Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab: Perbedaan antara revisi
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Baris 1:
{{Short description|Bentuk kuno dari bahasa Ibrani}}
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| imagecaption = Sebuah gambar [[Prasasti Siloam]] yang saat ini menjadi koleksi dari [[Museum Arkeologi Istanbul]]
| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2 = {{PRBahasa|Semitik}}
| fam3 = {{PRBahasa|Semit Barat}}
| fam4 = {{PRBahasa|Semit Tengah}}
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| glottoname2 = Samaritan
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{{Contains
'''Bahasa Ibrani
| title = The Biblical World
| volume = 2
Baris 36 ⟶ 37:
| year = 2004
| orig-year = 2002
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LtD4Xomh4XgC&pg=PA7
| page = 7
| quote = Interestingly, the term 'Hebrew' (ibrit) is not used of the language in the biblical text ({{lang-id|Menariknya, istilah 'Ibrani' (ibrit) tidak digunakan untuk bahasa tersebut dalam teks Alkitab}}
| isbn = 9780415350914
}}
</ref> dan digantikan dengan istilah yang disebut sebagai {{lang|he| שְֹפַת כְּנַעַן}} (''sefat kena'an'', terjemahan: Bahasa dari Kanaan) atau {{lang|he|יְהוּדִית}} (''Yehudit'', terjemahan: [[orang Yahudi]]).<ref name=Barton/> Sementara itu, istilah ''ibrit'' digunakan pada teks Alkitab dalam bahasa {{PBahasa|Yunani Kuno}} dan {{PBahasa|Ibrani Mishnaik}}.<ref name=Barton/>
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab diperkirakan berasal dari abad ke-10 sebelum Masehi dengan ditemukannya sebuah prasasti tertua yang mendukung keberadaan bahasa tersebut.<ref name="eurekalert.org">{{Harvcoltxt|Feldman|2010}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab terus dituturkan oleh bangsa Ibrani hingga [[Pengepungan Yerusalem (70)|Pengepungan Yerusalem]] berlangsung pada tahun 70 Masehi, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa bahasa tersebut dituturkan melebihi masa [[Bait Allah Kedua]].<ref name="bar" /> Bahasa tersebut kemudian berkembang menjadi bahasa {{PBahasa|Ibrani Mishnaik}} dan dituturkan hingga akhir abad ke-5 Masehi.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab dituangkan dalam [[Alkitab Ibrani]] yang melambangkan strata mendalam dan tahapan-tahapan dari bahasa Ibrani dan [[Akar kata rumpun bahasa Semit|struktur konsonanta Semit]]nya, dan juga penambahan [[vokalisasi Tiberian|struktur vokalisasi]] pada [[Abad Pertengahan]] oleh [[Kaum Masorah]]. Terdapat beberapa bukti dari variasi [[dialek]]al, termasuk perbedaan antara Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab yang dituturkan di wilayah utara ([[Kerajaan Israel (Samaria)|Kerajaan Israel]]) dengan wilayah selatan ([[Kerajaan Yehuda]]). Teks [[Abjad|konsonanta]] dituliskan kedalam bentuk prasasti dan Kitab. Sistem penulisan semacam itu mengalami perubahan sistem tulis pada masa [[Bait Allah Kedua]], sehingga beberapa bagian karya tulis yang lebih awal (seperti Kitab [[Kitab Amos|Amos]], [[Kitab Yesaya|Yesaya]], [[Kitab Hosea|Hosea]] and [[Kitab Mikha|Mikha]]) [[penanggalan Alkitab|yang berasal]] dari akhir abad ke-8 hingga awal abad ke-7 sebelum Masehi menunjukkan tanda-tanda penulisan sebelum perubahan dilakukan.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab telah dituliskan kedalam beberapa [[sistem penulisan]]. Dari kisaran abad ke-12 hingga abad ke-6 sebelim Masehi, bangsa Ibrani menggunakan [[alfabet Paleo-Ibrani]]. Penggunaan alfabet ini kemudian digantikan oleh aksara turunan [[Abjad Samaria]] oleh [[orang Samaria]] hingga hari ini. Meskipun demikian, [[alfabet Aram Imperium]] juga turut menggantikan alfabet Paleo-Ibrani setelah terjadinya [[Pembuangan ke Babilonia|pemindahan bangsa Ibrani ke Babilonia]], dan alfabet tersebut menjadi sumber dari [[bahasa Ibrani Modern#Alfabet|Alfabet bahasa Ibrani Modern]]. Semua dari sistem penulisan diatas tidak benar-benar dapat melambangkan semua [[fonem]] bahasa Ibrani Alkitab dikarenakan kurangnya huruf yang tersedia. Meskipun begitu, terjemahan ataupun alih-aksara dalam [[bahasa Yunani]] maupun [[bahasa Latin]] dapat memuat fonem yang ada. Aksara-aksara ini awalnya hanya melambangkan konsonan, akan tetapi beberapa diantaranya dapat memiliki penanda [[vokal]] dalam beberapa kata maupun huruf yang dikenal sebagai [[Mater lectionis|''matres lectionis'']] dalam istilah Latin. Pada masa Abad Pertengahan, berbagai macam [[diakritik]] bermunculan untuk melambangkan vokal. Meskipun begitu, dari sekian jenis, hanya [[vokalisasi Tiberian]] yang digunakan secara luas hingga saat ini.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab memiliki berbagai macam [[konsonan emfatis]] yang [[fonetik artikuloris]] pastinya masih diperdebatkan, fonem emfatis tersebut kemungkinan merupakan [[konsonan sembur]] ataupun konsonan yang [[faringalisasi|terfaringalisasi]]. Bahasa Ibrani periode awal memiliki tiga konsonan yang tidak memiliki huruf perlambangan dalam sistem penulisan Ibrani, tetapi fonem tersebut mengalami penyatuan dengan konsonan lain seiring berjalannya waktu. [[Konsonan letup]] yang ada menghasilkan [[alofoni]] konsonan [[konsonan frikatif|frikatif]] karena adanya pengaruh dari [[bahasa Aram]], sehingga konsonan tersebut pada akhirnya menjadi konsonan [[fonem|fonemik]]. Konsonan [[Konsonan faringal|faringal]] dan [[konsonan celah-suara|celah-suara]] mengalami pelemahan pada beberapa dialek regional, seperti yang dapat dilihat pada kebudayaan membaca masyarakat Ibrani Samaria. Sistem vokal dari bahasa Ibrani Alkitab mengalami perubahan seiring dengan waktu, hal ini menyebabkan penerjemahan dan alih aksara beberapa sastra dan kitab dalam bahasa Yunani Kuno, Latin, sistem vokalisasi abad pertengahan, dan kebudayaan literatur modern menjadi berbeda satu sama lainnya.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab memiliki morfologi Semit umum dengan [[morfologi tak berkelanjutan]], sehingga memungkinkan [[akar kata rumpun bahasa Semit]]nya disusun menggunakan beberapa pola untuk menghasilkan sebuah kata. Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab memiliki dua penggolongan [[gender (tata bahasa)|gender]] (maskulin, dan feminim), tiga [[nominalia (tata bahasa)|nominalia]] (tunggal, jamak, dan ganda—untuk kasus yang sangat jarang terjadi). [[Verba]] ditandai dengan adanya [[diatesis]] dan [[modus]] dan memiliki dua [[konjungsi (tata bahasa)|konjungsi]] yang mungkin ditandai dengan adanya [[aspek (tata bahasa)|aspek]] dan/atau [[kala (linguistik)|kala]] (masih menjadi perdebatan). Unsur aspek dan kala pada verba juga dipengaruhi oleh konjungsi {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}, yang seringkali disebut sebagai struktur [[konsekutif wau]]. Tidak seperti bahasa Ibrani Modern, susunan kata dasar pada bahasa Ibrani Alkitab adalah [[predikat-subjek-objek]] (PSO), sementara verba berubah dan diinfleksikan menurut numeralia, gender, dan [[persona (tata bahasa)|persona]] dari subjek. Akhiran pronomina juga dapat ditambahkan pada verba (untuk mengindikasikan [[Objek (tata bahasa)|objek]]) atau nomina (untuk mengindikasikan [[posesi (tata bahasa)|posesi]]), dan nomina memiliki [[tingkatan konstruktif]] istimewa untuk digunakan dalam penyusunan posesi.
== Nomenklatur==
{{Hiero | ˁ[[Apiru]] (ʕprw)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Budge|1920|p=119}}</ref> | <hiero>a:p:r-G43-A1</hiero> | align=left | era=default }}
Sumber tertulis tertua menyebut bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah menurut nama negeri di mana bahasa itu digunakan yaitu: {{lang|hbo|שפת כנען|rtl=yes}} ''sefat kena'an'', artinya "bahasa Kanaan" (lihat [[Yesaya 19:18]]).<ref name="s1"/> Selain itu juga tercatat disebut sebagai {{lang|hbo|יהודית|rtl=yes}} ''Yehudit'', artinya "bahasa Yehuda" atau "bahasa Yudea" (misalnya, [[2 Raja-raja 18:26]][[2 Raja-raja 18:28|,28]]).<ref name="s1"/> Dalam periode Helenistik, tulisan-tulisan Yunani menggunakan istilah ''Hebraios'', ''Hebraïsti'' ([[Flavius Yosefus|Yosefus]], [[Antiquitates Iudaicae|''Antiquities'']] I, 1:2, dll.), dan dalam Ibrani Mishnah didapati istilah {{lang|hbo|עברית|rtl=yes}} ''ivrit'', artinya "(bahasa) Ibrani dan {{lang|hbo|לשון עברית|rtl=yes}} "bahasa Ibrani" ([[Nashim|Mishnah Gittin]] 9:8, dll.).<ref name="s1"/>
Asal usul istilah ini tidak jelas; sejumlah usulan asal mulanya meliputi nama tokoh Alkitab [[Eber]], [[ethnonym|etnonim]] [[Habiru|Ḫabiru]], Ḫapiru, dan ˁApiru yang ditemukan dalam sumber-sumber dari [[Mesir Kuno|Mesir]] dan [[Timur Dekat]], serta turunan atau derivasi dari akar kata {{lang|hbo|עבר|rtl=yes}} "melewati", "menyeberangi", yang mengacu pada penyeberangan melewati sungai Yordan.<ref name="s1"/>{{sfn|Rainey|2008}} Orang Yahudi juga menyebut bahasa Ibrani sebagai {{lang|hbo|לשון הקדש|rtl=yes}} "Bahasa Kudus" (Inggris: "''the Holy Tongue''") dalam Ibrani Mishnah.<ref name="s1"/>
Istilah ''Bahasa Ibrani Klasik'' dapat meliputi semua dialek Ibrani sebelum [[Abad Pertengahan]], termasuk Ibrani Mishnah, atau dapat dibatasi pada bahasa Ibrani yang sezaman dengan Alkitab Ibrani. Istilah ''Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah'' merujuk kepada dialek-dialek sebelum [[Mishnah]] (kadang kala tidak memasukkan bahasa Ibrani yang dipakai dalam karya-karya non-Alkitab dari antara [[Naskah Laut Mati]]). Istilah Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah juga dapat meliputi atau tidak meliputi teks-teks di luar Alkitab, seperti prasasti-prasasti (misalnya: [[Inskripsi Siloam]]), dan umumnya juga meliputi tradisi vokalisasi di kemudian hari untuk teks konsonantal Alkitab Ibrani, di mana yang paling umum adalah vokalisasi Tiberias dari awal Abad Pertengahan.
