Charles Darwin: Perbedaan antara revisi
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|nationality = [[Kerajaan Bersatu Britania Raya dan Irlandia|Britania Raya]]
|fields = [[Sejarah alam]], [[geologi]], [[biologi]]
|workplaces ='''pendidikan tinggi:'''<br> [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] (obat) <br />[[Christ's College, Cambridge]] ([[Universitas Cambridge]]) (BA)<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Charles Darwin's personal finances revealed in new find|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/5032354/Charles-Darwins-personal-finances-revealed-in-new-find.html|website=The Telegraph|language=en-GB|access-date=29 November 2020}}</ref><br>'''lembaga profesional:''' <br>[[Geological Society of London]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|academic_advisors = [[John Stevens Henslow]]<br>[[Adam Sedgwick]]
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* [[Medali Royal]] (1853)
* [[Medali Wollaston]] (1859)
* [[Medali Copley]] (1864)
* Gelar Doctor of Laws [[Universitas Cambridge]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Darwin Endless Forms » Darwin in Cambridge|url=http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|website=|language=en-US|access-date=29 November 2020|archive-date=2017-03-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323205747/http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>}}
|signature = Charles Darwin Signature.svg
|signature_alt = "Charles Darwin", with the surname underlined by a downward curve that mimics the curve of the initial "C"
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|children = 10 anak ([[Charles Darwin#Anak|lihat daftar]])
}}
{{Zoologi}}
'''Charles Robert Darwin''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS}}<ref name="frs" /> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑr|w|ɪ|n}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin "Darwin"] entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.</ref> 12 Februari 1809 – 19 April 1882) adalah seorang [[sejarah alam|naturalis]] dan ahli [[geologi]] Inggris,<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref> paling dikenal untuk kontribusinya terhadap [[biologi evolusioner]].{{Ref_label|A|I|none}} Dia mengemukakan bahwa semua [[spesies]] berasal dari [[nenek moyang bersama]] dan berkembang dari waktu ke waktu, sekarang diterima secara luas dan dianggap sebagai konsep fundamental dalam ilmu pengetahuan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A.|title=Why Evolution is True|url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn|publisher=Viking|year=2009|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8]–11|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9}}</ref> Dalam publikasi bersama dengan [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], dia memperkenalkan [[teori ilmiah]] yang menyatakan [[Filogeni|pola percabangan]] [[evolusi]] dihasilkan dari sebuah proses yang dia sebut [[seleksi alam]], di mana [[perjuangan untuk eksistensi]] memiliki efek yang sama dengan [[seleksi buatan]] yang terlibat dalam [[seleksi buatan]].<ref name="Larson79-111">{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=79–111}}</ref> Darwin telah digambarkan sebagai salah satu tokoh paling berpengaruh dalam [[sejarah manusia]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Special feature: Darwin 200|url=https://www.newscientist.com/round-up/darwin-200/|website=New Scientist|language=en-US|access-date=2022-04-07}}</ref> dan ia dihormati dengan penguburan di [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=pixeltocode.uk|first=PixelToCode|title=Charles Darwin|url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/charles-darwin|website=Westminster Abbey|language=en|access-date=2022-04-07}}</ref>
Darwin menerbitkan teori evolusi dengan bukti kuat dalam
Minat awal Darwin di alam membuatnya mengabaikan [[pendidikan kedokteran]] yang dia tempuh di [[
Darwin
== Kehidupan ==
=== Masa kecil ===
[[Berkas:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|
