1995) phlm. 104</ref> InDi adalam societymasyarakat dependentyang onmenggantungkan tradehidup pada usaha dagang, freedomkebebasan anddan tolerancetoleransi weredianggap consideredsangat essentialpenting. NeverthelessMeskipun demikian, thepara Catholicpenguasa rulersNegeri CharlesBelanda yang beragama Kristen Katolik, yakni Kaisar Karel V, anddan laterkemudian hari [[PhilipFelipe II ofdari SpainSpanyol|PhilipRaja Filips II]], mademerasa itwajib theirmemberantas missionajaran toProtestan, defeatyang Protestantism,merupakan whichsalah wassatu considered[[ajaran asesat|bidah]] heresydalam bypandangan theGereja CatholicKatolik, Churchsekaligus andsuatu aancaman threatterhadap tostabilitas thekeseluruhan stabilitysistem ofpolitik thehierarkis. wholeDi hierarchicallain politicalpihak, system.umat OnKristen theProtestan otherBelanda hand,yang thesangat intenselymengutamakan moralisticmoralitas Dutchtetap Protestantsberpegang insistedteguh theirpada Biblicalteologi theology,Alkitabiah sinceremereka. pietyKesalehan andyang humbletulus lifestyleikhlas wasdan morallyhidup superiorbersahaja todianggap thelebih luxuriousmulia habitssecara andmoral superficialdaripada religiositykebiasaan ofbermewah-mewahan dan beragama thesecara lahiriah yang jamak di kalangan ecclesiasticalmenak nobilitygerejawi.<ref>Hsia, ed(penyunting). ''A Companion to the Reformation World'' (2006) pphlmn. 3–36</ref> Hukuman-hukuman Theberat rulers'yang harshdigunakan punitivepara measurespenguasa leduntuk tomemberantas increasingajaran grievancesProtestan inmenjadi thepenyebab Netherlandsdari meningkatnya kekesalan rakyat di Negeri Belanda, wherepadahal thepemerintah-pemerintah locallokal governmentsdi hadNegeri embarkedBelanda onsudah amemutuskan courseuntuk ofmenerapkan peacefulkebijakan coexistencehidup berdampingan secara damai. InPada thekurun secondwaktu halfseperdua ofakhir thedari centuryabad ke-16, thesituasi situationberubah escalatedgenting. PhilipRaja sentFilips troopsII tomengerahkan crushpasukan thedemi rebellionpasukan anduntuk make thememadamkan Netherlandspemberontakan oncedan moremengkatolikkan akembali CatholicNegeri regionBelanda.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806'' (1995) phlm. 155</ref>
InSaat theberlangsungnya firstReformasi waveProtestan ofgelombang the Reformationpertama, [[LutheranismLutheranisme|ajaran Lutheran]] wonsempat overmemikat thekalangan eliteselit indi AntwerpAntwerpen anddan thekawasan South.selatan, tetapi Theajaran Spanishini successfullyakhirnya suppresseddiberantas itSpanyol there,sehingga andhanya Lutheranismberkembang onlydi flourished in east[[Friesland Timur|Oost-Friesland]].<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) pphlmn. 374–75374–375</ref>
TheGerakan secondReformasi waveProtestan ofgelombang thekedua Reformation,muncul camedalam in the form ofbentuk [[AnabaptismAnabaptisme|ajaran Anabaptis]], thatyang waspopuler populardi amongkalangan ordinarypetani farmersjelata indi [[Holland]] anddan [[Friesland]]. AnabaptistsKaum wereAnabaptis sociallysecara verysosial radicalsangat andradikal equalitarian;dan theymenjunjung believedtinggi thatkesetaraan thederajat, apocalypseserta waspercaya verybahwa nearhari kiamat sudah sangat dekat. TheyMereka refusedmenolak totatanan livekehidupan theyang old waylama, anddan beganmembentuk newkomunitas-komunitas communitiesbaru, creatingsehingga lumayan considerablemenimbulkan chaoskekacauan. ASalah prominentseorang Dutchtokoh Anabaptis Belanda yang Anabaptistterkemuka wasadalah [[Menno Simons]], who initiated theperintis [[Mennonite|Mennonitegereja churchMenonit]]. TheGerakan movementini wasdiberi allowedkeleluasaan indi thekawasan northutara, buttetapi nevertidak grewkunjung toberkembang adalam largeskala scalebesar.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) pphlmn. 86–91</ref>
TheReformasi thirdProtestan wavegelombang of the Reformationketiga, thatyang ultimatelypada provedakhirnya toterbukti beberdampak permanentpermanen, wasadalah [[CalvinismCalvinisme|Kalvinisme]]. ItAjaran arrivedKalvinis intiba thedi NetherlandsNegeri inBelanda thepada 1540stahun-tahun era 1540-an, attractingdan bothberhasil thememikat elitekalangan andelit themaupun commonmasyarakat populationumum, especiallykhususnya indi [[FlandersFlandria|Vlaanderen]]. TheSpanyol Catholicmenanggapi Spanishperkembangan respondedini withdengan harshmelancarkan persecutionpersekusi anddan introducedmembentuk thelembaga [[Inquisitioninkuisisi ofdi theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda]]. CalvinistsKaum rebelled.Kalvinis Firstmemberontak, theremula-mula wasdalam thebentuk aski [[Beeldenstorm|iconoclasmikonoklasme]] inpada tahun 1566, whichyakni wasperusakan thesistematis systematicterhadap destructionarca-arca oforang statueskudus ofdan saintscitra-citra andagamawi otherKatolik Catholiclainnya devotionaldi depictions in churchesgereja-gereja. InPada tahun 1566, [[William theSang SilentPendiam|Willem van Oranje]], aseorang CalvinistKalvinis, started themengobarkan [[EightyPerang Years'Delapan WarPuluh Tahun]] todemi liberatememerdekakan allseluruh Dutchrakyat ofBelanda whatevertanpa religionpandang fromagama Catholicdari Spainpenjajahan Spanyol. BlumMenurut saysJerome Blum, "His patiencekesabaran, tolerancetoleransi, determinationkebulatan tekad, concerndan keprihatinannya forterhadap hisnasib peoplebangsanya, andserta beliefkeyakinannya inakan governmentpemerintahan byyang consentberasaskan heldmufakat therakyat Dutchmampu togethermempersatukan andrakyat keptBelanda alivedan theirmenjaga spiritsemangat ofjuang revoltmereka terus berkobar."<ref>Jerome Blum et aldkk., ''The European World: A History'' (1970) pphlmn. 160-61161</ref> The provinces ofProvinsi [[Holland]] anddan Provinsi [[Zeeland]], beingyang mainlymayoritas Calvinistmenjadi byKalvinis pada tahun 1572, submittedtunduk todi thebawah rulekepemimpinan of WilliamWillem. The other statesSwapraja-swapraja remainedselebihnya almosttetap entirelymayoritas CatholicKatolik.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) pphlmn. 361–95361–395</ref><ref>Diarmaid MacCulloch, ''The Reformation'' (2005) pphlmn. 367–72367–372</ref>
=== Menjelang perang kemerdekaan ===
===Prelude to war===
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2/1|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| title =
| image1 = Isaac Claesz. van Swanenburg - The Removal of the Wool from the Skins and the Combing - WGA21986.jpg|caption1=1595Para paintingkaryawan bytekstil di [[Isaac van SwanenburgLeiden]], illustratinglukisan karya [[LeidenIsaac van Swanenburg]], textile workers1595.
| image2 = Adriaen Thomasz. Key - William I, Prince of Orange, called William the Silent, - WGA12160WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg|caption2=WilliamWillem van IOranje, Princeyang of Orange, calleddijuluki [[William theSang Pendiam|Willem Si SilentPendiam]].
| image3 = The Low Countries.png|caption3=LowNegeri-Negeri countriesRendah 1559-1609.
}}
TheNegeri NetherlandsBelanda wasadalah adaerah valuableyang partbernilai oftinggi thedi Spanishdalam Empirewilayah Kekaisaran Spanyol, especiallykhususnya aftersesudah thepenandatanganan TreatyPerjanjian ofDamai Cateau-Cambresis oftahun 1559. Perjanjian Thisini treatymengakhiri endedkurun awaktu forty-yearempat periodpuluh oftahun warfarepeperangan betweenantara FrancePrancis anddan SpainSpanyol conductedyang inberlangsung Italydi fromItalia dari tahun 1521 tosampai 1559.<ref name="Albert Guerard 1959 pphlm. 134"/> Perjanjian The Treaty ofDamai Cateau-Cambresis wasmerupakan somewhatsemacam oftitik abalik watershed—notsejarah, onlybukan forsaja thedi battlegroundItalia thatselaku Italymedan had beenperang, butmelainkan juga alsodi forkawasan northernutara EuropeEropa. SpainSpanyol hadsudah beenmenyiagakan keepingpasukan-pasukannya troopsdi inNegeri theBelanda Netherlandssebagai to be ready to attack France fromancang-ancang theuntuk northmenyerang asPrancis welldari asutara fromsekaligus thedari southselatan.
Dengan tuntasnya berbagai masalah besar di antara Prancis dan Spanyol dengan penandatanganan Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis, tidak ada lagi alasan bagi Spanyol untuk mempertahankan keberadaan pasukan-pasukannya di Negeri Belanda. Dengan demikian, masyarakat di Negeri Belanda dapat kembali melanjutkan kegiatan-kegiatan yang lazimnya mereka lakukan pada masa damai. Ketika itulah mereka mengetahui bahwa ada banyak sekali permintaan pasar atas barang-barang jualan mereka. Usaha penangkapan ikan sudah lama menjadi bagian penting dari ekonomi Negeri Belanda. Meskipun demikian, kini usaha penangkapan [[haring|ikan haring]] saja sudah melibatkan 2.000 perahu yang berpangkalan di berbagai pelabuhan Negeri Belanda. Spanyol, yang masih menjadi pelanggan utama para usahawan Belanda, membeli berbagai perabot dan perkakas rumah tangga yang diangkut dengan 50 kapal besar dari saudagar-saudagar Vlaanderen. Selain itu, barang-barang wol buatan Belanda sangat disukai di mana-mana. Negeri Belanda memborong cukup banyak wol dari Spanyol, yang kemudian diolah menjadi barang-barang wol senilai 4 juta florin yang dijual saudagar-saudagar Brugge. Besarnya kebutuhan wol mentah ketika itu membuat para usahawan Belanda memborong pula wol dari Inggris hampir sebanyak jumlah wol yang diborong dari Spanyol. Tolai nilai perdagangan dengan Inggris saja sudah mencapai 24 juta florin. Sebagian besar dari kegiatan ekspor ke Inggris mendatangkan laba bersih bagi para usahawan Belanda karena barang-barang yang diekspor adalah buatan mereka sendiri. Negeri Belanda sudah sampai ke depan pintu gerbang ''Zaman Keemasan''-nya. Brabant dan Vlaanderen adalah daerah-daerah terkaya dan termaju di Republik Belanda ketika itu.<ref name="Claflin">Claflin, W. Harold, (penyunting). ''History of Nations: Holland and Belgium'', (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1907), hlmn. 72–74, 103–105</ref> Negeri Belanda merupakan salah satu negeri terkaya di muka bumi, dengan jumlah populasi yang mencapai 3 juta jiwa pada tahun 1560. Negeri belanda menjadi negeri dengan kawasan perkotaan terbesar di daratan Eropa, karena memiliki 25 kota besar yang dihuni 10.000 warga atau lebih, teristimewa Antwerpen, pusat usaha dagang dan keuangan, dengan populasi mencapai 100.000 jiwa. Spanyol tidak ingin negeri yang kaya ini lepas dari cengkeramannya, dan enggan membiarkannya lepas dari kendali Gereja Katolik. Inilah pangkal dari perang yang berkecamuk selama delapan puluh tahun.
With the settlement of so many major issues between France and Spain by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, there was no longer any reason to keep Spanish troops in the Netherlands. Thus, the people of the Netherlands could get on with their peacetime pursuits. As they did so they found that there was a great deal of demand for their products. Fishing had long been an important part of the economy of the Netherlands. However, now the fishing of herring alone came to occupy 2,000 boats operating out of Dutch ports. Spain, still the Dutch trader's best customer, was buying fifty large ships full of furniture and household utensils from Flanders merchants. Additionally, Dutch woolen goods were desired everywhere. The Netherlands bought and processed enough Spanish wool to sell four million florins of wool products through merchants in Bruges. So strong was the Dutch appetite for raw wool at this time that they bought nearly as much English wool as they did Spanish wool. Total commerce with England alone amounted to 24 million florins. Much of the export going to England resulted in pure profit to the Dutch because the exported items were of their own manufacture. The Netherlands was just starting to enter its "Golden Age." Brabant and Flanders were the richest and most flourishing parts of the Dutch Republic at the time.<ref name="Claflin">Claflin, W. Harold, ed. ''History of Nations: Holland and Belgium'', (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1907), pp. 72–74, 103–05</ref> The Netherlands was one of the richest places in the world. The population reached 3 million in 1560, with 25 cities of 10,000 people or more, by far the largest urban presence in Europe; with the trading and financial center of Antwerp being especially important (population 100,000). Spain could not afford to lose this rich land, nor allow it to fall from Catholic control. Thus came 80 years of warfare.