== Sejarah ==
<!--{{See also|Ancient Hebrew writings}}-->
[[Berkas:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg|jmpl|200px|alt=Koin dari zaman pemberontakan Bar-Kokhba menggunakan tulisan Ibrani Kuno (''Paleo-Hebrew''), di satu sisi menggambarkan lorong di Bait Suci, Tabut Perjanjian di dalamnya, bintang di atasnya; dan di sisi lain sebuah lulav dengan etrog.|Koin yang dicetak selama [[Perang Bar Kokhba]]. Teks dalam [[abjad Ibrani Kuno|abjad Ibrani Kuno (''Paleo-Hebrew'')]] berbunyi {{lang|hbo|שמעון|rtl=yes}} "Simeon" di bagian depan dan {{lang|hbo|לחרות ירושלם|rtl=yes}} "untuk kemerdekaan Yerusalem" di bagian belakang.]]
Catatan [[arkeologi]] mengenai prasejarah bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah jauh lebih lengkap daripada catatan bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah itu sendiri.<ref name="enws">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|pp=6–7}}</ref> Materi terkait [[Rumpun bahasa Semit Barat Laut|bahasa Semit Barat Laut]] Awal (''ENWS''; Inggris: ''<u>E</u>arly <u>N</u>orth<u>w</u>est <u>S</u>emitic'') memiliki bukti keberadaan dari tahun 2350 SM sampai 1200 SM, yaitu akhir [[Zaman Perunggu]].<ref name="enws"/> Bahasa-bahasa Semit Barat laut, termasuk bahasa Ibrani, jelas terdiferensiasi selama [[Zaman Besi]] (1200–540 SM), meskipun pada tahapan paling awalnya bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah tidak sangat berbeda dari bahasa-bahasa [[Ugaritic|Ugarit]] dan Kanaan yang didapati dalam [[Surat-surat Amarna]].<ref name="wo8-9" />
Bahasa Ibrani berkembang selama paruh kedua [[milenium kedua SM]] di antara sungai Yordan dan [[Laut Tengah]], daerah yang dikenal sebagai [[Kanaan]].<ref name="s1"/> Suku-suku Israel mendirikan suatu kerajaan di Kanaan pada permulaan milennium pertama SM, yang kemudian terpecah menjadi kerajaan Israel di utara dan [[kerajaan Yehuda]] di selatan setelahs pertikaian terkait pergantian tahta.<ref name="sthist">{{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=145}}</ref> Tulisan bahasa Ibrani tertua saat ini ditemukan di [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]] dan bertarikh abad ke-10 SM.<ref name="eurekalert.org">{{Harvcoltxt|Feldman|2010}}</ref><ref name="bar" />
Kerajaan Israel direbut oleh orang Asyur pada tahun 722 SM.<ref name="sthist" /> Kerajaan Yehuda ditaklukkan oleh orang Babel pada tahun 586 SM, kalangan bangsawan [[Pembuangan ke Babel|dibuang ke Babel]] dan [[Bait Salomo]] dihancurkan.<ref name="sthist" /><ref name="s112" /> Kemudian orang Persia menjadikan Yehuda (Yudea) sebuah provinsi dan mengizinkan orang buangan Yahudi pulang dan membangun Bait Suci kembali.<ref name="sthist" /> Menurut ''[[Gemara]]'', bahasa Ibrani pada periode ini mirip dengan [[Imperial Aramaic|bahasa Aram Kerajaan]];<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2bJ1UqfNXAC&lpg=PA115 History of the Jewish People: From Yavneh to Pumbedisa, Meir. Holder, p115]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe7WXki-ZQsC&lpg=PA79 One-minute History Lessons: Six Millennia of Great Jewish Leaders, Moshe Goldberger, p79]</ref><ref>[http://m.chabad.org/m/article_cdo/aid/1051040 Aramaic: the Yiddish of the Middle East]{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> dalam [[Pesachim (Talmud)|Pesahim]], Tractate 87b, [[Hanina bar Hama]] mengatakan bahwa Allah mengirimkan orang-orang buangan Yahudi ke Babel karena "bahasa [Babilonia] itu seperti ''Leshon Hakodesh''".
Bahasa Aram menjadi bahasa umum di Israel utara, di [[Galilea]] dan [[Samaria]].<ref name="s112" /> Bahasa Ibrani tetap digunakan di Yehuda; tetapi orang-orang buangan membawa pulang pengaruh bahasa Aram dan memakai bahasa itu untuk berkomunikasi dengan suku bangsa lain selama periode Persia.<ref name="s112">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=112–113}}</ref> Aleksander Agung menguasai Yehuda pada tahun 332 SM, memulai periode dominasi Helenistik (Yunani).<ref name="s112" /> Selama periode Helenistik Yudea menjadi merdeka di bawah [[Hashmonayim|dinasti Hashmonayim]], tetapi kemudian orang Romawi mengakhiri kemerdekaan mereka, menjadikan [[Herodes Agung]] gubernur mereka.<ref name="sthist" /> Pemberontakan orang Yahudi melawan orang Romawi sampai kehancuran [[Bait Kedua]] pada tahun 70 M, dan [[Perang Bar Kokhba]] kedua pada tahun 132–135 menyebabkan keberangkatan sejumlah besar penduduk Yahudi dari Yudea.<ref name="sthist"/>
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah setelah periode Bait Suci Kedua berkembang menjadi bahasa Ibrani Mishnah, yang berhenti menjadi bahasa percakapan dan berkembang menjadi bahasa sastra sekitar tahun 200 M.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=166, 171}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani terus digunakan sebagai bahasa sastra dan liturgis dalam bentuk [[Medieval Hebrew|bahasa Ibrani Abad Pertengahan]], lalu bahasa Ibrani memulai proses revival pada abad ke-19, berpuncak dengan dijadikannya [[Ibrani modern|bahasa Ibrani Modern]] sebagai bahasa resmi [[Israel]]. Saat ini, bahasa Ibrani Klasik umumnya diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah publik di [[Israel]], sedangkan bentuk-bentuk bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah kadang-kadang digunakan dalam sastra Ibrani Modern, sebanyak konstruksi arkaik dan alkiabiah digunakan dalam sastra Inggris Modern. Mengingat bahasa Ibrani Modern memuat banyak unsur-unsur alkitabiah, bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah cukup mudah dibaca oleh para pemakai bahasa Ibrani Modern.<ref name="blau11">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=11–12}}</ref>
Sumber utama materi bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah adalah Alkitab Ibrani.<ref name="wo8-9"/><ref name="b10" /> Materi [[epigrafi]] dari wilayah Israel ditulis dalam suatu bentuk bahasa Ibrani yang disebut ''Inscriptional Hebrew'', meskipun buktinya tidak banyak.<ref name="b10">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=10}}</ref><ref name="wo8a">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|pp=8}}: "Materi linguistik di luar Alkitab (''extrabiblical'') dari Zaman Besi terutama adalah epigrafis, yakni teks-teks yang tertulis pada bahan keras (tembikar, batu, tembok, dll.). Teks epigrafis dari wilayah Israel ditulis dalam bahasa Ibrani dalam suatu bentuk bahasa yang dapat disebut ''Inscriptional Hebrew''; "dialek" ini tidak jauh berbeda dengan bahasa Ibrani yang terlestarikan dalam teks Masoret. Sayangnya, bukti-buktinya hanya sedikit."</ref> Menurut Waltke & O'Connor, Inscriptional Hebrew "tidak jauh berbeda dari bahasa Ibrani yang terlestarikan dalam teks Masoret."<ref name="wo8a"/> Iklim lembap Israel menyebabkan cepatnya kerusakan dokumen papirus dan perkamen, berlawanan dengan lingkungan kering di Mesir, sehingga pelestarian Alkitab Ibrani lebih dikarenakan tekad para jurutulis dalam membuat salinan-salinan.<ref name="wo16">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|p=16}}</ref> Tidak ditemukan naskah Alkitab Ibrani sebelum tahun 400 SM, meskipun dua gulungan perak (gulungan [[Ketef Hinnom]]) dari abad ke-7 atau ke-6 SM yang memuat suatu versi [[Berkat Imamat]].<ref name="wo16" /><ref name="yheb" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|p=118}}</ref> Huruf hidup dan tanda-tanda [[kantilasi]] ditambahkan pada lapisan konsonantal yang lebih tua pada Alkitab antara tahun 600 M dan awal abad ke-10.<ref name="b7" /><ref group="nb">Ini diketahui karena redaksi akhir [[Talmud]], yang tidak menyebutkan tambahan-tambahan ini, adalah sekitar tahun 600 M, sedangkan naskah dengan vokalisasi bertarikh mulai awal abad ke-10. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=7}}</ref> Para cendekiawan yang melestarikan pelafalan Alkitab dikenal sebagai [[kaum Masoret]]. Sistem yang dikembangkan dan terlestarikan terbaik serta satu-satunya yang masih digunakan dalam keagamaan adalah vokalisasi Tiberias, tetapi baik vokalisasi Babilonia dan Palestina juga ada bukti keberadaannya.<ref name="b7"/> Sistem Palestinian terlestarikan terutama dalam [[piyyut]]im, yang memuat kutipan-kutipan Alkitab.<ref name="b7"/>
== Klasifikasi ==
{{Lihat pula|Rumpun bahasa Semit|Rumpun bahasa Semit Barat Laut|Rumpun bahasa Kanaan}}
{{IPA notice}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+Refleks konsonan Proto-Semit dalam bahasa Ibrani<ref name="bmerge">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=25–40}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Frank|2003|p=12}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" | Proto-Semit
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" | Ibrani
! rowspan="2" | Aram
! rowspan="2" | Arab
! colspan="4" | Contoh
|-
! Ibrani
! Aram
! Arab
! Arti
|-
! [[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]