Charles Darwin lahir di [[Shrewsbury]], [[Shropshire]], [[Inggris]], di rumah keluarganya, ''The Mount House''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2008-12-06|title=The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|url=http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|website=web.archive.org|access-date=29 November 2020|archive-date=2008-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|dead-url=unfit}}</ref> Ia adalah anak kelima dari enam bersaudara dari seorang dokter yang kaya, [[Robert Darwin]], dan [[Susannah Wedgwood]]. Kakeknya dari ayah, [[Erasmus Darwin]], dan [[Josiah Wedgwood]] dari pihak ibunya adalah penentang perbudakan yang terkenal. Erasmus Darwin memuji konsep umum evolusi dan nenek moyang bersama dalam bukunya Zoonomia tahun 1794.{{Sfn|Smith|1952|p=339|ps=, "With literary license Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) has been called the grandfather of evolution because he was the grandfather of Charles who fathered it. (...) It was in his Zoonomia (1794), ostensibly a textbook of medicine, in a chapter dealing with generation, that he interpolated what is not so much a theory of evolution as a panegyric on the idea."}}
Berkat kekayaan orang tuanya, Darwin menikmati kenyamanan dan mempunyai akses untuk mengenyam fasilitas-fasilitas pendidikan yang bagus. Namun, ayahnya kuatir akan masa depan Darwin, karena ia hanya bersenang-senang dengan berburu, main-main dengan anjing dan menangkap tikus. Ayahnya khawatir bahwa Darwin akan membawa malu keluarga. Walaupun Darwin sudah sejak dini tertarik [[biologi]], untuk menyenangkan ayahnya, ia mengambil studi kedokteran.{{Butuh rujukan}}
Pada 1825,
[[Berkas:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier cropped.jpg|
Pada 1827, ayahnya yang tidak
Tuntutan residensi mewajibkan Darwin tinggal di Cambridge hingga Juni 1831. Mengikuti teladan dan nasihat Henslow, ia tidak tergesa-gesa untuk menjadi pendeta. Ia
=== Perjalanan dengan ''Beagle'' ===
[[Berkas:HMS Beagle by Conrad Martens.jpg|
Darwin sudah memutuskan bahwa sudah menjadi jalan hidupnya untuk menjadi pendeta dan hidup dengan tenang ketika ia menerima tawaran yang sangat menggoda. Darwin diundang untuk mendampingi Kapten [[Robert FitzRoy]] di kapal [[HMS Beagle]].<ref name=":0" /> Pada waktu itu, sudah menjadi kebiasaan bahwa kapten kapal mempunyai pendamping selama ekspedisi kapal yang biasanya berlangsung selama bertahun-tahun. Karena kedudukan Kapten FitzRoy yang cukup tinggi, hanya seorang '
Survai ''Beagle'' berlangsung lima tahun. Darwin menghabiskan dua pertiga dari waktunya ini untuk menjelajani daratan. Ia menyelidiki beraneka ragam penampilan geologis, [[fosil]] dan organisme hidup, dan menjumpai beraneka ragam manusia, baik masyarakat pribumi maupun kolonial. Secara metodik ia mengumpulkan sejumlah besar spesimen, banyak di antaranya baru bagi ilmu pengetahuan. Hal ini mengukuhkan reputasinya sebagai seorang naturalis dan menjadikannya salah seorang perintis dalam bidang [[ekologi]], khususnya pemahaman tentang [[biokoenosis]]. Catatan-catatan terincinya yang panjang lebar memperlihatkan karunianya untuk membangun teori dan membentuk dasar bagi pekerjaannya di kemudian hari, serta memberikan pemahaman [[antropologi]]s sosial, politik yang mendalam tentang daerah-daerah yang dikunjunginya.
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=== Karier dalam ilmu pengetahuan, pembentukan teori ===
{{main|Pendirian Teori Darwin}}
[[Berkas:Charles Darwin by G. Richmond.jpg|
Ketika masih dalam pelayaran, [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] dengan hati-hati memperkuat reputasi bekas muridnya dengan memberikan kepada sejumlah naturalis terpilh akses kepada contoh-contoh fosil dan salinan-salinan tercetak tulisan-tulisan geologis Darwin.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Darwin Online: Letters on Geology|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LettersOnGeology.html|website=darwin-online.org.uk|access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> Ketika ''Beagle'' kembali pada
[[Charles Lyell]] Di London Charles tinggal dengan saudaranya, [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]], seorang [[pemikiran bebas|pemikir bebas]]. Pada pesta-pesta jamuan makan ia berjumpa dengan sejumlah [[cendikiawan]] yang berpendapat bahwa Tuhan telah menetapkan kehidupan sebelumnya dengan hukum-hukum alam, ketimbang dengan ciptaan-ciptaan yang ajaib untuk sementara. Sahabat saudaranya, Nn. [[Harriet Martineau]] adalah seorang penulis yang cerita-ceritanya mempromosikan pembaruan-pembaruan [[Hukum orang miskin]] [[Whig]] [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]]. Kalangan ilmiah heboh dengan gagasan-gagasan tentang [[transmutasi spesies]] yang secara kontroversial dikaitkan dengan [[Radikalisme (historis)|kehebohan ''Radikal'']]. Darwin lebih suka akan teman-temannya yang terhormat, para profesor Cambridge, meskipun gagasan-gagasannya melampaui keyakinan mereka bahwa sejarah alam harus membenarkan agama dan tatanan sosial.