ASelaku devoutseorang Catholicpemeluk agama Kristen Katolik yang taat, PhilipRaja wasFilips appalledbenar-benar bygusar themelihat successkeberhasilan of thegerakan [[ProtestantReformasi Reformation|ReformationProtestan]] in thedi [[LowNegara-negara dataran Countriesrendah|Negeri-Negeri Rendah]], whichyang hadmemicu ledpertambahan to an increasing number ofjumlah [[CalvinismCalvinisme|Calvinistsumat Kalvinis]]. HisUpaya attemptspaksanya tountuk enforcemenindas religiousumat persecutionProtestan, ofmenyentralisasi the Protestantspemerintahan, andmenegakkan his centralization of governmenthukum, law enforcement,dan andmengutip taxespajak, mademembuat himrakyat unpopularmembencinya anddan led to amengobarkan [[revoltpemberontakan]]. [[Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, DukeAdipati ofAlba Albake-3]], wasdiutus sentbersama withsepasukan atentara SpanishSpanyol Armyuntuk tomenghukum punishorang-orang theBelanda unrulypembangkang Dutchpada intahun 1567.<ref name="Motley">John Lathrop Motley, ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic'' (Harper & Bros.: New York, 1855) pphlmn. 106–15106–115, 121, 122, 207, 213</ref>
TheSatu-satunya onlypihak oppositionyang themembendung Dukesepak ofterjang Adipati Alba faceddi inNegeri hisBelanda marchadalah acrosspara themenak Netherlands were the nobles,seperti [[Lamoral,Lamoraal Countdari ofEgmont|Lamoraal van Egmont]];, [[Philippe de Montmorency, Count ofGraaf Horn|Filips van Horne]], anddan otherslain-lain. WithSaat thepergerakan approachpasukan ofAdipati Alba andsemakin the Spanish armydekat, [[William theSang Pendiam|Willem Si SilentPendiam]] ofmengungsi Orangebersama fledseluruh tokeluarga Germanydan withketiga hissaudaranya threeke brothersJerman andpada his whole family ontanggal 11 April 1567. The Duke ofAdipati Alba soughtmengundang tokaum meetmenak andyang negotiatemengadang withpergerakan thepasukannya noblesuntuk thatbertatap nowmuka faceddan himberunding. withBegitu armies.tiba di HoweverBrussels, whenmereka thesemua noblesditahan, arrivedsementara inLamoraal Brusselsvan theyEgmont weredan allFilips arrestedvan and Egmont and HornHorne weredihukum executedmati.<ref name="Motley"/> Adipati Alba thenselanjutnya revokedmembatalkan allsemua thepenjanjian prioryang treatiespernah thatdisepakati [[Margaret dari Parma|Margarita, theIstri [[Duchess ofAdipati Parma]], haddengan signedumat withProtestan theNegeri ProtestantsBelanda, ofserta themembentuk Netherlandslembaga andinkuisisi instituteduntuk thememberlakukan Inquisition to enforce the decrees of thekeputusan-keputusan [[Council ofKonsili TrentTrente]].
==The EightyPerang Years'Delapan WarPuluh Tahun (1568–1648) ==
{{utama|Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun|Pemberontakan Belanda}}
{{Main article|Eighty Years' War|Dutch Revolt}}
[[File:Slag bij Nieuwpoort.jpg|thumb|[[Maurice ofdari Nassau, Prince of Orange|PrincePangeran Maurits]] at thedalam [[Battle ofPertempuran Nieuwpoort]], tahun 1600 CE, bylukisan karya Paulus van Hillegaert.]]
[[File:Leo belgicus.png|thumb|[[Leo Belgicus]], apeta map[[Negara-negara ofDataran theRendah|Negeri-Negeri [[low countriesRendah]] drawnyang indigambar thesedemikian shaperupa ofsehingga amenyerupai lionseekor singa, bykarya [[Claes Jansz. Visscher]] (II), tahun 1609 CE.]]
ThePerang Dutchkemerdekaan WarBelanda fordari Independencepenjajahan fromSpanyol Spainkerap is frequently called thedisebut [[EightyPerang Years'Delapan WarPuluh Tahun]] (1568–1648). Lima The firstpuluh fiftytahun yearspertama (15681568–1618) throughadalah 1618)kurun werewaktu uniquelykonflik ayang warmurni betweenmelibatkan SpainSpanyol anddan theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda. Selama Duringtiga thepuluh lasttahun thirty yearsberikutnya (1618–1648), thekonflik conflictantara betweenSpanyol Spaindan andNegeri theBelanda Netherlandsmenyatu wasdengan submergedperang inbesar thedi generalEropa Europeanyang Warkemudian thathari became known as thedisebut [[ThirtyPerang Years'Tiga WarPuluh Tahun]].<ref>Geoffrey Parker, ed.(penyunting), ''The Thirty Years' War'', New York: Routledge Press, 1987, phlm. 2.</ref> Ketujuh Theprovinsi sevendi rebelliousNegeri provincesBelanda ofyang thememberontak Netherlandspada wereakhirnya eventuallymenyepakati unitedperjanjian by thepersatuan [[Union ofUni Utrecht]] intahun 1579 anddan formedmendirikan thenegara [[RepublicRepublik ofBelanda|Republik theSerikat SevenTujuh UnitedNegeri NetherlandsBelanda]] (alsoatau knownPerserikatan as the "United Provinces"Provinsi-Provinsi). The [[ActPlakkaat ofvan AbjurationVerlatinghe|Undang-Undang Pemisahan Diri]] or ''({{lang-nl|Plakkaat van Verlatinghe''}}) wasdisahkan signedpada ontanggal 26 JulyJuli 1581, anddan was the formalmerupakan [[declarationdeklarasi of independencekemerdekaan]] ofresmi theNegeri-Negeri northern [[Low Countries]]Rendah fromdari thekekuasaan SpanishRaja kingSpanyol.
[[WilliamWillem thevan Silent|William of Orange]]Oranje (Slot Dillenburg, 24 April 1533 – Delft, 10 JulyJuli 1584), thecikal founderbakal ofkeluarga theKerajaan Dutch royal familyBelanda, ledmemimpin theorang DutchBelanda duringdalam thebagian firstpertama partPerang ofDelapan thePuluh war,Tahun followingsesudah theEgmont deathdan ofHorn Egmontwafat andpada Horn intahun 1568. ThePada verytahun-tahun firstpermulaan yearsperang, wereangkatan aperang successSpanyol forberada thedi Spanish troops.atas Howeverangin, thetetapi Dutchorang counteredBelanda subsequentakhirnya siegesmampu inmematahkan aksi-aksi pengepungan Spanyol di [[Holland]]. InPada bulan November anddan DecemberDesember 1572, allseluruh the citizens ofwarga [[Zutphen]] anddan [[Naarden]] weretewas slaughtereddibantai by the SpanishSpanyol. From 11 December that year the city ofKota [[Haarlem]] wasdikepung besieged,mulai holdingtanggal out11 forDesember seven1572 monthssampai untiltanggal 13 JulyJuli 1573. [[Oudewater]] wasditundukkan conqueredSpanyol bypada the Spanish ontanggal 7 AugustAgustus 1575, and mostdan ofsebagian itsbesar inhabitantswarganya weretewas killedterbunuh. [[Maastricht]] wasdikepung, besiegeddijarah, sackeddan anddihancukan destroyedSpanyol twicedua inkali successionberturut-turut (inpada tahun 1576 anddan 1579)pada bytahun the Spanish1579).
InDi adalam warperang composedyang mostlylebih ofbanyak melibatkan aksi siegespengepungan ratherdaripada thanpertempuran battlesini, [[AlexanderAlessandro Farnese, Prince ofAdipati Parma|Governor-GeneralGubernur AlexanderJenderal Alessandro Farnese]] provedmembuktikan his mettleketangguhannya. HisStrateginya strategyadalah wasmenjanjikan tokeringanan-keringanan offerkepada generouskota termsyang forbersedia themenyerah, surrenderyakni oftidak aakan city:ada therelagi wouldpembantaian bedan nopenjarahan, morehak-hak massacresistimewa orkota looting;tidak historicakan urbandihapuskan, privilegespengampunan weredan retained;amnesti therepenuh wasakan adiberikan, fulldan pardonwarga andakan amnesty;diizinkan returnuntuk tokembali theke CatholicGereja ChurchKatolik wouldsecara be gradualperlahan-lahan. TheUmat conservativeKatolik Catholicskonservatif indi thekawasan southselatan anddan easttimur supportedNegeri theBelanda mendukung SpanishSpanyol. Farnese recapturedberhasil merebut kembali [[AntwerpAntwerpen]] anddan nearlyhampir allsemua ofdaerah whatyang becamesekarang Belgiummenjadi bagian dari wilayah negara Belgia.<ref>Violet Soen, "Reconquista and Reconciliation in the Dutch Revolt: The Campaign of Governor-General Alexander Farnese (1578-1592)," ''[[Journal of Early Modern History]]'' (2012) 16#1 pphlmn. 1–22.</ref> MostSebagian ofbesar thedaerah Dutch-speakingpenutur territorybahasa inBelanda thedi NetherlandsNegeri wasBelanda takendisebut fromdari SpainSpanyol, butkecuali not indaerah [[FlandersFlandria|Vlaanderen]], whichyang tosampai thissekarang daymenjadi remainsbagian partdari ofwilayah Belgiumnegara Belgia. FlandersVlaanderen wasadalah thedaerah mostyang radicalsangat anti-Spanish territorySpanyol. ManyBanyak Flemishorang fledVlaam tomengungsi ke Holland, amongtermasuk themsetengah halfpopulasi of the population of AntwerpAntwerpen, 3/4 ofpopulasi BrugesBrugge anddan GhentGent, andserta theseluruh entire population ofpopulasi Nieuwpoort, DunkerqueDuinkerke, anddan desa-desa di countrysideVlaanderen.<ref>Bart de Groof, "Alexander Farnese and the Origins of Modern Belgium," ''Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Belge de Rome'' (1993) VolJld. 63, pphlmn. 195–219.</ref> Keberhasilan HisAlessandro successfulFarnese campaignmembuat gaveumat theKatolik Catholicsmenguasai controlparuhan ofselatan thedari lowerkawasan halfNegeri-Negeri of the Low CountriesRendah, anddan wasmerupakan partbagian ofdari thegerakan [[Counter-Reformation|CatholicKontra Counter-ReformationReformasi]].
Perang berlarut-larut sampai setengah abad lagi, tetapi pertarungan utama sudah usai. [[Perdamaian Westfalen|Perjanjian Damai Westfalen]], yang ditandatangani pada tahun 1648, mengukuhkan kemerdekaan Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi dari penjajahan Spanyol. Orang Belanda mulai mengembangkan jati diri bangsa sejak abad ke-15, tetapi secara resmi masih menjadi bagian dari [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] sampai tahun 1648. Jati diri bangsa lebih banyak dibentuk oleh provinsi, dan Holland merupakan provinsi yang terpenting ketika itu. Inilah sebabnya Republik Tujuh Provinsi akhirnya dikenal di seluruh Eropa dengan nama ''Holland''.
The war dragged on for another half century, but the main fighting was over. The [[Peace of Westphalia]], signed in 1648, confirmed the independence of the United Provinces from Spain. The Dutch people started to develop a national identity since the 15th century, but they officially remained a part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] until 1648. National identity was mainly formed by the province people came from. Holland was the most important province by far. The republic of the Seven Provinces came to be known as '''Holland''' across Europe.
TheUmat CatholicsKatolik indi theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda wereadalah anwarga outlawedminoritas minorityyang thatdipinggirkan haddan beenditindas suppressedumat byKalvinis. theMeskipun Calvinists.demikian, selepas Aftertahun 1572, however,umat theyKatolik madesecara amencolok strikingkembali comebacktampil mengemuka (alsojuga assebagai partbagian ofdari thegerakan CatholicKontra Counter-ReformationReformasi), settingmendirikan up seminariesseminari-seminari, reformingmemperbaharui theirGereja Churchmereka, anddan sendingmenyebar missionariesmisionaris intoke Protestantdaerah-daerah districtsProtestan. LaityKiprah oftenumat tookKatolik theBelanda lead;kerap thedipimpin Calvinisttokoh governmentawam, oftenkarena arrestedpemerintah orKalvinis harassedgetol priestsmenangkap whoatau seemedmenghalang-halangi toopara effectivepadri yang tampak terlalu berhasil menarik pengikut baru dari kalangan Kalvinis. CatholicJumlah numbersumat stabilizedKatolik atbertambah aboutsampai aakhirnya thirdmencapai ofkira-kira thesepertiga populationdari inpopulasi theNegeri Netherlands;Belanda. theyUmat wereKatolik strongestmenjadi inumat mayoritas thedi kawasan southeastselatan.<ref>seeBaca [http://www.quirksmode.org/politics/kuyper.html religionpeta mapagama]</ref><ref>Charles H. Parker, ''Faith on the Margins: Catholics and Catholicism in the Dutch Golden Age'' (HarvardLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Harvard, 2008)</ref>
== GoldenZaman AgeKeemasan ==
{{Main articleUtama|DutchZaman GoldenKeemasan AgeBelanda|DutchImperium EmpireBelanda|Economic historySejarah ofekonomi theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda (1500–1815)}}
[[File:Seven United Netherlands Janssonius 1658.jpg|thumb|200px|MapPeta ofRepublik DutchBelanda Republickarya byJan Joannes Janssonius.Janszoon]]
During theSelama [[EightyPerang Years'Delapan WarPuluh Tahun]] theberlangsung, Dutchprovinsi-provinsi provincesBelanda becamemenjadi thepusat-pusat mostdagang importantyang tradingpaling centrepenting ofdi Northernkawasan Europe,utara replacingEropa menggantikan [[FlandersFlandria|Vlaanderen]]. inPada thisZaman respect.Keemasan Duringini, theusaha Goldendagang, Ageindustri, thereseni wasrupa, amaupun greatilmu floweringpengetahuan ofdi trade,Negeri industry,Belanda theberkembang artspesar. andPada theabad scienceske-17 indan theke-18, Netherlands.boleh Indikata thebangsa 17thBelanda andadalah 18thbangsa centuries,termakmur thedalam Dutchbidang wereekonomi arguablydan thetermaju mostdalam economicallybidang wealthyilmu andpengetahuan scientificallydibanding advancedsemua ofbangsa alllain Europeandi nationsEropa. ThisBangsa new,baru officiallyyang Calvinistsecara nationresmi flourishedberpaham culturallyKalvinis andini economicallymengalami perkembangan budaya dan ekonomi, creatingsehingga whatmelahirkan historianapa yang diistilahkan sejarawan [[Simon Schama]] has called andengan ''"embarrassment of riches"'' (jengah kaya).<ref name="Schama">Schama, Simon, ''The Embarrassment of Riches'', Bath: William Collins & Sons, 1987. AtDi phlm. 8: "TheKesuksesan prodigiousmereka qualityyang ofluar theirbiasa successitu wentmeluap tosampai theirke headsubun-ubun, buttetapi itmembuat alsomereka madesedikit them a bit queasymuak. EvenBahkan theirdokumen-dokumen mostbermegah uninhibiteddiri documentsmereka ofyang self-congratulationspaling aretidak hauntedsungkan bymengumbar thepujian threatsekalipun ofdihantui bayang-bayang ''overvloed'', thekelimpahan surfeityang thatmeninggi roselaksana likebanjir a cresting floodbandang – asuatu worddunia heavyyang withjenuh warningdengan as wellwanti-wanti assekaligus euphoriaeuforia...But atAkan thetetapi verypada least,akhirnya thesuara continuoushati prickingnurani ofyang conscienceterus-menerus onmenyengat complacencyrasa producedpuas thediri self-consciousnessmelahirkan thatkesadaran weyang thinkkita ofmaknai sebagai asrasa embarrassedjengah."</ref> [[Tulip mania|SpeculationSpekulasi indalam theusaha tulipdagang tradetulip]] ledberbuntut topada akejatuhan firstpasar stocksaham marketyang crashpertama inpada tahun 1637, buttetapi thekrisis economicekonomi crisiscepat was soon overcometeratasi. DueSemua toperkembangan theseinilah developmentsyang themembuat 17thabad centuryke-17 hasdijuluki beenZaman dubbed the Golden Age ofKeemasan theNegeri NetherlandsBelanda.