! {{IPA|*/ð/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}} {{lang|hbo|ז|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/d/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ד|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/ð/}} {{lang|ar|ذ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ז'''הב|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ד'''הב|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ذهب|rtl=yes}}
| 'emas'
|-
! [[Zayin|*z]]
! {{IPA|*/z/}}
| {{IPA|/z/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ז|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/z/}} {{lang|ar|ز|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|מא'''ז'''נים|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|מא'''ז'''נין|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|موازين|rtl=yes}}
| 'skala'
|-
! [[Shin (letter)|*š]]
! {{IPA|*/ʃ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} {{lang|hbo|שׁ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|שׁ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/s/}} {{lang|ar|س|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ש'''נה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ש'''נה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|سنة|rtl=yes}}
| 'tahun'
|-
! [[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]
! {{IPA|*/θ/}}
| {{IPA|/t/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ת|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/θ/}} {{lang|ar|ث|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ש'''לו'''ש'''ה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ת'''ל'''ת'''ה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ثلاثة|rtl=yes}}
| 'tiga'
|-
! [[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]
! {{IPA|*/θʼ/}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/sˤ/}} {{lang|hbo|צ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/tˤ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ט|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/ðˤ/}} {{lang|ar|ظ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''צ'''ל|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ט'''לה|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ظل|rtl=yes}}
| 'bayangan'
|-
! [[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]
! {{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʕ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/dˤ/}} {{lang|ar|ض|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|אר'''ץ'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|אר'''ע'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|أرض|rtl=yes}}
| 'tanah'
|-
! [[Tsade|*ṣ]]
! {{IPA|*/sʼ/}}
| {{IPA|/sˤ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|צ|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|/sˤ/}} {{lang|ar|ص|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''צ'''רח|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''צ'''רח|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|صرخ|rtl=yes}}
| 'jeritan'
|}
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah merupakan suatu [[Rumpun bahasa Semit Barat Laut|bahasa Semit Barat Laut]] dari [[Rumpun bahasa Kanaan|subgrup Kanaan]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=65}}</ref>{{sfn|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=29}} Karena bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah berkembang dari [[Proto-Semitic language|bahasa Proto-Semit]], maka mengalami sejumlah penggabungan atau peleburan konsonantal yang paralel dengan bahasa-bahasa Kanaan lainnya.<ref name="bmerge" /><ref name="sclas" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=57–59}}</ref><ref group="nb">Namun, perlu dicatat bahwa bahasa Akkadia juga memiliki banyak pergeseran suara ini tetapi kurang terkait dengan bahasa Ibrani dibandingkan dengan bahasa Aram. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=19}}</ref> Tidak ada bukti bahwa peleburan ini terjadi setelah adaptasi abjad Ibrani.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=76}}</ref><ref group="nb">Namun, contohnya, ketika bahasa Aram Tua meminjam abjad Kanaan, masih memiliki interdental, tetapi menandainya dengan apa peleburannya dalam bahasa Kanaan. Misalnya, "lembu" ditulis {{lang|hbo|שר|rtl=yes}} tetapi dilafalkan dengan suara {{IPA|/θ/}} di awalnya ("inisial"; ''initial''). Gejala yang sama juga terjadi ketika orang Arab mengadopsi abjad Nabath. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=74–75}}.</ref>
Sebagai suatu bahasa Semit Barat Laut, bahasa Ibrani menunjukkan pergeseran {{IPA|*/w/}} inisial menjadi {{IPA|/j/}}, suatu sistem kata ganti orang independen yang mirip dengan bahasa-bahasa Semit Barat Laut lainnya (dengan kata ganti orang ketiga tidak pernah memuat {{IPA|/ʃ/}}), bentuk-bentuk purba/arkaik, seperti {{IPA|/naħnu/}} "kita" atau "kami", akhiran untuk kata ganti orang pertama tunggal -i atau -ya, dan {{IPA|/n/}} umumnya mendahului akhiran-akhiran kata ganti orang (''pronominal suffixes'').<ref name="sclas" /> Akhiran-akhiran semacam itu dijumpai dalam bahasa-bahasa Semit Barat Laut pada milennium kedua SM, tetapi kemudian menghilang hampir seluruhnya.<ref name="sclas" /> ''[[Mimation]]'' tidak dijumpai dalam kata-kata benda tunggal/singular, tetapi sering dipertahankan dalam bentuk jamak/plural, sebagaimana dalam bahasa Ibrani.<ref name="sclas"/>
Bahasa-bahasa Semit Barat Laut membentuk suatu keberlangsungan (''continuum'') dialek pada [[Zaman Besi]] (1200–540 SM), dengan [[bahasa Fenisia]] dan Aram pada masing-masing ujungnya.<ref name="sclas">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=36–38,43–44,47–50}}</ref><ref name="scon" /> Bahasa Ibrani digolongkan bersama bahasa Fenisia dalam subgrup Kanaan, yang juga meliputi [[Ammonite language|bahasa Amon]], [[Edomite language|Edom]], dan [[Moab#Language|Moab]].<ref name="sclas" /> Bahasa Moab dapat dianggap sebagai suatu dialek bahasa Ibrani, meskipun memiliki ciri-ciri khusus bahasa Aram.<ref name="scon">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|p=8}}</ref><ref name="bmoab">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=18}}</ref> Meskipun Ugaritik menunjukkan afinitas kuat dalam bahasa Ibrani untuk struktur puisi, kosakata, dan sejumlah gramatika, tetapi tidak mempunyai sejumlah ciri Kanaan (seperti [[pergeseran pelafalan Kanaan]] dan pergeseran {{IPA|*/ð/}} > {{IPA|/z/}}), serta kemiripannya lebih mungkin dihasilkan baik dari kontak maupun pelestarian ''archaisme''.<ref name="b21">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=21}}</ref>
Bahasa Ibrani mengalami pergeseran Kanaan, di mana Proto-Semit {{IPA|/aː/}} cenderung bergeser menjadi {{IPA|/oː/}}, mungkin ketika mendapat penekanan.<ref name="sclas" /><ref name="Blau 2010 136-137">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=136–137}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani seperti bahasa-bahasa Kanaan juga mengalami pergeseran {{IPA|*/ð/}} > {{IPA|/z/}}, {{IPA|*/θʼ/}} dan {{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}} > {{IPA|/sʼ/}}, reduksi diftong meluas dan asimilasi penuh /n/ non-final ke konsonan berikutnya jika kata terakhir, yaitu {{lang|hbo|בת|rtl=yes}} /bat/ dari *bant.<ref name="sclas" /> Ada pula bukti adanya aturan asimilasi /y/ dengan konsonan coronal sesudahnya dalam posisi ''pre-tonic'', yang sama-sama didapati dalam bahasa Ibrani, Fenisia dan Aram.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Garnier|Jacques|2012}}</ref>
Kata-kata khas bahasa Kanaan dalam bahasa Ibrani antara lain: {{lang|hbo|גג|rtl=yes}} "atap" {{lang|hbo|שלחן|rtl=yes}} "meja" {{lang|hbo|חלון|rtl=yes}} "jendela" {{lang|hbo|ישן|rtl=yes}} "(barang) tua" {{lang|hbo|זקן|rtl=yes}} "(orang) tua" dan {{lang|hbo|גרש|rtl=yes}} "mengusir".<ref name="sclas" /> Ciri-ciri morfologis bahasa Kanaan dalam bahasa Ibrani antara lain penanda jamak maskulin {{lang|hbo|-ם}}, kata ganti orang pertama tunggal {{lang|hbo|אנכי|rtl=yes}}, kata ganti interogatif {{lang|hbo|מי|rtl=yes}}, kata sandang definit {{lang|hbo|ה-}} (muncul dalam milenium pertama SM), dan penanda kata kerja feminim jamak orang ketiga {{rtl-lang|he|ת-}}.<ref name="sclas" />
== Era ==
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah yang dilestarikan dalam [[Alkitab Ibrani]] tersusun dari sejumlah lapisan linguistik. Kerangka konsonan teks adalah yang paling tua, sedangkan vokalisasi dan kantilasi adalah penambahan di kemudian hari dalam tahapan perkembangan bahasa.<ref name="b10" /> Tambahan-tambahan ini terjadi setelah tahun 600 M; bahasa Ibrani sudah berhenti menjadi bahasa percakapan sekitar tahun 200 M.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=7, 11}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah yang dicerminkan dalam teks Alkitab dan prasasti-prasasti di luar Alkitab dapati dibagi menurut era.