Pada
Di bawah tekanan untuk menata ''Zoologi'' dan mengoreksi naskah-naskah untuk ''Journal''-nya, kesehatan Darwin mengalami kemunduran. Pada [[20 September]] [[1837]] ia menderita "jantung yang berdebar-debar" dan pergi ke daerah pedesaan untuk memulihkan kesehatannya. Ia mengunjungi [[Maer Hall]] tempat bibinya yang invalid diasuh oleh anak perempuannya yang tetap melajang, [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], dan menghibur sanak keluarganya dengan cerita-cerita mengenai perjalanannya. Pamannya, [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Jos]] menunjukkan sebuah tempat di tanah di mana
''cinders'' menghilang di bawah [[loam]] dan mengatakan bahwa itu semua adalah pekerjaan cacing tanah. Darwin memperoleh gagasan untuk sebuah percakapan yang disampaikannya kepada Perhimpunan Geologis pada
[[Berkas:Emma Darwin.jpg|
Setelah sembuh total, ia kembail ke rumahnya di Shrewsbury. Ia memikirkan karier dan prospeknya secara ilmiah, dan karena itu ia menyusun sebuah daftar dengan dua kolom dengan judul ''"Menikah"'' dan ''"Tidak Menikah"''. Daftar yang dimasukkan di bawah kolom pro-perhikahan mencakup "pendamping tetap dan teman pada usia tua ... betapapun lebih baik daripada seekor anjing," sementara daftar di antara yang kontra adalah "lebih sedikit uang untuk buku" dan "hilangnya waktu yang sangat menyedihkan." Pertimbangan pro akhirnya menang. Ia membicarakan hal ini dengan ayahnya lalu pergi mengunjungi sepupunya Emma pada
=== Pernikahan dan anak-anak ===
[[Berkas:Charles and William Darwin.jpg|
Pada
Setelah pertama-tama tinggal di Gower Street, [[London]], pasangan ini pindah pada
* William Erasmus Darwin (
* [[Anne Darwin|Anne Elizabeth Darwin]] (
* Mary Eleanor Darwin (
* Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin (
* [[George Darwin|George Howard Darwin]] (
* [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Elizabeth "Bessy" Darwin]] (
* [[Francis Darwin]] (
* [[Leonard Darwin]] (
* [[Horace Darwin]] (
* [[Charles Waring Darwin]] (
Beberapa dari anak-anak mereka menderita penyakit atau lemah tubuhnya. Charles Darwin kuatir bahwa hal ini mungkin disebabkan karena garis keturunannya dengan Emma cukup dekat. Hal ini diungkapkannya dalam tulisan-tulisannya tentang akibat-akibat buruk yang ditimbulkan dari perkawinan antar kerabat dekat dan keuntungan dari perkawinan silang.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=8 Mei 2010|title=Darwin A Case Study In His Own Theory: Inbreeding|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126637625|website=NPR.org|language=en|access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref>
=== Pengembangan teori ===
{{utama|Perkembangan teori Darwin}}
[[Berkas:Charles Darwin.jpg|
Darwin sudah lama berpikir tentang evolusi ide; bahwa semua species berhubungan satu sama lain dan mempunyai "common ancestor" (berasal dari satu garis keturunan) dan melalui mutasi species baru muncul. Namun dia masih penasaran tentang mekanisme bagaimana proses itu terjadi. Secara kebetulan, ia membaca tulisal-tulisan [[Thomas Malthus]]. [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]] berpendapat bahwa populasi manusia bertambah lebih cepat daripada produksi makanan, sehingga menyebabkan manusia bersaing satu sama lain untuk memperebutkan makanan dan menjadikan perbuatan amal sia-sia. Dengan gembira Darwin menggunakan mekanisme ini untuk menjelaskan teorinya. Ia menulis: "Manusia cenderung untuk bertambah dalam tingkat yang lebih besar daripada caranya untuk bertahan. Akibatnya, sesekali ia harus berjuang keras untuk bertahan, dan seleksi alam akan memengaruhi apa yang terletak di dalam jangkauan ini." (''Descent of Man'', Ps.21) Ia menghubungkan hal ini dengan temuan-temuannya mengenai spesies-spesies yang terkait dengan tempat-tempat, penelitiannya tentang pengembang-biakan binatang, dan gagasan tentang "[[hukum seleksi alam]]" (Natural Selection). Menjelang akhir 1838 ia membandingkan ciri-ciri seleksi para peternak dengan seleksi alam menurut teori Malthus dari varian-varian yang terjadi "secara kebetulan" sehingga "setiap bagian dari struktur yang baru diperoleh sepenuhnya dipraktikkan dan disempurnakan", dan menganggap bahwa ini adalah "bagian yang paling indah dari teori saya" tentang bagaimana spesies-spesies itu bermula.