TheReka inventioncipta<ref>Menurut "Haarlemmermeer boeck" karangan [[Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater]], [http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/leeg001haer01_01/leeg001haer01_01_0028.php SawmillsKilang gergaji (or "''saagmolens''" in Dutch{{lang-nd|saagmolen}})] weredireka inventedcipta indi [[Uitgeest]], according to the "Haarlemmermeer boeck" by [[Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater]]</ref> of[[penggergajian thekayu|kilang [[sawmillgergaji]] enabled the constructionmemungkinkan ofkapal adibuat massivedalam fleetjumlah ofbesar shipsuntuk fordipakai worldwideberdagang tradingke andseluruh fordunia defencedan ofmelindungi thekepentingan-kepentingan republic'sekonomi economicRepublik interestsBelanda bydengan militarykekuatan meansmiliter. NationalIndustri-industri industriesnasional suchseperti asgalangan-galangan shipyardskapal anddan sugarpabrik-pabrik refineriesgula expandedturut aspula wellberkembang.
[[File:AnatomieRembrandt van Rijn - The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp - 146 - Mauritshuis.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[ThePelajaran AnatomyAnatomi LessonDr. ofNicolaes Tulp|Les Anatomi dari Dr. Nicolaes Tulp]], bylukisan karya [[Rembrandt van Rijn]], 1632 CE.]]
TheBangsa DutchBelanda, traditionallyyang ableturun-temurun seafarersterbiasa andmelaut keendan mapmakersmahir membuat peta,<ref>The mapsPeta-peta usedyang bydigunakan [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke ofAdipati Alba ke-3]] tountuk attackmenyerbu Dutchkota-kota citiesBelanda overlandlewat andlaut bymaupun waterdarat wereadalah madepeta-peta bybuatan orang-orang DutchBelanda mapmakerssendiri.</ref> obtainedkian antampil increasinglymengemuka dominantdi positionkancah inperdagangan world tradedunia, a position which before had been occupied by themenggeser [[Portugal|Portuguesebangsa Portugis]] anddan [[SpainSpanyol|Spaniardsbangsa Spanyol]]. InPada tahun 1602 the, [[DutchVereenigde EastOostindische IndiaCompagnie|Serikat CompanyPerusahaan Hindia Timur]] (Dutch: ''{{lang-el|Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie''}}, ordisingkat ''VOC'') was foundeddidirikan. ItVOC was the first-everadalah [[multinationalbadan corporationusaha multinasional]] pertama di dunia, financeddan bydidanai sharesdari thathasil establishedpenjualan thesaham. Kegiatan jual beli saham VOC merupakan [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange|firstbursa saham modern stock exchangepertama]]. Itdi becamedunia. theVOC world'smenjadi largestperusahaan commercialdagang enterpriseterbesar ofdi thedunia 17thpada centuryabad ke-17. ToUntuk financemendanai theusaha growingdagang tradeyang withinkian theberkembang regiondi Negeri Belanda, the [[Bank of Amsterdam]] wasdidirikan establishedpada intahun 1609,. theBank precursorAmsterdam to,adalah ifcikal notbakal, theatau firstmungkin truejuga adalah [[central bank sentral]] sejati yang pertama di dunia.<ref>Quinn, Stephen. Roberds, William. ''The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the Origins of Central Banking''. AugustAgustus 2005.{{cite web |url=http://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/wp0516.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-06-08 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723195946/http://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/wp0516.pdf |archivedate=23 JulyJuli 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
DutchKapal-kapal shipsBelanda [[whalingperburuan paus|huntedberburu whalespaus]] offdi perairan [[Svalbard]], tradedberdagang spicesrempah-rempah indi India anddan [[Indonesia]] (viamelalui the [[Dutch East India Company]]VOC), anddan foundedmendirikan colonieskoloni-koloni indi [[NewNieuw Amsterdam]] (nowsekarang [[New York]]), SouthAfrika AfricaSelatan, and thedan [[WestHindia IndiesBarat]]. Selain Initu, additionbangsa someBelanda Portuguesejuga coloniesmerebut weresejumlah conqueredkoloni Portugis, namelymisalnya koloni-koloni Portugis di kawasan intimur Northeasternlaut [[Brazil]], Angola, [[Indonesia]], anddan [[CeylonSri Lanka|Sailan]]. InPada tahun 1640, by the [[Dutch East India Company]] began aVOC trademulai monopolymemonopoli withperdagangan Japandengan throughJepang themelalui tradingpos postdagang ondi [[Dejima]].
TheBangsa DutchBelanda alsojuga dominatedmendominasi tradeperdagangan betweenantarnegara Europeandi countriesEropa.<!-- TheNegeri-Negeri Low CountriesRendah were favorably positioned on a crossing of east-west and north-south trade routes and connected to a large German hinterland through the [[Rhine]] river. Dutch traders shipped wine from France and Portugal to the [[Baltic region|Baltic lands]] and returned with grain destined for countries around the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. By the 1680s, an average of nearly 1000 Dutch ships entered the [[Baltic Sea]] each year.<ref>"[http://www.balticconnections.net/index.cfm?article=Mercantilism+in+the+West+Baltic Baltic Connections: Mercantilism in the West Baltic]", BalticConnections.net. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> The Dutch were able to gain control of much of the trade with the nascent English colonies in North America and following the end of war with Spain in 1648, Dutch trade with that country also flourished.
[[File:Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Natuurkundige te Delft Rijksmuseum SK-A-957.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] was a [[businessman]] and [[scientist]] in the [[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age of Dutch science and technology]].]]
[[Renaissance Humanism]], of which Desiderius [[Erasmus]] (c. 1466–1536) was an important advocate, had also gained a firm foothold and was partially responsible for a climate of tolerance. Overall, levels of tolerance were sufficiently high to attract religious refugees from other countries, notably Jewish merchants from [[Portugal]] who brought much wealth with them. The revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] in France in 1685 resulted in the immigration of many French [[Huguenots]], many of whom were shopkeepers or scientists. Still tolerance had its limits, as philosopher [[Baruch de Spinoza]] (1632–1677) would find out. Due to its climate of intellectual tolerance the Dutch Republic attracted scientists and other thinkers from all over Europe. Especially the renowned [[University ofUniversitas Leiden]] (established in 1575 by the Dutch [[stadtholder]], [[William the Silent|WilliamWillem ofvan Oranje]], as a token of gratitude for Leiden's fierce resistance against Spain during the Eighty Years' War) became a gathering place for these people. For instance French philosopher [[René Descartes]] lived in Leiden from 1628 until 1649.
Dutch lawyers were famous for their knowledge of international [[Admiralty law|law of the sea]] and [[commercial law]]. [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583–1645) played a leading part in the foundation of [[international law]]. Again due to the Dutch climate of tolerance, book publishers flourished. Many books about religion, philosophy and science that might have been deemed controversial abroad were printed in the Netherlands and secretly exported to other countries. Thus during the 17th century the Dutch Republic became more and more Europe's publishing house.
The Golden Age was also an important time for developments in literature. Some of the major figures of this period were [[Gerbrand Adriaenszoon Bredero]], [[Jacob Cats]], [[Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft]] and [[Joost van den Vondel]]. Since Latin was the lingua franca of education, relatively few men could speak, write, and read Dutch all at the same time.
Music did not develop very much in the Netherlands since the Calvinists considered it an unnecessary extravagance, and organ music was forbidden in Reformed Church services, although it remained common at secular functions.-->
== Kekaisaran bangsa Belanda ==
==Dutch Empire==
=== TheBangsa DutchBelanda indi theBenua AmericasAmerika ===
[[File:GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg|thumb|left|200px|NewNieuw Amsterdam inpada 1664tahun CE.1664]]
{{main articleutama|Dutch WestGeoctroyeerde IndiaWestindische CompanyCompagnie|NewNieuw NetherlandNederland|NewNieuw Amsterdam}}
''Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie'' (Perusahaan Hindia Barat Berizin) adalah [[badan usaha berizin]] yang beranggotakan para [[saudagar]] Belanda. Pada tanggal 2 Juni 1621, serikat dagang ini diberi [[:wikisource:Charter of the Dutch West India Company|izin]] memonopoli perdagangan di [[Hindia Barat]] ([[Kepulauan Karibia]]) oleh pemerintah [[Republik Belanda|Republik Serikat Tujuh Negeri Belanda]] dan diserahi kewenangan hukum atas [[perbudakan di Afrika|usaha perdagangan budak Afrika]], Brazil, [[Kepulauan Karibia]], dan Amerika Utara. Daerah operasinya membentang dari Afrika Barat sampai ke Benua Amerika dan Kepulauan Pasifik. Perusahaan ini sangat besar jasanya bagi usaha [[kolonisasi bangsa Belanda di Benua Amerika]]. Benteng-benteng dan permukiman-permukiman pertama bangsa Belanda di [[Guyana]] dan [[Sungai Amazon]] didirikan pada era 1590-an. Usaha kolonisasi bangsa Belanda tidak segiat Inggris dan Prancis. Banyak permukiman bangsa Belanda yang hilang atau ditinggalkan pada akhir abad itu, tetapi Negeri Belanda mampu melanggengkan kepemilikannya atas [[Suriname]] dan beberapa pulau di Karibia.<!--
The ''Dutch West India Company'' was a [[chartered company]] (known as the "GWC") of Dutch [[merchant]]s. On 2 June 1621, it was granted a [[:wikisource:Charter of the Dutch West India Company|charter]] for a trade monopoly in the [[West Indies]] (meaning the Caribbean) by the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] and given jurisdiction over the [[African slave trade]], Brazil, the [[Caribbean]], and North America. Its area of operations stretched from West Africa to the Americas, and the Pacific islands. The company became instrumental in the [[Dutch colonization of the Americas]]. The first forts and settlements in [[Guyana]] and on the [[Amazon River]] date from the 1590s. Actual colonization, with Dutch settling in the new lands, was not as common as with England and France. Many of the Dutch settlements were lost or abandoned by the end of that century, but the Netherlands managed to retain possession of [[Suriname]] and a number of Dutch Caribbean islands.
[[File:Peter Stuyvesant.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Peter Stuyvesant]], Director-GeneralDirektur ofJenderal [[New Netherland]] (New York). His provincial capital, [[New Amsterdam]], was located at the southern tip of the island of [[Manhattan]].]]
The colony was a private business venture to exploit the [[fur trade|fur trade in beaver pelts]]. New Netherland was slowly settled during its first decades, partially as a result of policy mismanagement by the [[Dutch West India Company]] (WIC), and conflicts with Native Americans. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a major port for trade in the [[Atlantic World]], tolerating a highly diverse ethnic mix. The surrender of [[Fort Amsterdam]] to the British control in 1664 was formalized in 1667, contributing to the [[Second Anglo–Dutch War]]. In 1673 the Dutch re-took the area, but later relinquished it under the 1674 [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Treaty of Westminster]] ending the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]].
Descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in the [[History of the United States]], as typified by the Roosevelt and Vanderbilt families. The Hudson Valley still boasts a Dutch heritage. The concepts of civil liberties and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] introduced in the province became mainstays of American political and social life.<ref>Jaap Jacobs, ''The Colony of New Netherland: A Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America'' (2nd ed. 2009) [https://www.questia.com/read/109275503/new-netherland-a-dutch-colony-in-seventeenth-century online]</ref>
===Slave tradePerdagangan budak ===
{{main article|History of Aruba|History of Curaçao|History of Saint Martin|History of Suriname}}
Although slavery was illegal inside the Netherlands it flourished in the Dutch Empire, and helped support the economy.<ref>Postma, Johannes, ''The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815'' (2008){{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> In 1619 The Netherlands took the lead in building a large-scale [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]] between Africa and Virginia, by 1650 becoming the pre-eminent slave trading country in Europe. It was overtaken by Britain around 1700. Historians agree that in all the Dutch shipped about 550,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died on board before reaching their destinations. From 1596–1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the Dutch Guianas, 142,000 in the Dutch Caribbean islands, and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.<ref>van Welie, Rik, [http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/article/view/3580/4340 "Slave Trading and Slavery in the Dutch Colonial Empire: A Global Comparison"], ''NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids,'' 2008, Vol. 82 Issue 1/2, pp. 47–96, Table 2 & Table 3. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> In addition, tens of thousands of slaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies<ref>Vink, Markus, [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.2/vink.html "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century"], ''Journal of World History'', 14.2 (2003): 76 pars.. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> and slaves from the East Indies to Africa and the West Indies.
{{main article|Dutch East India Company|Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:Andries Beeckman - The Castle of Batavia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Dutch Batavia built in what is now [[Jakarta]], by [[Andries Beeckman]] c. 1656 CE.]]
The Dutch East India Company, called the '''VOC''' began in 1602, when the government gave it a monopoly to trade with Asia. It had many world firsts—the first [[multinational corporation]], the first company to issue stock, and was the first [[megacorporation]], possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonial settlements.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500-1700|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|author=Ames, Glenn J.|year=2008|pages=102–103[https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames/page/102 102]–103}}</ref>
England and France soon copied its model but could not match its record. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships. It returned over 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. The VOC was active chiefly in the [[Dutch East Indies]], now [[History of Indonesia|Indonesia]], where its base was [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (now [[Jakarta]]), which remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years; colonized parts of [[Taiwan]] between [[Taiwan under Dutch rule|1624–1662 and 1664–1667]] and the only western trading post in Japan, [[Dejima]].
[[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|250px|thumb|right|[[Eustachius De Lannoy]] of the [[Dutch East India Company]] surrenders to Maharaja [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[India]]n [[Kingdom of Travancore]] after the [[Battle of Colachel]]. (Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]])]]
By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of [[Ceylon]] (modern-day [[Sri Lanka]]). Afterward, they established ports in [[Dutch Malabar|Dutch occupied Malabar]], leading to [[Dutch India|Dutch settlements and trading posts in India]]. However, their expansion into [[India]] was halted, after their defeat in the [[Battle of Colachel]] by the [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]], during the [[Travancore-Dutch War]]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M. O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref>[http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html#l1 http://mod.nic.in] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 MarchMaret 2016 }} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>
Eventually, the Dutch East India Company was weighted down by corruption, the VOC went bankrupt in 1800. Its possessions were taken over by the government and turned into the [[Dutch East Indies]].
[[Dutch language|Dutch]] was the official language, but a dialect had formed that was quite distinct from Dutch. The [[Afrikaans]] language originated mainly from 17th-century Dutch dialects.<ref>[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/afrikaans.htm "Afrikaans"], Omniglot.com. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/8437/Afrikaans-language "Afrikaans language"], Britannica.com. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref>
This Dutch dialect sometimes referred to as the "kitchen language" (''kombuistaal''),<ref>Alatis, James E., Heidi E. Hamilton and Ai-Hui Tan (2002). ''Linguistics, language and the professions: education, journalism, law, medicine, and technology''. Washington, DC: UniversityLembaga PressPers Universitas. {{ISBN|978-0-87840-373-8}}. p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> would eventually in the late 19th century be recognised as a distinct language called [[Afrikaans]] and replace Dutch as the official language of the [[Afrikaners]].
As the 18th century drew to a close, Dutch mercantile power began to fade and the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] moved in to fill the vacuum. They seized the Cape Colony in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands, then briefly relinquished it back to the Dutch (1803), before definitively conquering it in 1806. British [[sovereignty]] of the area was recognised at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815. By the time the Dutch colony was seized by the British in 1806, it had grown into an established settlement with 25,000 slaves, 20,000 white colonists, 15,000 [[Khoisan]], and 1,000 freed black slaves. Outside Cape Town and the immediate hinterland, isolated black and white [[pastoralists]] populated the country.
In Amsterdam the network was so large that members of the same family could be related to opposing factions and pursue widely separated interests. The young men who had risen to positions of authority in the 1670s and 1680s consolidated their hold on office well into the 1690s and even the new century.<ref>Edwards, Elizabeth, "Amsterdam and William III," ''History Today,'' (Dec 1993), Vol. 43, Issue 12 pp. 25–31</ref>
Amsterdam's regents provided good services to residents. They spent heavily on the water-ways and other essential infrastructure, as well as municipal almshouses for the elderly, hospitals and churches.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Elise Van Nederveen Meerkerk|author2=Griet Vermeesch|title=Serving the Urban Community: The Rise of Public Facilities in the Low Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GyqI-UjSTy8C&pg=PA158|year=2010|publisher=AmsterdamLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversita Amsterdam|page=158|isbn=9789052603506}}</ref>
Amsterdam's wealth was generated by its commerce, which was in turn sustained by the judicious encouragement of entrepreneurs whatever their origin. This open door policy has been interpreted as proof of a tolerant ruling class. But toleration was practiced for the convenience of the city. Therefore, the wealthy Sephardic Jews from Portugal were welcomed and accorded all privileges except those of citizenship, but the poor Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe were far more carefully vetted and those who became dependent on the city were encouraged to move on.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paolo Bernardini|author2=Norman Fiering|title=The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1400–1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m0JAGMuePO0C&pg=PA372|year=2004|publisher=Berghahn Books|page=372|isbn=9781571814302}}</ref> Similarly, provision for the housing of Huguenot immigrants was made in 1681 when [[Louis XIV]]'s religious policy was beginning to drive these Protestants out of France; no encouragement was given to the dispossessed Dutch from the countryside or other towns of Holland. The regents encouraged immigrants to build churches and provided sites or buildings for churches and temples for all except the most radical sects and the Catholics by the 1670s<ref>{{cite book|author=Jonathan Israel|title=The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays on the Glorious Revolution and Its World Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCvyi5_m6ScC&pg=PA111|year=2003|publisher=CambridgeLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Cambridge|page=111|isbn=9780521544061}}</ref> (although even the Catholics could practice quietly in a chapel within the Beguinhof).<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin Dunford|title=The Rough Guide to Amsterdam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16nrEWPp-GQC&pg=PA58|year=2003|publisher=Rough Guides|page=58|display-authors=etal|isbn=9781858288987}}</ref>
===First Stadtholderless Period and the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1650–1674)===
[[File:Vonstetinaseconddayof4daybattleof1666.jpg|thumb|"The Second Day of the Four Day Battle of 1666"]]
{{main article|Anglo-Dutch wars}}
The Republic and England were major rivals in world trade and naval power. Halfway through the 17th century the Republic's [[Royal Netherlands Navy|navy]] was the rival of Britain's Royal Navy as the most powerful navy in the world. The Republic fought a series of three [[Anglo-Dutch wars|naval wars against England]] in 1652–74.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Richard Hill|title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzrya4r-2n8C&pg=PA73|year=2002|publisher=OxfordLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Oxford|pages=68–75|isbn=9780198605270}}</ref>
In 1651, England imposed its first [[1651 Navigation Act|Navigation Act]], which severely hurt Dutch trade interests. An incident at sea concerning the Act resulted in the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]], which lasted from 1652 to 1654, ending in the [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)]], which left the Navigation Act in effect.
[[File:Cornelis Troost02.jpg|thumb|The Inspectors of the Collegium Medicum in Amsterdam, by [[Cornelis Troost]], 1724. This period is known as the "Periwig Era".]]
The ''Second Stadtholderless Period'' ({{lang-nl|Tweede Stadhouderloze Tijdperk}}) is the designation in Dutch [[historiography]] of the period between the death of [[stadtholder]] [[William III of England|William III]] onpada 19 MarchMaret<ref>This is the date from the [[Gregorian calendar]] that was followed at the time in the Dutch Republic; according to the [[Julian calendar]], still used in England at the time, the date of death was 8 MarchMaret.</ref> 1702 and the appointment of [[William IV, Prince of Orange]] as stadtholder and captain general in all provinces of the [[Dutch Republic]] on 2 May 1747. During this period the office of stadtholder was left vacant in the provinces of [[Holland]], [[Zeeland]], and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]], though in other provinces that office was filled by members of the House of Nassau-Dietz (later called Orange-Nassau) during various periods.
During the period, the Republic lost its Great-Power status and its primacy in world trade, processes that went hand-in-hand, the latter causing the former. Though the economy declined considerably, causing deindustralization and deurbanization in the maritime provinces, a ''rentier''-class kept accumulating a large capital fund that formed the basis for the leading position the Republic achieved in the international capital market. A military crisis at the end of the period caused the fall of the [[Dutch States Party|States-Party regime]] and the restoration of the Stadtholderate in all provinces. However, though the new stadtholder acquired near-dictatorial powers, this did not improve the situation.
Although the Dutch Republic did not enter into a formal alliance with the United States and their allies, U.S. ambassador (and future [[President of the United States|President]]) [[John Adams]] managed to establish diplomatic relations with the Dutch Republic, making it the second European country to diplomatically recognize the [[Continental Congress]] in April 1782. In October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well.
Most of the war consisted of a series of largely successful British operations against Dutch colonial economic interests, although British and Dutch naval forces also [[Battle of Dogger Bank (1781)|met once off the Dutch coast]]. The war ended disastrously for the Dutch and exposed the weakness of the political and economic foundations of the country.<ref>Edler, Friedrich, ''The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution'' (1911, reprinted 2001) Honolulu, Hawaii: UniversityLembaga PressPers ofUniversitas theKawasan PacificPasifik, phlm. 88</ref> The [[Treaty of Paris (1784)]], according to [[Fernand Braudel]], "sounded the knell of Dutch greatness."<ref>[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984. p. 273.</ref>
==The French-Batavian period (1785–1815)==
Support for the Patriots came mostly from the middle class. They formed [[militia]]s called ''[[exercitiegenootschap]]pen''. In 1785, there was an open Patriot rebellion, which took the form of an armed insurrection by local militias in certain Dutch towns, ''Freedom'' being the rallying cry. [[Herman Willem Daendels]] attempted to organise an overthrow of various municipal governments ([[vroedschap]]). The goal was to oust government officials and force new elections. "Seen as a whole this revolution was a string of violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations", wrote French historian [[Fernand Braudel]], who saw it as a forerunner of the [[French Revolution]].
In 1785 [[William V, Prince of Orange|the stadholder]] left The Hague and moved his court to [[Nijmegen]] in [[Guelders]], a city remote from the heart of Dutch political life. InPada Junebulan Juni 1787, his energetic wife [[Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange|Wilhelmina]] (the sister of [[Frederick William II of Prussia]]) tried to travel to [[The Hague]]. Outside [[Schoonhoven]], she was stopped by Patriot militiamen and taken to a farm near [[Goejanverwellesluis]]. Within two days she was forced to return to Nijmegen, an insult not unnoticed in Prussia.
The House of Orange reacted with severity, relying on [[Prussia]]n troops led by [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick]] and a small contingent of British troops to [[Prussian invasion of Holland|suppress the rebellion]]. Dutch banks at this time still held much of the world's [[Capital (economics)|capital]]. Government-sponsored banks owned up to 40% of Great Britain's [[national debt]] and there were close connections to the [[House of Stuart]]. The stadholder had supported British policies after the [[American Revolution]].
{{Main article|Batavian Republic}}
[[File:Vrijheidsboom.jpg|left|thumb|Liberty tree erected in Dam Square in Amsterdam, 1795 by H. Numan.]]
The [[French Revolution]] was popular, and numerous underground clubs were promoting it when inpada Januarybulan Januari 1795 the [[Flanders Campaign|French army invaded]]. The underground rose up, overthrew the municipal and provincial governments, and proclaimed the [[Batavian Republic]] ({{lang-nl|Bataafse Republiek}}) [[Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam|in Amsterdam]]. Stadtholder William V fled to England and the States General dissolved itself. The new government was virtually a puppet of France.<ref>C. Cook & J. Stevenson, ''The routledge companion to European history since 1763'' (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005), p. 66; J. Dunn, ''Democracy: A history'' (NY: Atlantic Books, 2005), p. 86.</ref> The Batavian Republic enjoyed widespread support and sent soldiers to fight in the French armies. The 1799 [[Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland]] was repulsed by Batavian–French forces. Nevertheless, Napoleon replaced it because the regime of [[Grand Pensionary]] [[Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck]] (1805–06) was insufficiently docile.<ref>[[R.R. Palmer|Palmer, R.R.]] "Much in Little: The Dutch Revolution of 1795," ''Journal of Modern History'' (1954) 26#1 pp. 15–35 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874870 in JSTOR]</ref>
The confederal structure of the old Dutch Republic was permanently replaced by a unitary state. The 1798 constitution had a genuinely democratic character, though a coup d'état of 1801 put an authoritarian regime in power. Ministerial government was introduced for the first time in Dutch history and many of the current government departments date their history back to this period. Meanwhile, the exiled stadholder [[Kew Letters|handed over the Dutch colonies]] in "safekeeping" to Great Britain and ordered the colonial governors to comply. This permanently ended the colonial empire in Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony. The Dutch East Indies was returned to the Netherlands under the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]].