Bentuk tertua bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah, yaitu bahasa Ibrani Arkhaik, ditemukan dalam bagian puisi Alkitab serta sejumlah prasasti bertarikh sekitar tahun 1000 SM, pada awal [[Sejarah Israel kuno dan Yudea|Periode Kerajaan]].<ref name="sb52">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=52}}</ref><ref name="r66">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=66}}</ref> Tahap ini juga dikenal sebagai bahasa Ibrani Kuno atau ''Paleo-Hebrew'', dan merupakan lapisan tertua bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah. Artifak tertua bahasa Ibrani Arkhaik yang dapat dikenali adalah berbagai bagian [[Tanakh]], antara lain [[Song of Moses|Nyanyian Musa]] ([[Keluaran 15]]) dan [[Song of Deborah|Nyanyian Debora]] ([[Hakim-hakim 5]]).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=56}}</ref> Puisi Alkitabiah menggunakan sejumlah item leksikal khas, misalnya {{lang|hbo|חזה|rtl=yes}} untuk prosa {{lang|hbo|ראה|rtl=yes}} 'melihat', {{lang|hbo|כביר|rtl=yes}} untuk {{lang|hbo|גדול|rtl=yes}} 'agung'.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=60}}</ref> <!-- Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages, for example {{lang|hbo|פעל|rtl=yes}} 'do' and {{lang|hbo|חָרוּץ|rtl=yes}} 'gold' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=61}}</ref> Grammatical differences include the use of {{lang|hbo|זה|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|זוֹ|rtl=yes}}, and {{lang|hbo|זוּ|rtl=yes}} as relative particles, negative {{lang|hbo|בל|rtl=yes}}, and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=57–60}}</ref>
Later pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew (such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch, [[Nevi'im]], and some [[Ketuvim]]) is known as 'Biblical Hebrew proper' or 'Standard Biblical Hebrew'.<ref name="sb52" /><ref name="r66" /> This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE. In contrast to Archaic Hebrew, Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article {{lang|hbo|ה-}}, the accusative marker {{lang|hbo|את|rtl=yes}}, distinguishing between simple and [[waw-consecutive]] verb forms, and in using particles like {{lang|hbo|אשר|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|כי|rtl=yes}} rather than [[asyndeton]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=71}}</ref>
Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as 'Late Biblical Hebrew'.<ref name="sb52" /><ref name="r66" /> Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, and this trend is also evident in the later-developed Tiberian vocalization system.<ref name="sb55">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=55}}</ref>
Qumran Hebrew, attested in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] from ca. 200 BCE to 70 CE, is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew.<ref name="r66" /> Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew, though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=132}}</ref>
== Dialek ==
Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well-known [[shibboleth]] incident of Judges 12:6, where [[Jephthah]]'s forces from [[Gilead]] caught Ephraimites trying to cross the Jordan river by making them say {{lang|hbo|שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת|rtl=yes}} ('ear of corn')<ref name="bshib">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=8,40–41}}</ref> The Ephraimites' identity was given away by their pronunciation: {{rtl-lang|he|סִבֹּ֤לֶת}}.<ref name="bshib" /> The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had {{IPA|/s/}} for standard {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.<ref name="bshib" /> As an alternative explanation, it has been suggested that the proto-Semitic phoneme {{IPA|*/θ/}}, which shifted to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in most dialects of Hebrew, may have been retained in the Hebrew of the trans-Jordan.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=70}}</ref><ref group="nb">As a consequence this would leave open the possibility that other proto-Semitic phonemes (such as *{{IPA|/ð/}}) may have been preserved regionally at one point See {{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=72}}</ref> However, there is evidence that the word {{lang|hbo|שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת|rtl=yes}} had initial consonant *{{IPA|/ʃ/}} in proto-Semitic, contradicting this theory.<ref name="bshib" />
Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel, known also as [[Israelian Hebrew]], shows phonological, lexical, and grammatical differences from southern dialects.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1999|p=255}}</ref> The Northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows more frequent simplification of {{IPA|/aj/}} into {{IPA|/eː/}} as attested by the Samaria ostraca (8th century BCE), e.g. {{lang|hbo|ין|rtl=yes}} (= {{IPA|/jeːn/}} < {{IPA|*/jajn/}} 'wine'), while the Southern (Judean) dialect instead adds in an [[epenthetic vowel]] /i/, added halfway through the first millennium BCE ({{lang|hbo|יין|rtl=yes}} = {{IPA|/ˈjajin/}}).<ref name="sclas" /><ref group="nb">Such contraction is also found in Ugaritic, the El-Amarna letters, and in Phoenician, while the anaptyctic vowel is found in Old Aramaic and Deir Alla. {{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=44}}</ref><ref name="bdip" /> The [[paranomasia|word play]] in [[Book of Amos|Amos]] 8:1–2 {{lang|hbo|כְּלוּב קַ֫יִץ... בָּא הַקֵּץ}} may reflect this: given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom, the vocalization *קֵיץ would be more forceful.<ref name="bdip">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=8,96–97}}</ref> Other possible Northern features include use of {{lang|hbo|שֶ-}} 'who, that', forms like {{lang|hbo|דֵעָה|rtl=yes}} 'to know' rather than {{lang|hbo|דַעַת|rtl=yes}} and infinitives of certain verbs of the form {{lang|hbo|עֲשוֹ|rtl=yes}} 'to do' rather than {{rtl-lang|he|עֲשוֹת}}.<ref name="b8" /> The Samaria ostraca also show {{lang|hbo|שת|rtl=yes}} for standard {{lang|hbo|שנה|rtl=yes}} 'year', as in Aramaic.<ref name="b8">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=8}}</ref>
The guttural phonemes {{IPA|/ħ ʕ h ʔ/}} merged over time in some dialects.<ref name="sgut">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=83, 137–138}}</ref> This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew, but [[Jerome]] attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals.<ref name="sgut" /> Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes, though {{IPA|/ʕ ħ/}} are occasionally preserved as {{IPA|[ʕ]}}.<ref name="samgut">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=38–39}}</ref>-->
== Ortografi ==
<!--{{Main|Biblical Hebrew orthography}}-->
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 20px; text-align: center;"
!
! [[Abjad Ibrani Kuno|Ibrani Kuno]]
! [[Abjad Ibrani|Blok]]
! [[
!
|-
! [[Alef|Alef (''Aleph'')]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠀ
| {{IPAblink|ʔ}}, {{IPA|∅}}
|-
! [[Bet (
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ב|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠁ
Baris 63 ⟶ 213:
|-
! [[Gimel]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ג|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠂ
| {{IPAblink|ɡ}}, {{IPA|ɣ}}
|-
! [[
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ד|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠃ
| {{IPAblink|d}}, {{IPA|ð}}
|-
! [[He (
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ה|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠄ
| {{IPAblink|h}}, {{IPA|∅}}
|-
! [[Waw (
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠅ
Baris 87 ⟶ 237:
|-
! [[Zayin]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ז|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠆ
| {{IPAblink|z}}
|-
! [[Het (huruf Ibrani)|Heth]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠇ
| {{IPAblink|ħ}}, {{IPAblink|χ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
|-
! [[Tet (huruf Ibrani)|Teth]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ט|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠈ
| {{IPAblink|tʼ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
|-
! [[Yod (huruf Ibrani)|Yodh]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|י|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠉ
| {{IPAblink|j}}, {{IPA|∅}}
|-
! [[Kaf (huruf Ibrani)|Kaph]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|כ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ך|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠊ
| {{IPAblink|k}}, {{IPA|x}}
|-
! [[
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ל|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠋ
| {{IPAblink|l}}
|-
! [[Mem (
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|מ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ם|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠌ
| {{IPAblink|m}}
|-
! [[Nun (
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|נ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ן|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠍ
Baris 135 ⟶ 285:
|-
! [[Samekh]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠎ
Baris 141 ⟶ 291:
|-
! [[Ayin]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠏ
| {{IPAblink|ʕ}}, {{IPAblink|ʁ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
|-
! [[Pe (
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|פ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ף|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠐ
| {{IPAblink|p}}, {{IPA|ɸ}}
|-
! [[Tsade|Sadhe/Tsade]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|צ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ץ|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠑ
Baris 159 ⟶ 309:
|-
! [[Qoph]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ק|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠒ
Baris 165 ⟶ 315:
|-
! [[Resh]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ר|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠓ
| {{IPAblink|r}}
|-
! [[
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠔ
Baris 177 ⟶ 327:
|-
! [[Taw]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ת|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠕ
Baris 183 ⟶ 333:
|}
Tulisan bahasa Ibrani tertua yang pernah ditemukan telah digali di [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]], bertarikh abad ke-10 SM.<ref name="eurekalert.org"/> [[Ostrakon]] [[
Suku-suku Israel yang menempati tanah Israel mengadopsi [[abjad Fenisia|huruf-huruf Fenisia]] sekitar abad ke-12 SM, sebagaimana ditemukan dalam [[Kalender Gezer]] (sekitar abad ke-10 SM).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|p=15}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hanson|2011}}</ref> Abjad ini berkembang menjadi [[abjad Ibrani Kuno|abjad Ibrani Kuno (''Paleo-Hebrew'')]] pada abad ke-10 atau ke-9 SM.<ref name="y">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=13,15,17}}</ref><ref name="tscript" /><ref name="s17" /> [[Abjad Ibrani Kuno]] mempunyai perbedaan utama dengan [[abjad Fenisia]] dalam hal "pelengkungan ke kiri goresan ke bawah pada aksara-aksara "berkaki panjang"... penggunaan konsisten huruf "[[Waw (huruf Ibrani)|Waw]]" dengan atas melengkung ke dalam (konkaf), [dan] "[[Taw]]" berbentuk "x"."<ref name="y" /><ref group="nb">Pada suatu waktu orang Moab, Amon, Edom, dan Filistin juga menggunakan abjad Ibrani Kuno. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|p=25}}</ref> Inkripsi tertua dalam abjad Ibrani Kuno bertarikh sekitar pertengahan abad ke-9 SM, yang paling terkenal adalah [[Prasasti Mesa|Prasasti Mesa (''Mesha Stele'')]] yang ditulis dalam [[Moabite language|bahasa Moab]] (yang dapat dianggap sebagai suatu dialek bahasa Ibrani).<ref name="yheb">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=17–25}}</ref><ref name="bmoab" /> Abjad Ibrani purba digunakan terus menerus sampai awal abad ke-6 SM, yaitu akhir masa Bait Suci Pertama.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=23}}</ref> Pada masa Bait Suci Kedua, abjad Ibrani Kuno lambat laun tidak dipakai dan sama sekali ditinggalkan di antara orang Yahudi setelah kegagalan [[Perang Bar Kokhba|pemberontakan Bar Kokhba]].<ref name="tscript" /><ref name="yb">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=18,24–25}}</ref> Orang Samaria masih mempertahankan abjad Ibrani purba, yang berkembang menjadi [[Samaritan alphabet|abjad Samaria]] modern.<ref name="tscript">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=218–220}}</ref><ref name="yb" />
Menjelang akhir masa Bait Suci Pertama [[bahasa Aram|tulisan (skrip) Aram]], suatu turunan terpisah abjad Fenisia, menluas di seluruh wilayah, lambat laun menggantikan Ibrani Kuno.<ref name="yb" /><!-- The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE.<ref name="ysq">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=42,45,47–50}}</ref> It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script.<ref name="tscript" /> Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the [[tetragrammaton]] and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek biblical translations.<ref name="tscript" /><ref group="nb">Though some of these translations wrote the tetragrammaton in the square script See {{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|p=220}}</ref> While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed.<ref name="ybook">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=65,84–91}}</ref> A number of regional "book-hand" styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes.<ref name="ybook" /> The [[Mizrahi]] and [[Ashkenazi]] book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press.<ref name="ybook" /> The modern [[Hebrew alphabet]], also known as the Assyrian or Square script, is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.<ref name="yb" />-->