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=== Penerbitan buku Asal-Usul Spesies dan kontroversi ===
[[Berkas:Origin of Species title page.jpg|jmpl|Halaman judul<br />''On the Origin of Species'' edisi tahun 1859]]
Darwin menulis ide tentang evolusi di buku ''[[Asal Usul Spesies]]'' (''The Origin of Species'') yang menjelaskan teori evolusi. Pada mulanya, Darwin sungkan untuk menerbitkan hasil pemikiran dan hasil observasinya yang sangat radikal, terutama pada zaman itu, [[Inggris]] pada zaman [[Victoria]]. Selama bertahun-tahun, ia menyimpan ide ini dan hanya berbicara dengan teman sekerja yang dipercayanya. Salah satu motivasi Darwin untuk pada akhirnya menerbitkan buku ini adalah dorongan dari [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]. Wallace sendiri juga menulis tentang ide serupa dan mengirimkannya ke Darwin. Darwin dinasihatkan untuk secepatnya menyelesaikan tulisannya. Pada tahun 1859, buku ''The Origin of Species'' diterbitkan dan,secara tidak diduga, menjadi laku keras dan kontroversial.
Walaupun Darwin tidak membahas evolusi manusia secara terang-terangan, bukunya mendapat tantangan keras, baik dari kaum ilmiah, maupun masyarakat, terutama pihak gereja. Di periode yang sulit ini, Darwin didampingi oleh salah satu kawan setianya, [[Thomas Huxley]], yang dijuluki "Darwin Bulldog". Secara jitu dan tajam, Huxley membela Darwin teori dari serangan-serangan. Salah satu episode yang terkenal ialah debat antara Huxley dengan Bishop [[Samuel Wilberforce]].
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== Lihat pula ==
{{Portal|Biologi}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Kontroversi penciptaan-evolusi]]
* [[Penjelajahan ilmiah pelayaran Amerika dan Eropa]]
* [[Harriet (kura-kura)]]
* [[Sejarah biologi]]
* [[Sejarah pemikiran evolusi]]
* [[Darwinisme universal]]
* [[Daftar pustaka Charles Darwin]]
{{div col end}}
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'''<small>V</small>.''' {{Note_label|E|V|none}} [[Genetics|Geneticists]] studied human heredity as [[Mendelian inheritance]], while [[eugenics]] movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical [[pseudoscience]]. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws in the United States, copied by [[Nazi Germany]] as the basis for [[Nazi eugenics]] based on virulent racism and "[[racial hygiene]]".<br />({{Cite news|last = Thurtle|first =Phillip|date =17 December 1996|title =the creation of genetic identity|periodical =SEHR|volume = 5|issue =Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism|url =http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-supp/text/thurtle.html|accessdate =11 November 2008|ref = harv}}{{Cite news|last = Edwards|first =A. W. F.|date = 1 April 2000|title =The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
|periodical = Genetics|volume = 154|issue =April 2000|pages = 1419–1426|url =http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/154/4/1419#The_Eclipse_of_Darwinism|accessdate =11 November 2008|pmid = 10747041|pmc = 1461012|ref = harv}}<br />{{cite web |last = Wilkins |first = John |title = Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics |url = http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |accessdate = 11 November 2008 |archive-date = 2008-12-05 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081205154013/http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |dead-url = yes }})
'''<small>VI</small>.''' {{Note_label|F|VI|none}} Darwin did not share the then common view that other races are inferior, and said of his [[taxidermy]] tutor [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave, "I used often to sit with him, for he was a very pleasant and intelligent man".<ref name=eddy/>
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{{refend}}
==
{{reflist|20em}}
==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite news|last=Anonymous|first=|date=|year=1882|title=Obituary: Death Of Chas. Darwin|periodical=[[The New York Times]]|issue=21 April 1882|url=http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0212.html|work=|accessdate=30 October 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Balfour
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|date = 11 May 1882
|title = [[s:Transactions & Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh/Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin|Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin]]
|url=|journal=[[Transactions & Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh]]
|volume=|issue = 14
|pages = 284–298|doi=|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Bannister|first=Robert C.|date=|year=1989|url=|title=Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought.|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=0-87722-566-4|pages=|ref=harv|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Bowler|first=Peter J.