{{Main article|Kingdom of Holland}}
In 1806 Napoleon restyled the Netherlands (along with a small part of what is now Germany) into the [[Kingdom of Holland]], putting his brother [[Louis Bonaparte]] (1778–1846), on the throne. The new king was unpopular, but he was willing to cross his brother for the benefit of his new kingdom. Napoleon forced his abdication in 1810 and incorporated the Netherlands directly into the [[First French Empire|French empire]], imposing economic controls and conscription of all young men as soldiers. When the French retreated from the northern provinces in 1813, a [[Driemanschap|Triumvirate]] took over at the helm of a [[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|provisional government]]. Although most members of the provisional government had been among the men who had driven out William V 18 years earlier, the leaders of the provisional government knew that any new regime would have to be headed by his son, William Frederick. They also knew that it would be better in the long term if the Dutch people themselves installed the prince, rather than have him imposed on the country by the anti-French alliance. Accordingly, the Triumvirate called William Frederick back on November 30 and offered him the crown. He refused, but instead proclaimed himself "[[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|hereditary sovereign prince]]" onpada Decembertanggal 6 Desember.
The [[Great Powers]] had [[Eight Articles of London|secretly agreed]] to merge the northern Netherlands with the more populated [[Austrian Netherlands]] and the smaller [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège]] into a single constitutional monarchy. Having a stronger country on France's northern border was considered (especially by [[Alexander I of Russia|Tsar Alexander]]) to be an important part of the strategy to keep France's power in check. In 1814, William Frederick gained sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands and Liège as well. On MarchPada 15, Maret 1815; with the encouragement of the powers gathered at the [[Congress of Vienna]], William Frederick raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself [[William I of the Netherlands|King William I]]. This was made official later in 1815, when the Low Countries were formally recognized as the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]], with the [[House of Orange-Nassau]] as hereditary rulers. William had thus fulfilled the nearly three-century quest of the House of Orange to unite the Low Countries under a single rule.
==United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)==
In the Catholic South,<ref>see [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html online maps 1830, 1839]</ref> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government, while the population of [[Flanders]] was divided. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect ("Flemish") and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership after having been the state church for centuries in the south. Few Catholics held high office in state or army. Furthermore, political liberals in the south complained about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers.
At the [[London Conference of 1830]], the chief powers of Europe ordered (in November 1830) an armistice between the Dutch and the Belgians. The first draft for a treaty of separation of Belgium and the Netherlands was rejected by the Belgians. A second draft (JuneJuni 1831) was rejected by William I, who resumed hostilities. Franco-British intervention forced William to withdraw Dutch forces from Belgium late in 1831, and in 1833 an armistice of indefinite duration was concluded. Belgium was effectively independent but William’s attempts to recover Luxembourg and Limburg led to renewed tension. The London Conference of 1838–39 prepared the final Dutch-Belgian [[Treaty of London (1839)|separation treaty of 1839]]. It divided Luxembourg and Limburg between the Dutch and Belgian crowns. The Kingdom of the Netherlands thereafter was made up of the 11 northern provinces.<ref>{{cite book|first = J. C. H. |last=Blom|title= History of the Low Countries|date=1999|pages=297–312}}</ref>
==Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900)==
The Netherlands did not industrialize as rapidly as Belgium after 1830, but it was prosperous enough. Griffiths argues that certain government policies facilitated the emergence of a national economy in the 19th century. They included the abolition of internal tariffs and guilds, a unified coinage system, modern methods of tax collection, standardized weights and measures, and the building of many roads, canals, and railroads. However, compared to Belgium, which was leading in industrialization on the Continent, the Netherlands moved slowly. Possible explanations for this difference are the higher costs due to geography and high wages, and the emphasis of entrepreneurs on trade rather than industry.<ref>Richard T. Griffiths, ''Industrial Retardation in the Netherlands, 1830–1850'' (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979).</ref>
For example, in the Dutch coastal provinces agricultural productivity was relatively high. Hence, industrial growth arrived relatively late – after 1860 – because incentives to move to labour-intensive industry were quite weak.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=CambridgeLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Cambridge|page=19|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>
However, the provinces of North Brabant and Overijssel did industrialize, and they became the most economically advanced areas of the country.<ref>Richard T. Griffiths, "The Creation of a National Dutch Economy: 1795–1909," ''Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis,'' 1982, Vol. 95 Issue 4, pp. 513–53 (in English)</ref><ref>Joel Mokyr, "The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Case Study," ''Journal of Economic History'' (1974) 34#2 pp. 365–99 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116987 in JSTOR]</ref>
[[File:Old-Amsterdam 1891-street-1.jpg|thumb|Street in Amsterdam in 1891 ({{Interlanguage link multi|Vijzelstraat|nl}} looking towards Muntplein).]]
Dutch social and political life became divided by fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three separate parts based on religion. The economy was not affected. One of the people most responsible for designing pillarization was [[Abraham Kuyper]] (1837–1920), a leading politician, [[neo-Calvinist]] theologian, and journalist. Kuyper established orthodox Calvinist organizations, and also provided a theoretical framework by developing such concepts as "sphere-sovereignty" that celebrated Dutch society as a society of organized minorities. ''Verzuiling'' ("pillarization" or "pluralism") after 1850 became the solution to the danger of internal conflict. Everyone was part of one (and only one) pillar (''zuil'') based chiefly on religion (Protestant, Catholic, secular). The secular pillar eventually split into a socialist/working class pillar and a liberal (pro-business) secular pillar. Each pillar built a full set of its own social organizations, including churches (for the religious pillars), political parties, schools, universities,<ref>The oldest universities, in Leiden, Utrecht, and Groningen, had a secular-liberal character. In 1880 Kuyper opened a Protestant universityuniversitas in Amsterdam and in 1923 a Catholic one opened in Nijmegen. The Amsterdam municipal universityuniversitas, which opened in 1877, leaned toward secular-socialism, but was formally neutral.</ref> labor unions, sport clubs, boy scout unions and other youth clubs, and newspapers. The members of different ''zuilen'' lived in close proximity in cities and villages, spoke the same language, and did business with one another, but seldom interacted informally and rarely intermarried.<ref>A Dutch rhyme forbade intermarriage thus: ''Twee geloven op één kussen, daar slaapt de Duivel tussen'' [Two religions on one pillow, there the Devil sleeps in between.] On the decline of intermarriage see Erik Beekink, et al. "Changes in Choice of Spouse as an Indicator of a Society in a State of Transition: Woerden, 1830–1930." ''Historical Social Research'' 1998 23(1–2): 231–53. {{ISSN|0172-6404}}</ref> In politics Kuyper formed the [[Anti-Revolutionary Party]] (ARP) in 1879, and headed it until 1905.
Pillarization was officially recognized in the [[Pacification of 1917]], whereby socialists and liberals achieved their goal of universal male suffrage and the religious parties were guaranteed equal funding of all schools.<ref>Kossmann, ''Low Countries'' pp-57</ref> In 1930 radio was organized so that each pillar had full control of its own network. When television began in the late 1940s the pillars divided up time equally on the one station. In politics and civic affairs leaders of the pillar organizations cooperated and the acknowledged the right of the other pillars, so public life generally ran smoothly.<ref>Arend Lijphart, ''The Politics of Accommodation. Pluralism, and Democracy in the Netherlands'' (1975) is the standard analysis from a leading political scientist; Michael Wintle, "Pillarisation, Consociation, and Vertical Pluralism in the Netherlands Revisited: a European View." ''West European Politics'' 2000 23(3): 139–52, defends the concept; more critical is J. C. H. Blom, "Pillarisation in Perspective." ''West European Politics'' (2000) 23(3): 153–64.</ref><ref>Johan Sturm, et al. "Educational Pluralism: A Historical Study of So-Called "Pillarization" in the Netherlands, Including a Comparison with Some Developments in South African Education," ''Comparative Education,'' (1998) 34#3 pp. 281–97 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3099832 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Flourishing of art, culture and science===
The late 19th century saw a cultural revival. The [[Hague School]] brought a revival of realist painting, 1860-1890. The world-famous Dutch painter was [[Vincent van Gogh]], but he spent most of his career in France.<ref>Richard Bionda and [[Carel Blotkamp]], eds. ''The Age of Van Gogh: Dutch Painting 1880–1895'' (1997)</ref> Literature, music, architecture and science also flourished. A representative leader of science was [[Johannes Diderik van der Waals]] (1837–1923), a working class youth who taught himself physics, earned a PhD at the nation's leading school LeidenUniversitas UniversityLeiden, and in 1910 won the Nobel Prize for his discoveries in thermodynamics. [[Hendrik Lorentz]] (1853–1928) and his student [[Pieter Zeeman]] (1865–1943) shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in physics. Other notable scientists included biologist [[Hugo de Vries]] (1848–1935), who rediscovered Mendelian genetics.<ref>Leo Beek, ''Dutch Pioneers of Science'' (1986)</ref>
==1900 to 1940==
The military forces in the Dutch East Indies were controlled by the governor and were not part of the regular Dutch army. As the map shows, the Dutch slowly expanded their holdings from their base in Java to include all of modern Indonesia by 1920. Most islands were not a problem but there was a long, costly campaign against the [[Aceh Sultanate|Achin (Aceh)]] state in northern Sumatra.
The Netherlands had not fought a major military campaign since the 1760s, and the strength of its armed forces had gradually dwindled. The Dutch decided not to ally themselves with anyone, and kept out of all European wars especially the First World War that swirled about it.<ref name = "hvhqei">Maartje M. Abbenhuis, ''The Art of Staying Neutral the Netherlands in the First World War, 1914–1918'' (AmsterdamLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Amsterdam, 2006).</ref>
=== Neutrality during the First World War ===
[[File:Afsluitdijk 01.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Afsluitdijk]], the dike closing off the [[Zuiderzee]], was constructed between 1927 and 1933. Public works projects like this were one way to deal with high unemployment during the [[Great Depression]].]]
The Dutch were affected by the war, troops were mobilized and conscription was introduced in the face of harsh criticism from opposition parties. In 1918, mutinies broke out in the military. Food shortages were extensive, due to the control the belligerents exercised over the Dutch. Each wanted their share of Dutch produce. As a result, the price of potatoes rose sharply because Britain had demanded so much from the Dutch. Food riots even broke out in the country.<ref name = "hvhqei"/> A big problem was smuggling. When Germany had conquered Belgium, the Allies saw it as enemy territory and stopped exporting to Belgium. Food became scarce for the Belgian people, since the Germans seized all food. This gave the Dutch the opportunity to start to smuggle. This, however, caused great problems in the Netherlands, including inflation and further food shortages. The Allies demanded that the Dutch stop the smuggling, and the government took measures to remain neutral. The government placed many cities under 'state of siege'. OnPada 8 JanuaryJanuari 1916, a {{convert|5|km|mi|adj=on}} zone was created by the government along the border. In that zone, goods could be moved on main roads with a permit.<ref name = "hvhqei"/> German authorities in Belgium had an electrified fence erected all along the Belgian–Dutch border that caused many refugees from Belgium to lose their lives. The fence was guarded by older German Landsturm soldiers.<ref>{{cite web|title=De Dodendraad – Wereldoorlog I|url=http://www.bunkergordel.be/14.023%20De%20Dodendraad.htm|publisher=Bunkergordel.be|accessdate=19 MarchMaret 2013}}</ref>
=== Interwar period ===
===The war in the Dutch East Indies===
{{Main article|Dutch East Indies campaign}}
On 8 December 1941, the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Netherlands declared war on Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/411208c.html |title=THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS DECLARES WAR WITH JAPAN |publisher=ibiblio |accessdate=5 October 2009}}</ref> The Dutch government in exile in London had for long been working with London and with Washington to cut off oil supplies to Japan. Japanese forces [[Netherlands East Indies campaign|invaded the Dutch East Indies]] onpada 11 JanuaryJanuari 1942. TheBelanda Dutchmenyerah surrenderedpada tanggal 8 MarchMaret after Japanese troops landed on [[Java island|Java]]. Dutch citizens and everybody with Dutch ancestry, the so-called "[[Indo people|Indo's]]" were captured and put to work in labour camps or interned. As in the homeland, many Dutch ships, planes and military personnel managed to reach safe territory, in this case Australia, from where they were able to fight again.
===False hopes, the Hunger Winter and Liberation===
In Europe, after the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] landed in [[Normandy]] inpada Junebulan Juni 1944, progress was slow until the [[Invasion of Normandy|Battle of Normandy]] ended in August 1944. German resistance collapsed in western Europe and the allied armies advanced quickly towards the Dutch border. The [[First Canadian Army]] and the Second British Army conducted operations on Dutch soil from September onwards. On 17 September a daring operation, [[Operation Market Garden]], was executed with the goal of capturing bridges across three major rivers in the southern Netherlands. Despite desperate fighting by American, British and Polish forces, the bridge at [[Arnhem]], across the Neder Rijn, could not be captured.
Areas south of the Rhine river were liberated in the period September–December 1944, including the province of Zeeland, which was liberated in October and November in the [[Battle of the Scheldt]]. This opened [[Antwerp]] to allied shipping. The [[First Canadian Army]] held a static line along the [[river Meuse]] (Maas) from December 1944 through FebruaryFebruari 1945.
The rest of the country remained occupied until the spring of 1945. In the face of Dutch defiance the Nazis deliberately cut off food supplies resulting in near-starvation in the cities during the ''[[Hongerwinter]]'' ([[Hunger winter]]) of 1944–45. Soup kitchens were set up but many fragile people died.<ref>William I. Hitchcock, ''The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe'' (2009) pp. 98–129</ref> A few days before the Allied victory the Germans allowed emergency shipments of food.