Abjad Fenisia tidak lagi memakai lima huruf menjelang abad ke-12 SM, menyisakan dua puluh dua fonem konsonantal bahasa itu.<ref name="s17">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=16–18}}</ref> Akibatnya, 22 huruf abjad Ibrani Kuno berjumlah lebih sedikit daripada fonem konsonan Ibrani Alkitabiah; khususnya, huruf-huruf {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|ח, ע, ש}}}} masing-masing dapat menandai dua fonem berbeda.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=74–75,77}}</ref> Setelah suatu pergeseran bunyi, huruf-huruf {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}} hanya dapat menandai satu fonem, tetapi (kecuali dalam Ibrani Samaria) {{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}} masih menandai dua fonem. Sistem vokalisasi Babilonia kuno menulis suatu superskrip {{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}} di atas {{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}} untuk mengindikasikan nilai {{IPA|/s/}}, sedangkan kaum Masoret menambahkan [[shin dot]] untuk membedakan antara dua variasi huruf itu.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sperber|1959|p=81}}</ref><ref name="b77"/>
Abjad Ibrani asli hanya terdiri dari [[konsonan|huruf mati (konsonan)]], tetapi lambat laun huruf-huruf {{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ה|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|י|rtl=yes}}, juga digunakan untuk mengindikasikan huruf hidup (vokal atau ''vowel''), dikenal sebagai ''matres lectionis'' ketika digunakan dalam fungsi ini.<ref name="s17" /><ref name="to1" /> Diyakini bahwa ini merupakan hasil perkembangan fonetik: misalnya, *bayt ('rumah'; 'bait') bergeser menjadi {{lang|hbo|בֵּית|rtl=yes}} dalam [[construct state|keadaan konstruk]] tetapi mempertahankan ejaannya.<ref name="b6">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=6}}</ref> Tidak ada contoh ortografi Ibrani awal yang ditemukan, tetapi teks [[bahasa Fenisia|Fenisia]] yang lebih tua dan [[Moabite language|bahasa Moab]] menunjukkan bagaimana penulisan bahasa Ibrani masa Bait Suci Pertama.<ref name="to1">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=221–223}}</ref><!-- Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word, for example {{lang|hbo|לפנ|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|ז|rtl=yes}} for later {{lang|hbo|לפני|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|זה|rtl=yes}}, similarly to the Hebrew [[Gezer Calendar]], which has for instance {{lang|hbo|שערמ|rtl=yes}} for {{lang|hbo|שעורים|rtl=yes}} and possibly {{lang|hbo|ירח|rtl=yes}} for {{rtl-lang|he|ירחו}}.<ref name="to1" /> Matres lectionis were later added word-finally, for instance the [[Mesha inscription]] has {{rtl-lang|he|בללה, בנתי}} for later {{rtl-lang|he|בלילה, בניתי}}; however at this stage they were not yet used word-medially, compare [[Siloam inscription]] {{lang|hbo|זדה|rtl=yes}} versus {{lang|hbo|אש|rtl=yes}} (for later {{rtl-lang|he|איש}}).<ref name="to1" /> The relative terms ''defective'' and ''full''/''plene'' are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis, respectively.<ref name="to1" /><ref group="nb">[[Ktiv male]], the Hebrew term for full spelling, has become de rigueur in Modern Hebrew.</ref>
The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today.<ref name="to1" /> Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis, with the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]] and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=96,108,222}}</ref> The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels, showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word-internal {{IPA|/aː/}}.<ref name="b6" /><ref group="nb">There are rare-cases of {{angle bracket|{{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}}} being used medially as a true vowel letter, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דָּאג|rtl=yes}} for the usual {{lang|hbo|דָּג|rtl=yes}} 'fish'. Most cases, however, of {{angle bracket|א}} being used as a vowel letter stem from conservative spelling of words which originally contained {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, e.g. {{lang|hbo|רֹאשׁ|rtl=yes}} ('head') from original {{IPA|*/raʔʃ/}}. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=86}}. There are also a number of exceptions to the rule of marking other long vowels, e.g. when the following syllable contains a vowel letters (like in {{lang|hbo|קֹלֹוֹת|rtl=yes}} 'voices' rather than {{lang|hbo|קוֹלוֹת|rtl=yes}}) or when a vowel letter already marks a consonant (so {{lang|hbo|גּוֹיִם|rtl=yes}} 'nations' rather than *{{lang|hbo|גּוֹיִים|rtl=yes}}), and within the Bible there is often little consistency in spelling. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=6}}</ref> In the Qumran tradition, [[back vowel]]s are usually represented by {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|ו}}}} whether short or long.<ref name="tq1">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=108–109}}</ref><ref name="sq">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=136}}</ref> {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|י}}}} is generally used for both long {{IPA|[iː]}} and {{IPA|[eː]}} ({{lang|hbo|אבילים|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|מית|rtl=yes}}), and final {{IPA|[iː]}} is often written as {{rtl-lang|he|יא-}} in analogy to words like {{lang|hbo|היא|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|הביא|rtl=yes}}, e.g. {{lang|hbo|כיא|rtl=yes}}, sometimes {{rtl-lang|he|מיא}}.<ref name="tq1" /><ref name="sq" /> {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|ה}}}} is found finally in forms like {{rtl-lang|he|חוטה}} (Tiberian {{rtl-lang|he|חוטא}}), {{rtl-lang|he|קורה}} (Tiberian {{rtl-lang|he|קורא}}) while {{angle bracket|א}} may be used for an a-quality vowel in final position (e.g. {{rtl-lang|he|עליהא}}) and in medial position (e.g. {{rtl-lang|he|יאתום}}).<ref name="tq1" /> Pre-Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories (e.g. {{rtl-lang|he|כוחי}} vs. Masoretic {{rtl-lang|he|כחי}} in Genesis 49:3) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=96–97}}</ref>
Baris 197 ⟶ 347:
In general the vowels of Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text, but various sources attest them at various stages of development. Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels. In particular, there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the [[Koine Greek]] [[Septuagint]] (3rd–2nd centuries BCE<ref name="Jobes and Silva">{{Harvcoltxt|Jobes|Silva|2001}}</ref>) and the Greek alphabet [[transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the [[Secunda (Hexapla)|Secunda]] (3rd century CE, likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE<ref group="nb">The [[Secunda (Hexapla)|Secunda]] is a transliteration of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the [[Hexapla]], a recension of the Old Testament compiled by [[Origen]] in the 3rd century CE. There is evidence that the text of the Secunda was written before 100 BCE, despite the later date of the Hexapla. For example, by the time of Origen {{angbr|η, αι}} were pronounced {{IPA|[iː, ɛː]}}, a merger which had already begun around 100 BCE, while in the Secunda they are used to represent Hebrew {{IPA|/eː aj/}}. See {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=14}}</ref>). In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the biblical text.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=5}}</ref> The most prominent, best preserved, and the only system still in use, is the [[Tiberian vocalization]] system, created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE.<ref name="b7">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=7}}</ref><ref name="rvoc" /> There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems ([[Babylonian vocalization|Babylonian]] and [[Palestinian vocalization|Palestinian]]), known as ''superlinear vocalizations'' because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters.<ref name="b7" /><ref name="rvoc" /><ref group="nb">The Palestinian system has two main subtypes and shows great variation. {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=7}} The Babylonian vocalization occurred in two main types (simple / ''einfach'' and complex / ''kompliziert''), with various subgroups differing as to their affinity with the Tiberian tradition. {{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=97–99}}</ref><ref group="nb">In the Babylonian and Palestinian systems only the most important vowels were written. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=118}}</ref> In addition, the [[Samaritan Hebrew|Samaritan]] reading tradition is independent of these systems, and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system.<ref name="rvoc">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|pp=68–69}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=6}}</ref><ref group="nb">Almost all vocalized manuscripts use the [[Masoretic Text]]. However there are some vocalized Samaritan manuscripts from the Middle Ages. See {{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|p=40}}</ref> These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development; for example, the name of the Judge [[Samson]] is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών ''Sampsōn'' with the first vowel as {{IPA|/a/}}, while Tiberian {{lang|hbo|שִמְשוֹן|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʃimʃon/}} with {{IPA|/i/}} shows the effect of the [[law of attenuation]] whereby {{IPA|/a/}} in closed unstressed syllables became {{IPA|/i/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|p=25}}</ref> All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew.
At an early stage, in documents written in the paleo-Hebrew script, words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots, as reflected by the Mesha Stone, the Siloam inscription, the Ophel inscription, and paleo-Hebrew script documents from Qumran.<ref name="tsp" /> Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions; however, there is not direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division, as suggested by [[Nahmanides]] in his introduction to the Torah.<ref name="tsp" /> Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script.<ref name="tsp">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=208–209}}</ref> In addition to marking vowels, the Tiberian system also uses [[cantillation]] marks, which serve to mark word stress, semantic structure, and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=7,143}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yeivin|1980|pp=157–158}}</ref>-->
== Fonologi ==
Fonologi yang direkonstruksi untuk Ibrani Alkitabiah adalah sebagai berikut:
=== Huruf mati ===
Huruf-huruf mati (''Consonants'') yang <span style="background:#EEE8AA;padding:0px 2px;">terhilang</span> dan <span style="background:#CAFF70;padding:0px 2px;">tertambahkan</span> selama perjalanan waktu bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah masing-masing diberi kode warna.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Huruf mati Ibrani Alkitabiah'''<ref name="b69">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=69}}</ref><ref name="r">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|pp=70–73}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" |
! [[Konsonan labial|Labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[Konsonan dental|Dental]]/<br>[[Konsonan alveolar|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! [[Konsonan palatal|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Konsonan velar|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! [[Konsonan celah suara|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Konsonan nasal|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|n}}
|
|
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! {{small|[[voiceless|tak bersuara]]}}
| {{IPA|p}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|t}}
|
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|k}}
| colspan="2" |
|
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA|b}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|d}}
|
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɡ}}
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|-
! {{small|[[emphatic consonant|emfatik]]}}
|
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|tʼ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
|
|
| colspan="4" | {{IPA|kʼ/qʼ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Frikatif]]
! {{small| [[voiceless|tak bersuara]]}}
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|ɸ}}
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|θ}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| style="background:#EEE8AA" | {{IPA|ɬ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}
|
| style="background:#CAFF70" colspan="2" | {{IPA|x}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
| style="background:#EEE8AA" colspan="2" | {{IPA|χ}}<ref name="b69" />
| {{IPA|ħ}}
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|β}}
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|ð}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|z}}
|
|
| style="background:#CAFF70" colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɣ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
| style="background:#EEE8AA" colspan="2" | {{IPA|ʁ}}<ref name="b69" />
| {{IPA|ʕ}}
|
|-
! {{small|[[emphatic consonant|emfatik]]}}
|
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|sʼ/ʦʼ}}<ref name="b69" />
|
|
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Aproksiman]]
| {{IPA|w}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|l}}
|
| {{IPA|j}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Konsonan getar|Getar]]
|
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|r}}
|
|
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|
|
|}
Sifat fonetik sejumlah huruf mati Ibrani Alkitabiah masih diperdebatkan. Apa yang dinamakan "emfatika" ("''emphatics") kemungkinan adalah [[ejective|ejektif]], tetapi bisa jadi ''[[pharyngealized]]'' atau ''velarized''.<ref name="b68">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=68}}</ref><ref name="r73" /> Ada yang berpendapat bahwa {{IPA|/s, z, sʼ/}} adalah ''affricated'' ({{IPA|/ts, dz, tsʼ/}}).<ref name="b68" />
Aslinya, huruf-huruf Ibrani {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|[[Heth|ח]]}}}} dan {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|[[Ayin|ע]]}}}} masing-masing mewakili dua kemungkinan fonem, uvular dan pharyngeal, dengan perbedaan yang tidak ditandai dalam ortografi Ibrani. Namun, fonem uvular {{IPA|/χ/}} {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}} dan {{IPA|/ʁ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}} bergabung dengan pasangan pharyngeal masing-masing {{IPA|/ħ/}} {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}} dan {{IPA|/ʕ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}} sekitar tahun 200 SM.