|date=|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8|title=Evolution: The History of an Idea|edition=3rd|pages=|location=|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-23693-9|ref=harv|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Browne|first=E. Janet|authorlink=Janet Browne|url-status=live|date=|year=1995|url=|title=Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging|publication-place=London|pages=|location=|publisher=Jonathan Cape|isbn=1-84413-314-1|Ref={{Sfnref|Browne|1995}}|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Browne|first=E. Janet|date=|year=2002|url=|title=Charles Darwin: vol. 2 The Power of Place|publication-place=London|pages=|location=|publisher=Jonathan Cape|isbn=0-7126-6837-3|ref=harv|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1835|title=Extracts from letters to Professor Henslow|publication-place=Cambridge|pages=|location=|publisher=[privately printed]|isbn=|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=1 November 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1837|title=Notebook B: (Transmutation of species)|location=|publisher=Darwin Online|isbn=|pages=|id=CUL-DAR121|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1|accessdate=20 December 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1839|title=Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Journal and remarks. 1832–1836.|location=London|publisher=Henry Colburn|isbn=|volume=III|pages=|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.3&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|author-link=|date=|year=1842|publication-date=1909|pages=|contribution=Pencil Sketch of 1842|contribution-url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=33|url-status=live|editor-last=Darwin|editor-first=Francis|editor-link=Francis Darwin|title=The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844.|location=|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|isbn=0-548-79998-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|author-link=|date=|year=1845|title=Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. 2d edition|location=London|publisher=John Murray|isbn=|pages=|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F20&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Darwin
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|first2 = Alfred Russel
|author2-link = Alfred Russel Wallace
|date=|year = 1858
|title =[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]
|url=|edition =
|series = Zoology 3
|publication-place =
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|volume = 3
|issue = 9}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1859|title=On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life|edition=1st|publication-place=London|pages=|location=|publisher=John Murray|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=1-4353-9386-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|author-link=|date=|year=1868|title=The variation of animals and plants under domestication|publication-place=London|pages=|location=|publisher=John Murray|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F880.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=1 November 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=1-4191-8660-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1871|title=The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|edition=1st|publication-place=London|pages=|location=|publisher=John Murray|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=0-8014-2085-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1872|title=The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life|edition=6th|pages=|location=London|publisher=John Murray|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=1 November 2009|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=1-4353-9386-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1887|editor-last=Darwin|editor-first=Francis|editor-link=Francis Darwin|pages=|title=The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter|location=London|publisher=John Murray|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LifeandLettersandAutobiography.html|accessdate=4 November 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=0-404-08417-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=1958|editor-last=Barlow|editor-first=Nora|editor-link=Nora Barlow|pages=|title=The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text|Ref={{Sfnref|Darwin|1958}}|location=London|publisher=Collins|isbn=|accessdate=28 September 2013|url-status=live|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=|year=2006|pages=|contribution=Journal|contribution-url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1-76&pageseq=1|url-status=live|editor-last=van Wyhe|editor-first=John|title=Darwin's personal 'Journal' (1809–1881)|location=|publisher=Darwin Online|isbn=|id=CUL-DAR158.1–76|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_JournalDAR158.html|accessdate=20 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Desmond|first=Adrian|authorlink=Adrian Desmond|last2=Moore|first2=James|author2-link=James Moore (biographer)|url-status=live|date=|year=1991|url=https://archive.org/details/darwin0000desm|title=Darwin|location=London|publisher=Michael Joseph, Penguin Group|isbn=0-7181-3430-3|pages=|Ref={{Sfnref|Desmond & Moore|1991}}|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Desmond|first=Adrian|author-link=|last2=Moore|first2=James|author2-link=James Moore (biographer)|url-status=live|last3=Browne|first3=Janet|date=|year=2004|url=|title=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]|publication-place=Oxford, England|pages=|location=|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/7176|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Desmond|first=Adrian|authorlink=Adrian Desmond|last2=Moore|first2=James|author2-link=James Moore (biographer)|url-status=live|date=|year=2009|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=VTNIBQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Darwin's sacred cause : race, slavery and the quest for human origins|location=London|publisher=Allen Lane|isbn=978-1-84614-035-8|pages=|Ref={{Sfnref|Desmond & Moore|2009}}}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Dobzhansky