[[File:Crowd of Dutch civilians celebrating the liberation of Utrecht by the Canadian Army.jpg|thumb|Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of [[I Canadian Corps]] troops in [[Utrecht]] after the German surrender, 7 May 1945.]]
The [[First Canadian Army]] launched [[Operation Veritable]] in earlyawal Februarybulan Februari, cracking the [[Battle of the Siegfried Line|Siegfried Line]] and reaching the banks of the [[Rhine]] inpada awal earlybulan MarchMaret. In the final weeks of the war in Europe, the First Canadian Army was charged with clearing the [[Netherlands]] of German forces.
The [[Liberation of Arnhem]] began on 12 April 1945 and proceeded to plan, as the three infantry brigades of the 49th Division leapfrogged each other through the city. Within four days Arnhem, now a ruined city, was totally under Allied control.<ref>Waddy, John A Tour of the Arnhem Battlefields (Pen & Sword Books, 2001; first published 1999) ({{ISBN|0-85052-571-3}}), p. 192</ref>
The Canadians then immediately advanced further into the country, encountering and defeating a German counterattack at [[Otterlo]] and Dutch SS resistance at [[Ede, Netherlands|Ede]]. On 27 April a temporary truce came into effect, allowing the distribution of food aid to the starving Dutch civilians in areas under German control ([[Operations Manna and Chowhound|Operation Manna]]). On 5 May 1945, Generaloberst Blaskowitz agreed to the unconditional surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands, signing the surrender to Canadian general [[Charles Foulkes (Canadian general)|Charles Foulkes]] at [[Wageningen]].<ref>Stacey, Colonel Charles Perry, ''Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War'', Volume III, ''[http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/Victory_e.pdf The Victory Campaign: The Operations in North-West Europe 1944–1945]'' (The Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery Ottawa, 1960) (DownloadedDiunduh: 4 JulyJuli 2009), pp. 576–614</ref> (The fifth of May is now celebrated annually in the Netherlands as [[Liberation Day]].) Three days later Germany unconditionally surrendered, bringing the war in Europe to a close.
After the euphoria and settling of scores had ended, the Dutch were a traumatized people with a ruined economy, a shattered infrastructure and several destroyed cities including [[Rotterdam]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Arnhem]] and part of [[The Hague]].
Immediately after the war, there was rationing, including of cigarettes, textiles, washing powder and coffee. Even wooden shoes were rationed. There were severe housing shortages.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alan S. Milward|title=The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mw3j5k7bz0C&pg=PA18|year=1987|publisher=U. of California Press|pages=18–}}</ref><ref>Nelleke Bakker and Janneke Wubs, "A Mysterious Success: Doctor Spock and the Netherlands in the 1950s," Paedagogica Historica (2002) 38#1 pp. 215–17.</ref> In the 1950s, there was [[Dutch diaspora|mass emigration]], especially to [[Canadians of Dutch descent|Canada]], [[Dutch Australian|Australia]] and [[Dutch New Zealander|New Zealand]]. Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce [[population density]] prompted some 500,000 [[Dutch people]] to leave the country after the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409956/Netherlands |title=Netherlands |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> The Netherlands failed to hold the Dutch East Indies, as Indonesia became independent and 300,000 Dutch inhabitants (and their Indonesian allies) left the islands.
Postwar politics saw shifting coalition governments. The 1946 Parliamentary elections saw the [[Catholic People's Party]] (KVP) come in first just ahead of the [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|socialist Labour party]] (PvdA). Louis J. M. Beel formed a [[First Beel cabinet|new coalition cabinet.]] The United States began [[Marshall Plan]] aid in 1948 that pumped cash into the economy, fostered modernization of business, and [[GITP International BV|encouraged economic cooperation]].<ref>Hans Krabbendam and Cornelis A Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) pp 761-72.</ref>
The 1948 elections led to a new coalition led by Labor's [[Willem Drees]]. He led four successive cabinets [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-1|Drees I]], [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-2|Drees II]], [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-3|Drees III]] and [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-4|Drees IV]] until late 1958. His terms saw four major political developments: the traumas of decolonization, [[economic reconstruction]], the establishment of the Dutch [[welfare state]], and international integration and co-operation, including the formation of [[Benelux]], the [[OEEC]], [[NATO]], the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]], and the [[EEC]].
[[File:Netherlands. Viewed from a U.S. Army helicopter, a Zuid Beveland town gives a hint of the tremendous damage wrought... - NARA - 541705.tif|thumb|A town in [[Zuid Beveland]] inundated in 1953.]]
The [[North Sea flood of 1953|last major flood in the Netherlands]] took place inpada earlyawal Februarybulan Februari 1953, when a huge storm caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest of the Netherlands. More than 1,800 people drowned in the ensuing inundation.
The Dutch government subsequently decided on a large-scale programme of public works (the "[[Deltawerken|Delta Works]]") to protect the country against future flooding. The project took more than thirty years to complete. The Oosterscheldedam, an advanced sea storm barrier, became operational in 1986. According to Dutch government engineers, the odds of a major inundation anywhere in the Netherlands are now one in 10,000 years.
The [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC), was founded in 1951 by the six founding members: Belgium, the Netherlands and [[Luxembourg]] (the [[Benelux]] countries) and West Germany, France and Italy. Its purpose was to pool the steel and coal resources of the member states, and to support the economies of the participating countries. As a side effect, the ECSC helped defuse tensions between countries which had recently been enemies in the war. In time, this economic merger grew, adding members and broadening in scope, to become the [[European Economic Community]], and later the European Union.
The United States started to have more influence. After the war higher education changed from a German model to more of an American model.<ref>Jan C. C. Rupp, "The Americanization of Dutch Academia in the Postwar Era," ''European Contributions To American Studies,'' (1996) 30#1 pp. 133–50</ref>{{Dubious|date=February 2013}} American influences had been small in the interwar era, and during the war the Nazis had emphasised the dangers of a "degraded" American culture as represented by jazz. However, the Dutch became more attracted to the United States during the postwar era, perhaps partly because of antipathy towards the Nazis<ref>Kees Wouters, "Fear of the "Uncivilized'": Dutch Responses to American Entertainment Music, 1920–1945," ''European Contributions to American Studies'' (1996) 30#1 pp. 43–61</ref> but certainly because of American movies and consumer goods. The Marshall Plan also introduced the Dutch to American management practices.{{Dubious|date=February 2013}} NATO brought in American military doctrine and technology.<ref>Jan Hoffenaar, "'Hannibal ante portas': The Soviet Military Threat and the Build-up of the Dutch Armed Forces, 1948–1958," ''Journal of Military History'' (2002) 66#1 pp. 163–91.</ref> Intellectuals, artists and the political left, however, remained more reserved about the Americans.<ref>Hans Renders, "Art, ideology and Americanization in post-war Dutch Mandril: Journalistic innovation of a conservative kind," ''Quaerendo'' (2006) 36#1 pp. 114–34 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=cb1ba525-b35a-48aa-9881-b0868475cebc%40sessionmgr15&vid=1&hid=25 online]</ref> According to Rob Kroes, the anti-Americanism in the Netherlands was ambiguous: American culture was both accepted and criticised at the same time.<ref>Rob Kroes, "The Great Satan Versus the Evil Empire: Anti-Americanism in the Netherlands," ''European Contributions to American Studies'' (1987) 11#1 pp. 37–50.</ref>
The Netherlands is a founding member of the [[European Union|EU]], [[NATO]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]. Together with Belgium and [[Luxembourg]] it forms the [[Benelux]] economic union. The country is host to the [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] and five international courts: the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], the [[International Court of Justice]], the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], the [[International Criminal Court]] and the [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]]. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EU's criminal intelligence agency [[Europol]] and judicial co-operation agency [[Eurojust]]. This has led to the city being dubbed "the world's legal capital".<ref>{{Cite book|last = van Krieken|first = Peter J.|author2=David McKay|title = The Hague: Legal Capital of the World|url = https://archive.org/details/haguelegalcapita0000unse|publisher=CambridgeLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Cambridge|year= 2005|isbn = 90-6704-185-8}}, specifically, ''"In the 1990s, during his term as United Nations Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali started calling The Hague the world's legal capital."''</ref>
===Decolonisation and multiculturalism===
[[File:Arrivalrotterdam.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Arrival of the vessel ''[[Castel Felice]]'' with "[[Indo people|Indos]]" (Dutch-Indonesian Eurasians) on the Lloydkade in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 20 May 1958.]]
The [[Dutch East Indies]] had long been a valuable resource to the Netherlands, generating in the 1930s about 14 percent of the Dutch national income, and home to thousands of Dutch and officials, businessmen and missionaries. <ref>Krabbendam and Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) p 610.</ref> By the first half of the 20th century, new organisations and leadership had developed in the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Under its [[Dutch Ethical Policy|Ethical Policy]], the government had helped create an educated Indonesian elite. These profound changes constituted the "[[Indonesian National Revival]]". Increased political activism and Japanese occupation undermining Dutch rule culminated in nationalists [[Indonesian Declaration of Independence|proclaiming independence]] on 17 August 1945, two days after the surrender of Japan.<ref>Ricklefs, M.C. ''A Modern History of Indonesia'', (2nd ed. 1991), Chapters 14–15</ref> The Dutch did not plan to let go, for they would be left as merely a minor second-class power ranking with Denmark perhaps. However the Netherlands was much too weak to reconquer Indonesia. The Japanese had imprisoned all the Dutch residents, and turned the islands over to a native government, which was widely popular. The British military arrived to disarm the Japanese. The Dutch finally returned and attempted to eradicate the [[Indonesian National Revolution]] with force, (sometimes [[Rawagede massacre|brutal]] in nature).<ref> Gert Oostindie, et al. "The decolonization war in Indonesia, 1945-1949: War crimes in Dutch veterans' egodocuments." ''War in History'' (2018) 25#2 pp 254-276, argues that "war crimes formed a structural ingredient of Dutch warfare."</ref>
Hundreds of thousands of Indonesians supported the Dutch position; when Independence finally arrived, most of them were relocated to the Netherlands. Britain mediated a compromise signed inpada Marchbulan Maret 1947 whereby de facto control of the new [[Indonesian Republic]] was acknowledged over Java, Maduro and Sumatra, while acknowledging Dutch control over the numerous smaller and far less important islands. Supposedly there would be a federated Indonesian state and a union with the Netherlands, but that never happened. The Indonesians wanted complete transfer of power, and the Dutch refused. By 1946 the United States was financing the Dutch in Indonesia, and was able to exert pressure on The Hague. Increasing international pressure--including American hints about cutting off military funds-- forced the Netherlands to withdraw. A decisive episode was the success of the Indonesian Republic in crushing a communist revolt. Washington now realize that Indonesia was part of the Cold War against communism, and the Indonesian government was a necessary ally-- and that the Dutch tactics were counterproductive and chaotic, and could only help communist insurgencies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frances Gouda|title=American Visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US Foreign Policy and Indonesian Nationalism, 1920-1949|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zh1VtsxRlRAC&pg=PA36|year=2002|publisher=Amsterdam UP|page=36, 196}}</ref> The Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian independence on 27 December 1949. Public opinion blamed the Washington for the Dutch colonial failure.<ref>Krabbendam and Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) pp 609-13.</ref> Only Irian, the western half of [[New Guinea]] remained under Dutch control as [[Netherlands New Guinea]] until 1961, when the Netherlands transferred sovereignty of this area to Indonesia.