{{Clear}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Proto-Semit
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" | Ibrani
! rowspan="2" | Aram
! rowspan="2" | Arab
! colspan="4" | contoh
|-
! Ibrani
! Aram
! Arab
! arti
|-
! [[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]
! {{IPA|*/χ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ħ/}} {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ħ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ח|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|*/χ/}} {{lang|ar|خ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ח'''משה|rtl=yes}}<br>{{lang|hbo|צר'''ח'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ח'''משה|rtl=yes}}<br>{{lang|arc-Hebr|צר'''ח'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|خمسة|rtl=yes}}<br>{{lang|ar|صرخ|rtl=yes}}
| 'lima'<br>'jeritan'
|-
! [[Heth|*ḥ]]
! {{IPA|*/ħ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ħ/}} {{lang|ar|ح|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|מל'''ח'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|מל'''ח'''|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|ملح|rtl=yes}}
| 'garam'
|-
! [[Ghayn|*ġ]]
! {{IPA|*/ʁ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ע|rtl=yes}}
| {{IPA|*/ʁ/}} {{lang|ar|غ|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ע'''ורב|rtl=yes}}<br>{{lang|hbo|מ'''ע'''רב|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ע'''רב|rtl=yes}}<br>{{lang|arc-Hebr|מ'''ע'''רב|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|غراب|rtl=yes}}<br>{{lang|ar|غرب|rtl=yes}}
| 'gagak'<br>'barat'
|-
! [[Ayin|*ʻ]]
! {{IPA|*/ʕ/}}
| {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} {{lang|ar|ع|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|hbo|'''ע'''בד|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|arc-Hebr|'''ע'''בד|rtl=yes}}
| {{lang|ar|عبد|rtl=yes}}
| 'budak'
|}
Ini diamati dari pembedaan konsisten fonem-fonem tersebut dalam [[Taurat]] [[Septuaginta]] (contoh [[Ishak]] {{lang|he|יצחק|rtl=yes}} = {{lang|grc|Ἰσαάκ}} dibandingkan [[Rahel]] {{lang|he|רחל|rtl=yes}} = {{lang|grc|Ῥαχήλ}}), tetapi ini menjadi lebih sporadis pada kitab-kitab kemudian dan umumnya absen dalam [[Kitab Ezra]] dan [[Kitab Nehemia]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|pp=73–74}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=56, 75–76}}</ref>
<!--The phoneme {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments: It is written with {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}}} (also used for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}) but later merged with {{IPA|/s/}} (normally indicated with {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}}}}). As a result, three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation: {{IPA|/s/}} written {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}}}}, {{IPA|/ʃ/}} written {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}}}, and {{IPA|/ś/}} (pronounced {{IPA|/ɬ/}} but written {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}}}). -->Pelafalan khusus {{IPA|/ś/}} sebagai {{IPA|[ɬ]}} didasarkan pada bukti komparatif ({{IPA|/ɬ/}} setara dengan fonem [[Proto-Semitic|Proto-Semit]] dan masih terbukti dalam dialek [[:En:Modern South Arabian|bahasa Arab Selatan modern]]<ref name="b77">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=77}}</ref> maupun bentuk pinjaman awal (contoh: ''balsam'' < Yunani ''balsamon'' < Ibrani ''baśam''). {{IPA|/ɬ/}} mulai melebur dengan {{IPA|/s/}} dalam Ibrani Alkitabiah Muda, sebagaimana diindikasikan oleh saling bertukarnya ortografi {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}}} dan {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}}}}, kemungkinan di bawah pengaruh bahasa Aram, dan ini menjadi aturan dalam Ibrani Mishnah.<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r73">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=73}}</ref> Dalam semua tradisi pembacaan Yahudi {{IPA|/ɬ/}} dan {{IPA|/s/}} telah sepenuhnya melebur; tetapi dalam Ibrani Samaria {{IPA|/ɬ/}} malah melebur dengan {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.<ref name="b69" />
<!--
Allophonic [[spirantization]] of {{IPA|/b ɡ d k p t/}} to {{IPA|[v ɣ ð x f θ]}} (known as [[begadkefat]] spirantization) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic.<ref group="nb">Or perhaps [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]], but this is unlikely See {{Harvcoltxt|Dolgoposky|1999|pp=72–3}}{{Citation not found|date=January 2018}}.</ref> This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} disappeared in the 7th century BCE,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=72}}</ref> and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} c. 200 BCE.<ref group="nb">According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} and {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}}, or else {{IPA|[x, χ]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ, ʁ]}} would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However Blau argues that it is possible that lenited {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/χ/}} could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac). See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=56}}.</ref> It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=73}}</ref> After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low [[functional load]]), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<ref name="bbgd">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=78–81}}</ref> This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization's consistent use of word-initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi, as well as Rabbi [[Saadia Gaon]]'s attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE.<ref name="bbgd" />
The Dead Sea scrolls show evidence of confusion of the phonemes {{IPA|/ħ ʕ h ʔ/}}, e.g. {{lang|hbo|חמר|rtl=yes}} ''ħmr'' for Masoretic {{lang|hbo|אָמַר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʔɔˈmar/}} 'he said'.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=137–138}}</ref> However the testimony of Jerome indicates that this was a regionalism and not universal.<ref name="sgut"/> Confusion of gutturals was also attested in later Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic (see Eruvin 53b). In Samaritan Hebrew, {{IPA|/ʔ ħ h ʕ/}} have generally all merged, either into {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, a glide {{IPA|/w/}} or {{IPA|/j/}}, or by vanishing completely (often creating a long vowel), except that original {{IPA|/ʕ ħ/}} sometimes have reflex {{IPA|/ʕ/}} before {{IPA|/a ɒ/}}.<ref name="samgut"/>
[[Geminate]] consonants are phonemically contrastive in Biblical Hebrew. In the Secunda {{IPA|/w j z/}} are never geminate.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=43}}</ref> In the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/ħ ʕ h ʔ r/}} cannot be geminate; historically first {{IPA|/r ʔ/}} degeminated, followed by {{IPA|/ʕ/}}, {{IPA|/h/}}, and finally {{IPA|/ħ/}}, as evidenced by changes in the quality of the preceding vowel.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=82–83}}</ref><ref group="nb">The vowel before originally geminate {{IPA|/r ʔ/}} usually shows compensatory lengthening, e.g. {{lang|hbo|הָאָב|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/hɔˈʔɔv/}} 'the father' < {{IPA|/*haʔːab/}}; with {{IPA|/ʕ/}} preceding {{IPA|/*i/}} tends to remain short; with {{IPA|/h/}} original {{IPA|/*a/}} also remains short, and {{IPA|/ħ/}} generally does not cause compensatory lengthening, e.g. {{lang|hbo|יְרַחֵם|rtl=yes}} ('he will have compassion'). See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=81–83}}</ref>
-->
=== Huruf hidup ===
Sistem huruf hidup (''vowel system'') bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah telah berubah banyak menurut jalannya waktu. Huruf-huruf hidup (''vowels'') berikut direkonstruksi untuk tahapan paling awal bahasa Ibrani, untuk yang dibuktikan dalam ''Secunda'', untuk berbagai tradisi vokalisasi ([[Tiberian vocalization|Tiberias]] serta variasi [[Babylonian vocalization|Babilonia]] dan [[Palestinian vocalization|Palestina]]), juga untuk tradisi Samaria, dengan huruf-huruf hidup <span style="background:#BBDDEE;padding:0px 2px;">yang hilang</span> dalam sejumlah tradisi diberi kode berwarna.
{|
! style="width:25%" | Proto-Ibrani<ref name="david">{{Harvcoltxt|Steinberg|2010}}</ref> <!-- possible to find a written source? -->
! style="width:25%" | Ibrani ''Secunda''<ref name="j54">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=54}}</ref>
! style="width:25%" | Ibrani Tiberias, Babilonia, dan Palestina<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=105–106, 115–119}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=88–89, 97, 110}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sperber|1959|pp=77,81}}</ref>
! style="width:25%" | Ibrani Samaria<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=43–44, 48}}</ref>
|-
| align="center" |
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[Front vowel|Depan]]
! [[Back vowel|Belakang]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Tertutup]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Tertutup-tengah]]
| align=center | ({{IPA|eː}})
| align=center | {{IPA|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Terbuka]]
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA|a aː}}
|}
| align="center" |
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[Front vowel|Depan]]
! [[Back vowel|Belakang]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Tertutup]]
| align=center | {{IPA|iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|uː}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Tertutup-tengah]]
| align=center | {{IPA|e eː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|o oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Terbuka]]
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA|a}}<sup>1</sup> {{IPA|aː}}
|-
! Reduced
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA|ə}}
|}
| align="center" |
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[Front vowel|Depan]]
! [[Back vowel|Belakang]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Tertutup]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Tertutup-tengah]]
| align=center | {{IPA|e}}
| align=center | {{IPA|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Terbuka-tengah]]
| align=center style="background:#BBDDEE" | {{IPA|ɛ}}<sup>1</sup>
| align=center style="background:#BBDDEE" | {{IPA|ɔ}}<sup>2</sup>
|-
! [[Open vowel|Terbuka]]
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA|a}}
|-
! Reduced
| align=center colspan=2 style="background:#BBDDEE" | {{IPA|ă}}<sup>3</sup> {{IPA|ɔ̆}}<sup>3</sup> {{IPA|(ɛ̆)}}<sup>3</sup><br />{{IPA|ə}}<sup>3</sup>
|}
| align="center" |
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[Front vowel|Depan]]
! [[Back vowel|Belakang]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Tertutup]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Tengah]]
| align=center | {{IPA|e}} {{IPA|eː}}
| align=center | ({{IPA|o}})<sup>1</sup>
|-
! [[Open vowel|Terbuka]]
| align=center | {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|aː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ɒ}} {{IPA|ɒː}}
|-
! Reduced
| colspan=2 align=center | ({{IPA|ə}})<sup>2</sup>
|}
|- valign="top"
|
|
# {{small|kemungkinan dilafalkan {{IPA|[æ]}}, sebagaimana alternat ortografi {{angle bracket|α}} dan {{angle bracket|ε}}<ref name="j173">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=173}}</ref><!-- add ref -->}}
|
# {{small|melebur dengan {{IPA|/e/}} dalam tradisi Palestina dan dengan {{IPA|/a/}} dalam tradisi Babilonia}}<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=112}}</ref><ref name="b118-119">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=118–119}}</ref><ref name="seph" group="nb">In this respect the Palestinian tradition corresponds to the modern [[Sephardi Hebrew|Sephardi pronunciation]], and the Babylonian tradition to the modern [[Yemenite Hebrew|Yemenite pronunciation]].</ref><ref group="nb">While the vowels {{IPA|/a e i ɔ o u/}} certainly have phonemic status in the Tiberian tradition, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} has phonemic value in final stressed position but in other positions it may reflect loss of the opposition {{IPA|/a ː i/}}. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=111–112}}</ref>
# {{small|melebur dengan {{IPA|/a/}} atau {{IPA|/o/}} in the Palestinian tradition}}<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="seph" group="nb" /><ref name="y16">{{Harvcoltxt|Yahalom|1997|p=16}}</ref>
# {{small|The Tiberian tradition has the reduced vowel phonemes {{IPA|/ă ɔ̆/}} and marginal {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}}, while Palestinian and Babylonian have one, {{IPA|/ə/}} (pronounced as {{IPA|[ɛ]}} in later Palestinian Hebrew)}}
|
# {{small|{{IPA|/u/}} dan {{IPA|/o/}} hanya kontras dalam open post-tonic syllables, contoh {{lang|hbo|ידו|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jedu/}} ('his hand') {{lang|hbo|ידיו|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jedo/}} ('his hands'), where {{IPA|/o/}} stems from a contracted diphthong.<ref name="bhou">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=44, 48–49}}</ref> In other environments, {{IPA|/o/}} appears in closed syllables and {{IPA|/u/}} in open syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דור|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/dor/}} {{lang|hbo|דורות|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/durot/}}.<ref name="bhou" />}}
# {{small|results from both {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in closed post-tonic syllables<ref name="bh49">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=49}}</ref>}}
|}
<!--
==== Sound changes ====
The following sections present the vowel changes that Biblical Hebrew underwent, in approximate chronological order.