Baris 439 ⟶ 225:
|date = March 1973
|title = Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution
|url=|journal = The American Biology Teacher
|volume = 35
|pages = 125–129
Baris 450 ⟶ 236:
|first = Niles
|author-link = Niles Eldredge
|date =
|year = 2006
|title = Confessions of a Darwinist
|periodical = The Virginia Quarterly Review
|volume =
|issue = Spring 2006
|pages = 32–53
|doi =
|url = http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2006/spring/eldredge-confessions-darwinist/
|journal =
|accessdate = 4 November 2008 |ref = harv }} * {{cite book|last=FitzRoy|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Fitzroy|date=|year=1839|title=Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, Volume II|publication-place=London|pages=|location=|publisher=Henry Colburn|isbn=|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=4 November 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Freeman|first=R. B.|author-link=R. B. Freeman|date=|year=1977|title=The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist|publication-place=Folkestone|pages=|location=|publisher=Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=4 November 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=0-208-01658-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Freeman|first=R. B.|title=Charles Darwin: A companion|location=|publisher=[[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]]|isbn=|date=|year=2007|edition=2nd online|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=114|pp=107, 109|accessdate=25 December 2014|url-status=live|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
|last =Herbert
|first =
|
|year =1980
|title =The red notebook of Charles Darwin
|journal =Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History)
|series =Historical Series
|volume =
|issue =7 (24 April)
|pages =1–164
|doi =
|url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1583e&pageseq=1
|accessdate =11 January 2009
|ref =harv }}
* {{cite journal
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|first =
|
|year =1991
|title =Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author
|journal =British Journal for the History of Science
|issue =
|pages =159–192
|url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=1
|accessdate =24 October 2008
|ref =harv |doi =10.1017/S0007087400027060
|volume =24
}}
* {{cite book|last=Keynes|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Keynes|date=|year=2000|title=Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from H.M.S. Beagle.|location=|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1840&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=22 November 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=0-521-46569-9|pages=}}
* {{cite book|last=Keynes|first=Richard|date=|year=2001|title=Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary|location=|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1925&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=live|ref=harv|isbn=0-521-23503-0|pages=}}
* {{cite web|last=Kotzin|first=Daniel|date=|year=2004|title=Point-Counterpoint: Social Darwinism|publisher=Columbia American History Online|url=http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14008.html|website=|accessdate=22 November 2008|ref=harv|archive-date=2011-07-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719072856/http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14008.html|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite book|last=Larson|first=Edward J.|authorlink=Edward Larson|url-status=live|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars|title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory|location=|publisher=Modern Library|date=|year=2004|isbn=0-679-64288-9|pages=|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web|last=Leff|first=David|date=|year=2000|title=AboutDarwin.com|url=http://www.aboutdarwin.com/index.html|website=|edition=2000–2008|accessdate=30 December 2008|ref=harv|archive-date=2013-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828111301/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/index.html|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Leifchild
|first =
|date = 19 November 1859
|title = Review of 'Origin'
|periodical = [[Athenaeum (magazine)|Athenaeum]]
|volume =
|issue = 1673
|pages =
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|journal =
|accessdate = 22 November 2008
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}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Miles
|first = Sara Joan
|
|year = 2001
|title = Charles Darwin and Asa Gray Discuss Teleology and Design |journal = ''[[Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]]''
|volume = 53
|issue =
|pages = 196–201
|doi =
|url = http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2001/PSCF9-01Miles.html
|accessdate = 22 November 2008
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}}