During and after the Indonesian National Revolution, around 300,000 people, predominantly "[[Indo people|Indos]]" (Dutch-Indonesian Eurasians), left Indonesia for the Netherlands. This migration occurred in five distinct waves over a period of 20 years. It included Indos (many of whom spent the war years in Japanese concentration camps), former [[Republic of South Maluku|South Moluccan]] soldiers and their families, "New-Guinea Issue" Dutch citizens, Dutch citizens from [[Netherlands New Guinea]] (including Papuan civil servants and their families), and other Indos who had remained behind but later regretted their decision to take out Indonesian citizenship.<ref>Van Nimwegen, Nico [http://www.nidi.nl/shared/content/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf ''De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders''], Report no.64 (Publisher: NIDI, The Hague, 2002) p. 23 {{ISSN|0922-7210}} {{ISBN|978-90-70990-92-3}} {{OCLC|55220176}} {{cite web |url=http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/en/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf/nidi-report-64.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-11-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222032012/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/en/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf/nidi-report-64.pdf |archivedate=22 December 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah09.shtml Sejarah Indonesia – An Online Timeline of Indonesian History – The Sukarno years: 1950 to 1965] Source: www.gimonco.com. Retrieved 24 November 2011.</ref>
Secularization, or the decline in religiosity, first became noticeable after 1960 in the Protestant rural areas of Friesland and Groningen. Then, it spread to Amsterdam, Rotterdam and the other large cities in the west. Finally the Catholic southern areas showed religious declines. As the social distance between the Calvinists and Catholics narrowed (and they began to intermarry<ref>John Hendrickx, et al. "Religious Assortative Marriage in The Netherlands, 1938–1983," ''Review of Religious Research'' (1991) 33#2 pp. 123–45</ref>), it became possible to merge their parties. The [[Anti-Revolutionary Party]] (ARP) in 1977 merged with the [[Catholic People's Party]] (KVP) and the Protestant [[Christian Historical Union]] (CHU) to form the [[Christian Democratic Appeal]] (CDA).<ref>{{cite book|author=Herman Bakvis|title=Catholic Power in the Netherlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKEcvKSQ0WoC&pg=PA216|year=1981|publisher=McGill-Queens|pages=172–73, 216}}</ref> However, a countervailing trend later appeared as the result of a religious revival in the Protestant [[Bible Belt (Netherlands)|Bible Belt]], and the growth of the Muslim and Hindu communities as a result of immigration and high fertility levels.<ref>Hans Knippenberg, "Secularization in the Netherlands in its historical and geographical dimensions," ''GeoJournal'' (1998) 45#3 pp. 209–20. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/k0658n63j673385u/ online]</ref><ref>Tomáš Sobotka and Feray Adigüzel, "Religiosity and spatial demographic differences in the Netherlands" (2002) [http://som.eldoc.ub.rug.nl online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115144546/http://som.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/ |date=15 November 2012 }}</ref>
After 1982, there was a retrenchment of the welfare system, especially regarding old-age pensions, unemployment benefits, and disability pensions/early retirement benefits.<ref>Christoffer Green-Pedersen, ''The Politics of Justification: Party Competition and Welfare-State Retrenchment in Denmark and the Netherlands from 1982 to 1998'' (AmsterdamLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Amsterdam, 2002), p.13; [https://www.questia.com/read/109682081/the-politics-of-justification-party-competition-and online]; Green-Pedersen, "The Puzzle of Dutch Welfare State Retrenchment," ''West European Politics'' (2001) 24#3 pp. 135–50</ref>
Following the [[Dutch general election, 1994|election of 1994]], in which the Christian democratic [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] lost a considerable portion of its representatives, the [[social liberalism|social-liberal]] [[Democrats 66]] (D66) doubled in size and formed a coalition with the [[labour party (Netherlands)]] (PvdA), and the [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (VVD). This [[purple (government)]] coalition marked the first absence of the CDA in government in decades. During the Purple Coalition years, a period lasting until the rise of the populist politician [[Pim Fortuyn]], the government addressed issues previously viewed as taboo under the Christian-influenced cabinet. At this time, the Dutch government introduced unprecedented legislation based on a policy of official tolerance (''gedoogbeleid''). Abortion and [[euthanasia]] were decriminalized, but stricter guidelines were set for their implementation. Drug policy, especially with regard to the regulation of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], was reformed. Prostitution was legalised, but confined to brothels where the health and safety of those involved could be properly monitored. With the 2001 [[Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|Same-Sex Marriage Act]], the Netherlands became the first country to legalise [[same-sex marriage]]. In addition to social reforms, the Purple Coalition also presided over a period of remarkable economic prosperity.
===Recent politics===
[[File:Wim_Kok_1994.jpg|thumb|[[Wim Kok]] served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 22 August 1994 until 22 JulyJuli 2002.]]
In the 1998 election the [[First cabinet of Wim Kok|Purple Coalition]] consisting of Social Democrats, and left and right wing Liberals, increased its majority. Both the social-democratic PvdA and the conservative liberal VVD grew at the cost of their junior partner in cabinet, the progressive liberal D66. The voters rewarded the Purple Coalition for its economic performance, which had included reduction of unemployment and the budget deficit, steady growth and job creation combined with wage freezes and trimming of the welfare state, together with a policy of fiscal restraint.<ref>[http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2231_98.htm Netherlands: Elections held in 1998] Inter-Parliamentary Union</ref> The result was the [[Second cabinet of Wim Kok|second Kok cabinet]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Aarts | first1 = Kees | last2 = Semetko | first2 = Holli A. | author-link1 = Kees Aarts (political scientist) | title = Representation and responsibility: the 1998 Dutch election in perspective | journal = [[Acta Politica]] | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 111–29 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | date = 1999 | url = http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ap | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref>
Colors =
id:orange value:rgb(1,0.5,0) # oranjejingga
id:yellow value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # lightkuning yellowmuda
id:lorange value:rgb(1,0.7,0) # lightjingga orangemuda
id:black value:black
id:grey value:rgb(0.7,0.7,0.7)
</timeline>
== Sejarawan dan historiografi ==
==Historians and historiography==
===Historians Sejarawan ===
* Julia Adams, economicsejarah andekonomi socialdan historysosial<ref>J. Adams. ''The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe''. Ithica: CornellLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Cornell, 2005</ref>
* [[Petrus Johannes Blok]], surveysurvei<ref>Petrus Johannes Blok. ''History of the People of the Netherlands'' (5 voljld. 1898–1912) [https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 partbagian 1 tos.d. tahun 1500, onlinetersedia daring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=0coOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 partbagian 2 tos.d. tahun 1559., tersedia onlinedaring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=NH8SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 partbagian 3: ThePerang Warmelawan with SpainSpanyol 1559-1621562, onlinetersedia daring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=PckOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX#PPP12,M1 partbagian 4 onmengenai GoldenZaman AgeKeemasan, tersedia onlinedaring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=gf8bAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_toc_s&cad=1 onlineedisi editiondaring fromdi Google, volbagian 5 onmengenai theabad 18thke-18 anddan 19th centurieske-19]</ref>
* [[Hans Blom (historian)|J. C. H. Blom]], surveysurvei<ref>J. C. H. Blom, anddan E. Lamberts, eds.(penyunting) ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006). {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}. 504 pphlmn. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1845452720 excerpt and text search]; also [https://www.questia.com/read/1379132?title=History%20of%20the%20Low%20Countries complete edition online]</ref>
* M. R. Boxell, political history<ref>See Jaap Verheul, Besamusca, Emmeline, and J. Verheul et. all. Discovering the Dutch: on Culture and Society of the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Amsterdam UP, 2010. Print.</ref>
* [[Pieter Geyl]], Dutch revolt; historiography<ref>Pieter Geyl, ''The Revolt of the Netherlands: 1555–1609'' (1958) [https://www.questia.com/read/98720656?title=The%20Revolt%20of%20the%20Netherlands%20(1555-1609) online edition]</ref>
* [[Jan de Vries (historian)|Jan de Vries]], economic history<ref>See Arthur van Riel, "Review: Rethinking the Economic History of the Dutch Republic: The Rise and Decline of Economic Modernity Before the Advent of Industrialized Growth," ''The Journal of Economic History,'' Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar. 1996), pp. 223–29 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2124027 in JSTOR]</ref>
===Historiography Historiografi ===
The American [[John Lothrop Motley]] wasyang theberkebangsaan firstAmerika foreignadalah historiansejarawan toasing writepertama ayang majorbanyak historymenulis oftentang thesejarah DutchRepublik RepublicBelanda. InDalam 3500 pageshalaman, heia craftedmenorehkan asebuah literarymahakarya masterpiecesastra thatyang waskala translateditu intoditerjemahkan numerouske languages;dalam hisberbagai dramaticbahasa; storykisah reacheddramatisnya amenarik wideminat audiencebanyak inorang thepada 19thabad centuryke-19. John Lothrop Motley relied heavily on Dutch scholarship and immersed himself in the sources. His style no longer attracts readers, and scholars have moved away from his simplistic dichotomies of good versus evil, Dutch versus Spanish, Catholic versus Protestant, freedom versus authoritarianism. His theory of causation over-emphasized ethnicity as an unchanging characteristic, exaggerated the importance of William of Orange, and gave undue importance to the issue religious tolerance.<ref>Robert Wheaton, "Motley and the Dutch Historians," ''New England Quarterly'' (1962) 35#3 pp. 318–36 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/363823 in JSTOR]</ref>
The pioneering Dutch cultural historian [[Johan Huizinga]] (1872–1945), authoryang ofmenulis buku ''The Autumn of the Middle Ages'' (1919)terbit (thetahun English translation was called ''The Waning of the Middle Ages''1919) anddan ''Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture'' (terbit tahun 1935), which expanded the field of cultural history and influenced the historical anthropology of younger historians of the French [[Annales School]]. He was influenced by art history and advised historians to trace "patterns of culture" by studying "themes, figures, motifs, symbols, styles and sentiments."<ref>Peter Burke, "Historians and Their Times: Huizinga, Prophet of 'Blood and Roses.'" ''History Today'' (Nov 1986) (36): 23–28; William U. Bouwsma, "The ''Waning of the Middle Ages'' by Johan Huizinga." ''Daedalus'' 1974 103(1): 35–43; R. L. Colie, "Johan Huizinga and the Task of Cultural History." ''American Historical Review'' (1964) 69#3 pp. 607–30 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1845780 in JSTOR]; Robert Anchor, "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and His Critics," ''History and Theory'' (1978) 17#1 pp. 63–93 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2504901 in JSTOR]</ref>
The "polder model" continues to strongly influence historians as well as Dutch political discussion. The polder model stresses the need for finding consensus; it discourages furious debate and angry dissent in both academia and politics – in contrast to the highly developed, intense debates in Germany.<ref>Chris Lorenz, "Het 'Academisch Poldermodel' En De Westforschung in Nederland," [The Dutch Academic Polder Model and Westforschung in the Netherlands]. ''Tijdschrift Voor Geschiedenis'' 2005 118(2): 252–70. {{ISSN|0040-7518}}</ref>
The [[H-Net]] list '''H-Low-Countries''' is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages serve an international community with diverse methodological approaches, archival experiences, teaching styles, and intellectual traditions, promotes discussion relevant to the region and to the different national histories in particular, with an emphasis on the Netherlands. H-Low-Countries publishes conference announcements, questions and discussions; reviews of books, journals, and articles; and tables of contents of journals on the history of the Low Countries (in both Dutch and English).<ref>See [http://www.h-net.org/~lowc/ home page, with discussion logs]</ref> Sesudah AfterPerang World WarDunia II, bothbaik research-orientedsejarawan andyang teaching-orientedberorientasi historianspenelitian havemaupun beensejarawan rethinkingyang theirberorientasi interpretivemengajar approachestelah tomemikirkan Dutchkembali historypendekaran-pendekatan interpretif mereka terhadap sejarah bangsa Belanda, balancingmenyeimbangkan traditionalantara memoriesingatan-ingatan andtradisional moderndan scholarshipkeilmuan modern.<ref>Alexander Albicher, "A forced but passionate marriage: The changing relationship between past and present in Dutch history education 1945-1979," ''Paedagogica Historica'' (2012) 48#6 pp 840–58</ref> In terms of popular history, there has been an effort to ensure greater historical accuracy in museums and historic tourist sites.<ref>Susan Broomhall, and Jennifer Spinks, "Interpreting place and past in narratives of Dutch heritage tourism," ''Rethinking History'' (2010) 14#2 pp 267–85.</ref>
Once heralded as the leading event of modernsejarah DutchBelanda historymodern, the [[DutchPemberontakan Belanda|pemberontakan Revoltrakyat Belanda]] lastedberlangsung fromsejak 1568 tosampai 1648, and historians have worked to interpret it for even longer. Cruz (2007) explains the major debates among scholars regarding the Dutch bid for independence from Spanish rule. While agreeing that the intellectual milieus of late 19th and 20th centuries affected historians' interpretations, Cruz argues that writings about the revolt trace changing perceptions of the role played by small countries in the history of Europe. In recent decades grand theory has fallen out of favor among most scholars, who emphasize the particular over the general. Dutch and Belgian historiography since 1945 no longer says the revolt was the culmination of an inevitable process leading to independence and freedom. Instead scholars have put the political and economic details of the towns and provinces under the microscope, while agreeing on the weaknesses of attempts at centralization by the Habsburg rulers. The most influential new studies have been rootedberakar indalam demographicsejarah anddemografi economicdan historyekonomi, though scholars continue to debate the relationship between economics and politics. The religious dimension has been viewed in terms of mentalities, exposing the minority position of CalvinismKalvinisme, while the international aspects have been studied more seriously by foreign historians than by the Dutch themselves.<ref>Laura Cruz, "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective." ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914–34.</ref>
[[Pieter Geyl]] was the leading historian of the Dutch Revolt, and a highly influential professor at the University ofUniversitas London (1919–1935) and at the State University ofUniversitas Utrecht (1936–58). He wrote a six-volume history of the Dutch-speaking peoples.<ref>Three volumes appeared in English translation, ''The Revolit of the Netherlands (1555–1609)'' (1932); and ''The Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century'' (2 vol 1936, 1964).</ref> The Nazis imprisoned him in World War II. In his political views, Geyl adopted the views of the 17th-century Dutch Louvestein faction, led by Johan van Oldenbarneveldt (1547–1619) and Johan de Witt (1625–72). It stood for liberty, toleration, and national interests in contrast to the Orange stadholders who sought to promote their own self-interest. According to Geyl, the Dutch Republic reached the peak of its powers during the 17th century. He was also a staunch nationalist and suggested that Flanders could split off from Belgium and join the Netherlands. Later he decried what he called radical nationalism and stressed more the vitality of Western Civilization. Geyl was highly critical of the [[world history]] approach of [[Arnold J. Toynbee]].<ref>Herbert H. Rowen, "The Historical Work of Pieter Geyl." ''Journal of Modern History'' 1965 37(1): 35–49. {{ISSN|0022-2801}} [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874563 in Jstor]</ref>
[[Jan Romein]] (1893-1962) createdmenciptakan asebuah "theoreticalsejarah historyteoritis" indalam anrangka attemptmenegakkan tokembali reestablishrelevansi thesejarah relevancedengan ofkehidupan historymasyarakat topada publicera life1930-an inyang thekala 1930situ athidup adalam timesuasana ofpenuh immenseketidakpastian politicalpolitik uncertaintydan andmengalami culturalkrisis crisisbudaya, whenmanakala Romein thoughtberpikir thatbahwa historysejarah hadsudah becomemenjadi tooterlampau inward-lookingasyik anddengan isolateddiri fromsendiri dan terkucil dari bidang-bidang otherkeilmuan disciplineslain. Romein, a Marxist, wanted history to contribute to social improvement. At the same time, influenced by the successes of theoretical physics and his study of [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], [[Frederick John Teggart]], anddan otherslain-lain, he spurred on the development of theoretical history in the Netherlands, to the point where it became a subject in its own right at the universityuniversitas level after the war. Romein used the term integral history as a substitute for cultural history and focused his attention on the period around the turn of the century. He concluded that a serious crisis occurred in European civilization in 1900 because of the rise of anti-SemitismSemitisme, extremenasionalisme nationalismekstrim, discontentketidakpuasan withterhadap thesistem parliamentary systemparlementer, depersonalization of thedepersonalisasi statenegara, anddan thepenolakan rejectionterhadap of positivismpositivisme. EuropeanPeradaban civilizationEropa wanedmeredup assebagai theakibat resultdari ofkrisis thisini crisisseiring whichdengan wasbangkitnya accompaniedAmerika by the rise of the United StatesSerikat, the Americanization of theAmerikanisasi worlddunia, anddan the emergence ofkebangkitan Asia. HisTafsirnya interpretationmengingatkan isorang reminiscentpada oftafsir that of his mentormentornya, Johan Huizinga, anddan wasmenuai criticizedkritikan bydari his colleaguekoleganya, Pieter Geyl.<ref>A. C. Otto, "Theorie En Praktijk in De Theoretische Geschiedenis Van Jan Romein" [TheoryTeori anddan PracticePraktik in thedalam "TheoreticalSejarah HistoryTeoritis" ofoleh Jan Romein]. ''Theoretische Geschiedenis'' 1994 21(3): 257–70. {{ISSN|0167-8310}}; P. Blaas, "An Attempt at Integral History." ''Acta Historiae Neerlandica'' 1971 (5): 271–315. {{ISSN|0065-129X}}</ref>-->
==See alsoLihat pula ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Belanda pada Perang Dunia II|Negeri Belanda pada Perang Dunia II]]
*[[Canon of Dutch History]]
* [[Daftar Kepala Monarki Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Culture of the Netherlands]]
* [[Daftar Perdana Menteri Belanda|Daftar Perdana Menteri Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Demographics of the Netherlands]]
* [[Demografi Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Dutch diaspora]]
* [[DutchGeografi EastNegeri IndiesBelanda]]
* [[DutchHindia EmpireBelanda]]
* [[Imperium Belanda]]
*[[Economy of the Netherlands]]
* [[Kanon Sejarah Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Geography of the Netherlands]]
* [[HistoryKebudayaan ofNegeri BelgiumBelanda]]
* [[Politik Belanda]]
*[[History of religion in the Netherlands]]
* [[Provinsi-provinsi di Negeri Belanda]]
*[[History of Europe]]
* [[History ofSejarah GermanyBelgia]]
* [[History ofSejarah LuxembourgJerman]]
* [[Sejarah Luksemburg]]
*[[List of Prime Ministers of the Netherlands]]
* [[Sejarah maritim Belanda]]
*[[List of monarchs of the Netherlands]]
*[[Politics of the Netherlands]]
*[[Provinces of the Netherlands]]
*[[Netherlands in World War II]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes Rujukan ==
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{{Reflist|33em}}
== Bahan bacaan lanjutan ==
==Further reading==
SeeLihat alsopula: {{Interlanguage link multi|BibliographyKepustakaan ofsejarah the history of the NetherlandsBelanda|nl|3=Bibliografie van de geschiedenis der Nederlanden}}
{{refbegin}}
* Arblaster, Paul. ''A History of the Low Countries''. Palgrave Essential Histories Series New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 298 pp. {{ISBN|1-4039-4828-3}}.