===== Proto-Central-Semitic =====
Proto-Semitic is the ancestral language of all the [[Semitic languages]], and in traditional reconstructions possessed 29 consonants; 6 monophthong vowels, consisting of three qualities and two lengths, {{IPA|*/a aː i iː u uː/}}, in which the long vowels occurred only in open syllables; and two diphthongs {{IPA|*/aj aw/}}.<ref name="b111">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=111}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=151}}</ref> The stress system of Proto-Semitic is unknown but it is commonly described as being much like the system of [[Classical Latin]] or the modern pronunciation of [[Classical Arabic]]: If the penultimate (second last) syllable is light (has a short vowel followed by a single consonant), stress goes on the antepenultimate (third last); otherwise, it goes on the penultimate.
Various changes, mostly in morphology, took place between [[Proto-Semitic]] and Proto-Central-Semitic, the language at the root of the [[Central Semitic languages]]. The phonemic system was inherited essentially unchanged, but the [[emphatic consonant]]s may have changed their realization in Central Semitic from [[ejective]]s to [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized consonant]]s.
The morphology of Proto-Central-Semitic shows significant changes compared with Proto-Semitic, especially in its verbs, and is much like in [[Classical Arabic]]. Nouns in the singular were usually declined in three cases: /-u/ (nominative), /-a/ (accusative) or /-i/ (genitive). In some circumstances (but never in the [[construct state]]), nouns also took a final nasal after the case ending: ''nunation'' (final /-n/) occurred in some languages, ''mimation'' (final /-m/) in others. The original meaning of this marker is uncertain. In Classical Arabic, final /-n/ on nouns indicates indefiniteness and disappears when the noun is preceded by a [[definite article]] or otherwise becomes definite in meaning. In other languages, final /-n/ may be present whenever a noun is not in the [[construct state]]. [[Canaanite languages|Old Canaanite]] had mimation, of uncertain meaning, in an occurrence of the word ''urušalemim'' ([[Jerusalem]]) as given in an Egyptian transcription.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=267}}</ref>
[[Broken plural]] forms in Arabic are declined like singulars, and often take singular agreement as well. Dual and "strong plural" forms use endings with a long vowel or diphthong, declined in only two cases: nominative and objective (combination accusative/genitive), with the objective form often becoming the default one after the loss of case endings. Both Hebrew and Arabic had a special form of nunation/mimation that co-occurred with the dual and masculine sound plural endings whenever the noun was not in the construct state. The endings were evidently felt as an inherent part of the ending and, as a result, are still used. Examples are Arabic strong masculine plural ''-ūna'' (nominative), ''-īna'' (objective), and dual endings ''-āni'' (nominative), ''-ayni'' (objective); corresponding construct-state endings are ''-ū, -ī'' (strong masculine plural), ''-ā, -ay'' (dual). (The strong feminine endings in Classical Arabic are ''-ātu'' nominative, ''-āti'' objective, marked with a singular-style ''-n'' nunation in the indefinite state only.)
Hebrew has almost lost the [[broken plural]] (if it ever had it), and any vestigial forms that may remain have been extended with the strong plural endings. The dual and strong plural endings were likely much like the Arabic forms given above at one point, with only the objective-case forms ultimately surviving. For example, dual ''-ayim'' is probably from ''*-aymi'' with an extended mimation ending (cf. Arabic ''-ayni'' above), while dual construct ''-ē'' is from ''*-ay'' without mimation. Similarly, ''-īm'' < ''*-īma'', ''-ōt'' < ''*-āti''. (Note that expected plural construct state ''*-ī'' was replaced by dual ''-ē''.)
Feminine nouns at this point ended in a suffix /-at-/ or /-t-/ and took normal case endings. When the ending /-at-/ became final because of loss or non-presence of the case ending, both Hebrew and Arabic show a later shift to /-ah/ and then {{IPA|/-aː/}}. The final /t/ consonant therefore is silent in the absolute state, but becomes /t/ again in the construct state and when these words take suffixes, e.g. תֹורָה /toːraː/ "law" becomes תֹורַת /toːrat/ "law of", and תֹורָתְךָ /toːraːtəxaː/ "your law", etc. (This is equivalent to the Arabic letter Tāʼ Marbūṭah ة, a modified final form of the letter He ه which indicates this same phoneme shifting, and only its pronunciation varies between construct and absolute state.)
===== Canaanite shift =====
Hebrew shows the [[Canaanite shift]] whereby {{IPA|*/aː/}} often shifted to {{IPA|/oː/}}; the conditions of this shift are disputed.<ref name="Blau 2010 136-137"/><ref group="nb">In fact, its scope of application is different in Samaritan and Tiberian Hebrew (e.g. {{lang|hbo|פה|rtl=yes}} 'here' Tiberian {{IPA|/po/}} vs. Samaritan {{IPA|/fa/}}), see {{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=83–86}}. Even in Tiberian Hebrew doublets are found, e.g. {{IPA|/kʼanːo(ʔ?)/}} = {{IPA|/kʼanːɔ(ʔ?)/}} ('zealous'). See {{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=147}}</ref> This shift had occurred by the 14th century BCE, as demonstrated by its presence in the [[Amarna letters]] (c. 1365 BCE).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=147}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|LaSor|1978|loc=Part 2, §14.11}}</ref>
===== Proto-Hebrew =====
As a result of the Canaanite shift, the Proto-Hebrew vowel system is reconstructed as {{IPA|*/a aː oː i iː u uː/}} (and possibly rare {{IPA|*/eː/}}).<ref name="david" /> Furthermore, stress at this point appears to have shifted so that it was consistently on the penultimate (next to last) syllable, and was still non-phonemic. The predominant final stress of Biblical Hebrew was a result of loss of final unstressed vowels and a shift away from remaining open syllables (see below).
===== Loss of final unstressed vowels =====
Final unstressed short vowels dropped out in most words, making it possible for long vowels to occur in closed syllables.
This appears to have proceeded in two steps:
#Final short mood, etc. markers dropped in verbal forms.
#Final short case markers dropped in nominal forms.
Vowel lengthening in stressed, open syllables occurred ''between'' the two steps, with the result that short vowels at the beginning of a -VCV ending lengthened in nouns but not verbs. This is most noticeable with short {{IPA|/a/}}: e.g. ''*kataba'' ('he wrote') > {{IPA|/kɔˈθav/}} but ''*dabara'' ('word' acc.') > {{IPA|/dɔˈvɔr/}}.
The dropping of final short vowels in verb forms tended to erase mood distinctions, but also some gender distinctions; however, unexpected vowel lengthening occurred in many situations to preserve the distinctions. For example, in the suffix conjugation, first-singular *''-tu'' appears to have been remade into *''-tī'' already by Proto-Hebrew on the basis of possessive ''-ī'' (likewise first singular personal pronoun ''*ʔana'' became ''*ʔanī'').
Similarly, in the second-singular, inherited ''*-ta -ti'' competed with lengthened ''*-tā -tī'' for masculine and feminine forms. The expected result would be ''-t'' or ''-tā'' for masculine, ''-t'' or ''-tī'' for feminine, and in fact both variants of both forms are found in the Bible (with ''-h'' marking the long ''-ā'' and ''-y'' marking the long ''-ī''). The situation appears to have been quite fluid for several centuries, with ''-t'' and ''-tā/tī'' forms found in competition both in writing and in speech (cf. the [[Secunda (Hexapla)]] of [[Origen]], which records both pronunciations, although quite often in disagreement with the written form as passed down to us). Ultimately, writing stabilized on the shorter ''-t'' for both genders, while speech chose feminine ''-t'' but masculine ''-tā''. This is the reason for the unexpected [[qamatz]] vowel written under the final letter of such words.
The exact same process affected possessive ''*-ka'' ('your' masc. sing.) and ''*-ki'' ('your' fem. sing.), and personal pronouns ''*ʔanta, *ʔanti'', with the same split into shorter and longer forms and the same ultimate resolution.
===== Short vowel lengthening (esp. pretonic), lowering =====
The short vowels {{IPA|*/a i u/}} tended to lengthen in various positions.
*First, short vowels lengthened in an open syllable in pretonic position (i.e. directly before the stressed syllable).
*Later, short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables.<ref name="Janssens 1982 56-57">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=56–57}}</ref><ref group="nb">Parallels to Aramaic syllable structure suggest pretonic lengthening may have occurred in the Second Temple period. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=128–129}}</ref>
In the process of lengthening, the high vowels were lowered. In the Secunda, the lengthened reflexes of {{IPA|/a i u/}} are {{IPA|/aː eː oː/}}; when kept short they generally have reflexes {{IPA|/a e o/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54, 118–120, 132}}</ref><ref group="nb">Long {{IPA|/aː eː oː/}} were written as {{angle bracket|α η ω}}, while short {{IPA|/a e o/}} were written {{angle bracket|α/ε ε ο}}. This length distinction is also found in the LXX. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=110–111}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=54}}, and {{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=14}}</ref><ref group="nb">In the Secunda {{IPA|/*a *i *u/}} are preserved as short in syllables closed by two consonants and in the third syllable before the stress. See {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54, 58–59}}</ref>
-->
==== Reduksi suku-suku kata ''short open stressed'' ====
<!--Stressed [[open syllable]]s with a short vowel (i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel) had the vowel reduced to {{IPA|/ə/}} and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word (usually to the last syllable of the word).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=56–57}}.</ref> Stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress. However, words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point. This change did not happen in [[pausa]]l position, where the penultimate stress is preserved, and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs.