* {{cite news|last=Moore|first=James|author-link=James Moore (biographer)|date=|year=2005|title=Darwin – A 'Devil's Chaplain'?|publisher=American Public Media|url=http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/moore-devilschaplain.pdf|format=PDF|work=|accessdate=22 November 2008|ref=harv|archive-date=2008-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227014518/http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/moore-devilschaplain.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite news|last=Moore|first=James|date=|year=2006|title=Evolution and Wonder – Understanding Charles Darwin|series=Speaking of Faith (Radio Program)|publisher=American Public Media|url=http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml|work=|accessdate=22 November 2008|ref=harv|archive-date=2008-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222020720/http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite book|last=Owen|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Owen|url-status=live|date=|year=1840|editor-last=Darwin|editor-first=C. R.|url=|title=Fossil Mammalia Part 1|series=The zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle|pages=|location=London|publisher=Smith Elder and Co|isbn=|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Paul|first=Diane B.|date=|year=2003|contribution=Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics|editor-last=Hodge|editor-first=Jonathan|editor2-last=Radick|editor2-first=Gregory|url-status=live|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00hodg|title=The Cambridge Companion to Darwin|location=|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00hodg/page/n229 214]–239|isbn=0-521-77730-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|date=|year=1952|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|location=|publisher=New York: Grosset & Dunlap|Ref={{Sfnref|Smith|1952}}|isbn=0-521-77730-5|pages=|ref=harv|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|last=Smith|first=Charles H.|title=Alfred Russel Wallace on Spiritualism, Man, and Evolution: An Analytical Essay|date=|year=1999|url=http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/essays/ARWPAMPH.htm|website=|accessdate=7 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal
|last = Sulloway
|first = Frank J.
|author-link = Frank Sulloway
|date =
|year = 1982
|title = Darwin and His Finches: The Evolution of a Legend |journal = Journal of the History of Biology
|volume = 15
|issue = 1
|pages = 1–53
|format = PDF
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|accessdate = 9 December 2008
|doi = 10.1007/BF00132004
|ref = harv }} * {{cite web|last=Sweet|first=William|title=Herbert Spencer|publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|date=|year=2004|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/|website=|accessdate=16 December 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web|last=Wilkins|first=John S.|date=|year=1997|title=Evolution and Philosophy: Does evolution make might right?|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/social.html|website=|accessdate=22 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Wilkins|first=John S.|date=|year=2008|contribution=Darwin|editor-last=Tucker|editor-first=Aviezer|url=|title=A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography|series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy|pages=405–415|publication-place=Chichester|location=|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=1-4051-4908-6|ref=harv|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal
|last = van Wyhe
|first = John
|title = Mind the gap: Did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?
|journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society
|volume = 61
|issue = 2
|pages = 177–205 |date = 27 March 2007
|doi = 10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=1
|accessdate = 7 February 2008
|ref = harv }}
* {{cite web|last=van Wyhe|first=John|date=|year=2008|title=Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch|publisher=Darwin Online|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html|website=|accessdate=17 November 2008|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=van Wyhe|first=John|publication-date=1 September 2008|pages=|date=|year=2008b|url=https://archive.org/details/darwinmanhisgrea0000vanw|title=Darwin: The Story of the Man and His Theories of Evolution|publication-place=London|location=|publisher=Andre Deutsch Ltd|isbn=0-233-00251-0|ref=harv|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=von Sydow|first=Momme|date=|year=2005|contribution=Darwin – A Christian Undermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science|contribution-url=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf|url-status=live|editor-last=Knight|editor-first=David M.|editor2-last=Eddy|editor2-first=Matthew D.|url=http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf|title=Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, 1700–1900|location=Burlington|publisher=Ashgate|pages=141–156|isbn=0-7546-3996-7|accessdate=16 December 2008|ref=harv|archive-date=2009-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{cite web|last=Yates|first=Simon|date=|year=2003|title=The Lady Hope Story: A Widespread Falsehood|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html|website=|accessdate=15 December 2006|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
Baris 736 ⟶ 386:
{{Evolusi}}
{{Darwin}}
{{etologi}}
{{Authority control}}
{{lifetime|1809|1882|Darwin, Charles}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Darwin, Charles}}
[[Kategori:Charles Darwin| ]]
[[Kategori:Ilmuwan Inggris]]
|