* Barnouw, A. J. ''The Making of Modern Holland: A Short History'' (Allen & Unwin, 1948) [https://www.questia.com/library/104575060/the-making-of-modern-holland-a-short-history onlineedisi editiondaring]
* Blok, Petrus Johannes. ''History of the People of the Netherlands'' (5 voljilid 1898–1912) famouskarya klasik classicternama; [https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 partbagian 1 tosampai tahun 1500, onlinedaring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=0coOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 partbagian 2 tosampai tahun 1559., onlinedaring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=NH8SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 partbagian 3: ThePerang WarMelawan with SpainSpanyol 1559–1621, onlinedaring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=PckOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX#PPP12,M1 partbagian 4 onmengenai GoldenZaman AgeKeemasan, onlinedaring fromdi Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=gf8bAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_toc_s&cad=1 onlineedisi editiondaring fromdi Google, volbagian 5 onmengenai theabad 18thke-18 anddan 19th centurieske-19]
* Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. (penyunting) ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006) 504 pphlmn. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1845452720 excerptpencarian andkutipan textdan searchteks]; alsoserta [https://www.questia.com/read/1379132 completeedisi editiondaring onlinelengkap]
* van der Burg, Martijn. "Transforming the Dutch Republic into the Kingdom of Holland: the Netherlands between Republicanism and Monarchy (1795-1815)," ''European Review of History'' (2010) 17#2, pphlmn. 151–70151–170 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/viewarticle?data=dGJyMPPp44rp2%2fdV0%2bnjisfk5Ie42eqLtaashd%2ff7Ebj3u2L8ra2R7GlsEivqJ5Jr7CyTLiotTjOw6SM8Nfsi9%2fZ8oHt5Od8u6yxTrKptEyxrKSE3%2bTlVePkpHzgs%2baB35zyeeWzv2ak1%2bxVsq%2buULSmsE6k3O2K69fyVe7a5F7z4ups4%2b7y&hid=113 onlinedaring]
* {{Cite book|author1=Frijhoff, Willem |author2=Marijke Spies|title=Dutch Culture in a European Perspective: 1950, prosperity and welfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZfvCVndvXoC|year=2004|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Gorcum}}
* Geyl, Pieter. ''The Revolt of the Netherlands (1555–1609)'' (Barnes & Noble, 1958) [https://www.questia.com/library/98720632/the-revolt-of-the-netherlands-1555-1609 onlineedisi editiondaring], famouskarya classicklasik ternama
* Van Hoesel, Roger, anddan Rajneesh Narula. ''Multinational Enterprises from the Netherlands'' (1999) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160307220624/https://www.questia.com/read/103819399/multinational-enterprises-from-the-netherlands onlineedisi editiondaring]
* Hooker, Mark T. ''The History of Holland'' (1999) 264 pphlmn. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313306583 excerptpencarian andkutipan textdan searchteks]
* [[Jonathan Israel|Israel, Jonathan]]. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) asebuah majorsintesis synthesisutama; [https://www.questia.com/read/91981119 completeedisi onlinedaring editionlengkap]; alsoserta [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198207344 excerptpencarian andkutipan textdan searchteks]
* Koopmans, Joop W., anddan Arend H. Huussen Jr. ''Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands'' (2ndedisi ed.ke-2, 2007)[https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Netherlands-Dictionaries-Europe/dp/0810856271/ excerptpencarian andkutipan textdan searchteks]
* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780–1940'' (1978), detailedsurvei surveyterperinci; [http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/koss002lage01_01/ fullteks textlengkap onlinedaring indalam Dutchbahasa Belanda (usegunakan peramban CHROME browseruntuk terjemahan forotomatis automaticke translationdalam tobahasa EnglishInggris)]
* Kossmann-Putto, J. A. anddan E. H. Kossmann. ''The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands'' (1987)
* Milward, Alan S. anddan S. B. Saul. ''The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780-1870'' (2ndedisi ed.ke-2, 1979), 552 pphlmn.
* Milward, Alan S. anddan S. B. Saul. ''The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850-1914'' (1977) pphlmn. 142–214
* Moore, Bob, anddan Henk Van Nierop. ''Twentieth-Century Mass Society in Britain and the Netherlands'' (Berg 2006) [https://www.questia.com/read/118217447/twentieth-century-mass-society-in-britain-and-the onlineedisi editiondaring]
* van Oostrom, Frits, anddan Hubert Slings. ''A Key to Dutch History'' (2007)
* Pirenne, Henri. ''Belgian Democracy, Its Early History'' (1910, 1915) 250 pphlmn. historysejarah ofkota-kota townsdi inNegeri-Negeri the Low CountriesRanah [https://www.questia.com/read/1276323 onlinedaring freecuma-cuma]
* Rietbergen, P.J.A.N. ''A Short History of the Netherlands. From Prehistory to the Present Day''. 5thEdisi edke-5. Amersfoort: Bekking, 2002. {{ISBN|90-6109-440-2}}
* [[Simon Schama|Schama, Simon]], ''[[The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age]]'' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0679781242 excerptpencarian andkutipan textdan searchteks], verysurvei dengan cakupan yang luas dan wellditulis writtendengan broadsangat surveybaik
* Schama, Simon. ''Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780– 1813'' (London: Collins, 1977)
* Treasure, Geoffrey. ''The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780'' (3rdedisi ed.ke-3, 2003). pphlmn. 463–93463–493.
* Vlekke, Bernard H. M. ''Evolution of the Dutch Nation'' (1945) 382 pphlmn. [https://www.questia.com/read/82243176 onlineedisi editiondaring]
* Wintle, Michael P. ''An Economic and Social History of the Netherlands, 1800–1920: Demographic, Economic, and Social Transition'' (CambridgeLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Cambridge, 2000) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105016141 onlineedisi editiondaring]
* Van Tuyll Van Serooskerken, Hubert P. '' The Netherlands and World War I: Espionage, Diplomacy and Survival'' (Brill 2001) [https://www.questia.com/read/118479769/the-netherlands-and-world-war-i-espionage-diplomacy onlineedisi editiondaring]
* Vries, Jan de, anddan A. van der Woude. ''The First Modern Economy. Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815'' (CambridgeLembaga UniversityPers PressUniversitas Cambridge, 1997)
* Vries, Jan de. "Benelux, 1920–1970," indalam C. M. Cipolla, ed.(penyunting), ''The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One'' (1976) pphlmn. 1–71
* van Zanden, J. L. ''The Economic History of The Netherlands 1914–1995: A Small Open Economy in the 'Long' Twentieth Century'' (Routledge, 1997) [https://www.amazon.com/Economic-History-Netherlands-1914-1995-Contemporary/dp/0415150035/ pencarian excerptkutipan anddan text searchteks]
* Vandenbosch, Amry. ''Dutch Foreign Policy since 1815'' (1959). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kgbsCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Dutch+intitle:Foreign+intitle:Policy+intitle:since+intitle:1815&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwih-are3KHZAhVCxWMKHXstDboQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q&f=false onlinedaring]; [https://www.questia.com/library/3392771/dutch-foreign-policy-since-1815-a-study-in-small fullteks textlengkap atdi situs web Questia]
* Vandenbosch, Amry. ''The neutrality of the Netherlands during the world war'' (1927).
* Wielenga, Friso. ''A History of the Netherlands: From the Sixteenth Century to the Present Day'' (2015) 344 pphlmn.
{{refend}}
=== Geografi dan lingkungan hidup ===
===Geography and environment===
{{refbegin}}
* Burke, Gerald L. ''The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries'' (1960)
* Lambert, Audrey M. ''The Making of the Dutch Landscape: An Historical Geography of the Netherlands'' (1985); focusberfokus onpada the history ofsejarah landreklamasi reclamationdaratan
* Meijer, Henk. ''Compact geography of The Netherlands'' (1985)
* Riley, R. C., and G. J. Ashworth. ''Benelux: An Economic Geography of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg'' (1975) [https://www.questia.com/read/85882918/benelux-an-economic-geography-of-belgium-the-netherlands onlinedaring]
{{refend}}-->
== Pranala luar ==
{{Commons category|History of the Netherlands|Sejarah Negeri Belanda}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041013072113/http://www.20eeuwennederland.nl/periodes ''Chronologisch overzicht van de Nederlandse geschiedenis'' (Ikhtisar Knonologis Sejarah Negeri Belanda)]
* [http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/default.htm ''De Tachtigjarige Oorlog'' (Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun)]
* [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/dtc/ ''Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies''], sebuah jurnal lintas keilmuan
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14971 Sejarah HolandiaHolland, George Edmundson, 1922, buku elektronik Project Gutenberg EBook.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120926161214/http://www.innl.nl/page/14332/en Sejarah Negeri Belanda dari tahun 50 SM sampai tahun 2005]
* [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_the_Netherlands:_Primary_Documents Sejarah Negeri Belanda: Dokumen-Dokumen Primer]
* [http://www.niod.nl/ Institut Negeri Belanda untuk Dokumentasi Perang]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/country/netherlands.html Belanda: Peta, Sejarah, Geografi, Pemerintahan, Budaya, Fakta, Panduan Wisata dan Perjalanan | Infoplease.com]
* [http://www.historical-novel.com/ Ikhtisar novel-novel sejarah tentang Negeri Belanda dan Belgia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208142100/http://historical-novel.com/ |date=2011-02-08 }}
* [http://home.zonnet.nl/van.duijvenbode/en/geschnl-o.htm Survei singkat mengenai sejarah Negeri Belanda]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090612225030/http://www.entoen.nu/default.aspx?lan=e Kanon Sejarah Negeri Belanda]
* [http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/index2.html Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Prasejarah]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1043528.stm GarisLini waktumasa sejakNegeri Belanda mulai tahun 1914]
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php?Cat=&Board=EarthHistory&Number=701881&Searchpage=1&Main=701881&Words=dutch+history&topic=&Search=true#Post701881 Tur Virtual Sejarah Negeri Belanda (101 situs di Google Earth dengan tautan)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024040/http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php?Cat=&Board=EarthHistory&Number=701881&Searchpage=1&Main=701881&Words=dutch+history&topic=&Search=true#Post701881 |date=2007-09-30 }}
* [http://nlgis.nl Sistem Informasi Geografi Negeri Belanda (1812–1997) ]
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