The previous three changes occurred in a complex, interlocking fashion:
# Shift of stress to be universally penultimate.
# Loss of final short vowels in verbs, pre-stress lengthening in open syllables. Pre-stress lengthening/lowering becomes a [[surface filter]] that remains as a rule in the language, automatically affected any new short vowels in open syllables as they appear (but ultra-short vowels are unaffected).
# Stress movement from light syllable to following heavy syllable when not in [[pausa]], with newly unstressed light syllable reducing the schwa.
# Tonic lengthening/lowering in open syllables.
# Loss of final short vowels in nouns.
-->
Contoh:
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
|+ Kemungkinan derivasi sejumlah bentuk nominal/verbal
!
! 'membunuh/pembunuh (masc. sg.)'
! 'ia [laki-laki] membunuh'
! 'ia [perempuan] membunuh'
! 'mereka (telah) membunuh'
! 'mereka membunuh' ([[pausa]])
! 'engkau [laki-laki tunggal] (masc. sg.) membunuh'
! 'engkau [perempuan tunggal] (fem. sg.) membunuh'
|-
! Proto-Central-Semit
| {{IPA|*ˈqaːtilu}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqatala}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqatalat}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqataluː}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqataluː}}
| {{IPA|*ˈtaqtulu}}
| {{IPA|*taqtuˈliː(na)}}
|-
! Pra-Ibrani
| {{IPA|*ˈqaːṭilu}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqaṭala}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqaṭalat}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqaṭaluː}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqaṭaluː}}
| {{IPA|*ˈtaqṭulu}}
| {{IPA|*ˈtaqṭuliː}}
|-
! Pergeseran Kanaan
| {{IPA|*ˈqoːṭilu}}
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
|-
! Penultimate stress
| {{IPA|*qoːˈṭilu}}
| {{IPA|*qaˈṭala}}
| {{IPA|*qaˈṭalat}}
| {{IPA|*qaˈṭaluː}}
| {{IPA|*qaˈṭaluː}}
| {{IPA|*taqˈṭulu}}
| {{IPA|*taqˈṭuliː}}
|-
! Final short vowel loss (verb)
| —
| {{IPA|*qaˈṭal}}
| —
| —
| —
| {{IPA|*taqˈṭul}}
| —
|-
! Pre-tonic lengthening
| —
| {{IPA|*qaːˈṭal}}
| {{IPA|*qaːˈṭalat}}
| {{IPA|*qaːˈṭaluː}}
| {{IPA|*qaːˈṭaluː}}
| —
| —
|-
! Stress shift / de-stressed reduction
| —
| —
| {{IPA|*qaːṭəˈlat}}
| {{IPA|*qaːṭəˈluː}}
| —
| —
| {{IPA|*taqṭəˈliː}}
|-
! Tonic lengthening/lowering
| {{IPA|*qoːˈṭeːlu}}
| —
| —
| —
| {{IPA|*qaːˈṭaːluː}}
| —
| —
|-
! Final short vowel loss (noun)
| {{IPA|*qoːˈṭeːl}}
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! Feminine {{IPA|/-at/}} > {{IPA|/aː/}}
| —
| —
| {{IPA|*qaːṭəˈlaː}}
| —
| —
| —
| —
|-
! Short vowel lowering
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| {{IPA|*taqˈṭol}}
| —
|-
! Law of attenuation
| —
| —
| —
| —
| —
| {{IPA|*tiqˈṭol}}
| {{IPA|*tiqṭəˈliː}}
|-
! Tiberias {{IPA|/aː/}} > {{IPA|/ɔː/}}
| {{IPA|*qoːˈṭeːl}}
| {{IPA|*qɔːˈṭal}}
| {{IPA|*qɔːṭəˈlɔː}}
| {{IPA|*qɔːṭəˈluː}}
| {{IPA|*qɔːˈṭɔːluː}}
| —
| —
|-
! Loss of phonemic vowel length; attested Tiberian form
| {{IPA|qoˈṭel}}
| {{IPA|qɔˈṭal}}
| {{IPA|qɔṭəˈlɔ}}
| {{IPA|qɔṭəˈlu}}
| {{IPA|qɔˈṭɔlu}}
| {{IPA|tiqˈṭol}}
| {{IPA|tiqṭəˈli}}
|}
<!--
Note that many, perhaps most, Hebrew words with a schwa directly before a final stress are due to this stress shift.
This sound change shifted many more originally penultimate-stressed words to have final stress. The above changes can be seen to divide words into a number of main classes based on stress and syllable properties:
# Proto-Hebrew words with an open penult and short-vowel ending: Become final-stressed (e.g. {{IPA|/qɔˈṭal/}} ('he killed') < PHeb. {{IPA|/qaˈṭala/}}).
# Proto-Hebrew words with a closed penult and short-vowel ending: Become penultimate due to segholate rule (e.g. {{IPA|/ˈmɛlɛx/}} ('king') < {{IPA|*/malku/}}).
# Proto-Hebrew words with an open short penult and longer ending: Become final-stressed due to sress shift (e.g. {{IPA|/qɔṭəˈlu/}} ('they killed') < PHeb. {{IPA|/qaˈṭaluː/}}).
# Proto-Hebrew words with a closed penult and longer ending: Remain penultimate (e.g. {{IPA|/qɔˈṭalti/}} ('I killed') < PHeb. {{IPA|/qaˈṭaltiː/}}).
# Proto-Hebrew words with an open long penult and longer ending: ???
===== Pre-stress reduction of short vowel =====
{{IPA|*/a i u/}} were reduced to {{IPA|/ə/}} in the second syllable before the stress,<ref name="j54" /> and occasionally reduced rather than lengthened in pretonic position, especially when initial (e.g. σεμω = {{lang|hbo|שמו|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʃəˈmo/}} 'his name').<ref name="j120">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=120}}</ref><ref group="nb">The Secunda also has a few cases of pretonic gemination. See {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=119}}.</ref> Thus the vowel system of the Secunda was {{IPA|/a e eː iː o oː uː ə/}}.<ref name="j54" />
===== Later developments =====
The later Jewish traditions (Tiberian, Babylonian, Palestinian) show similar vowel developments. By the Tiberian time, all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened, making vowel length allophonic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=149}}</ref><ref group="nb">In fact, first all stressed vowels were lengthened in pause, see {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=58–59}}. This can be seen by forms like Tiberian {{lang|hbo|כַּף|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/kaf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaf/}}, pausal {{lang|hbo|כָּף|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/kɔf/}} < {{IPA|*/kɔːf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaːf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaf/}}. The shift in Tiberian Hebrew of {{IPA|*/aː/}} > {{IPA|*/ɔː/}} occurred after this lengthening, but before the loss of phonemicity of length (since words like {{lang|hbo|ירחם|rtl=yes}} with allophonically long {{IPA|[aː]}} don't show this shift).</ref><ref name="Blau 2010 82, 110">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=82, 110}}</ref> Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (e.g. {{IPA|/a/}} in {{lang|hbo|יְרַחֵם|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jəraˈħem/}} {{IPA|[jəraːˈħeːm]}} ('he will have mercy') < previously short {{IPA|[jəraˈħeːm]}} < {{IPA|[jəraħˈħeːm]}} by Tiberian degemination of {{IPA|/ħ/}} < PSem {{IPA|*/juraħˈħimu/}}).<ref name="Blau 2010 82, 110" /><ref group="nb">This is attested to by the testimony of Rabbi [[Joseph Qimḥi]] (12th century) and by medieval Arabic transcriptions, see {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54–56}}. There is also possible evidence from the cantillation marks' behavior and Babylonian pataḥ, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=82}}.</ref> The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length.<ref name="length" /><ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="jqimhi">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54–56}}</ref> In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems, {{IPA|*/aː/}} and lengthened {{IPA|*/a/}} become the back vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}}.<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="r77" /> In unaccented closed syllables, {{IPA|*/i u/}} become {{IPA|/ɛ⁓i ɔ⁓u/}} (Tiberian), {{IPA|/a⁓i u/}} (Babylonian), or {{IPA|/e⁓i o⁓u/}} (Palestinian) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates (e.g. {{lang|hbo|לִבִּי|rtl=yes}}) and the first otherwise.<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="y16" /><ref name="r77" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bergstrasser|Daniels|1995|p=53}}</ref><ref group="nb">The Palestinian reflexes of Tiberian {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ({{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}) thus reflect the qamatz gadol-qamatz qatan distinction.</ref> In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda. It does not occur for {{IPA|/*a/}}, but is occasional for {{IPA|/*i/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|מסמְרים|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/masməˈrim/}} 'nails' < {{IPA|*/masmiriːm/}}), and is common for {{IPA|/*u/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|רְחוֹב|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/rəˈħoβ}} 'open place' < {{IPA|*/ruħaːb/}}).<ref name="j120" /><ref name="breduc">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=129,136}}</ref> In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic {{IPA|/*u/}} is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant, e.g. {{lang|hbo|אדֻמּים|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ăðumˈmim/}} ('red' pl.) (cf. {{IPA|/ăˈðom/}} 'red' sg.); this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like {{lang|hbo|אַסִּיר|rtl=yes}}⁓{{lang|hbo|אָסִיר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɔˈsir/⁓/asˈsir/}} ('prisoner').<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=124, 136}}</ref>-->
Sistem Babilonia dan Palestina hanya memiliki satu fonem huruf hidup tereduksi {{IPA|/ə/}} seperti Secunda, meskipun dalam Ibrani Palestina dikembangkan pelafalan {{IPA|[ɛ]}}.<ref name="j54" /><ref name="b118-119" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=97}}</ref> Namun, tradisi Tiberias memiliki tiga huruf hidup tereduksi {{IPA|/ă ɔ̆ ɛ̆/}} di mana {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}} dipertanyakan fonemisitasnya.<ref name="b117-118">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=110}}</ref><ref group="nb">See {{lang|hbo|אֳנִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɔ̆ˈni/}} ('kapal-kapal') {{lang|hbo|אֲנִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ăˈni/}} ('aku'), {{lang|hbo|חֳלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ħɔ̆ˈli/}} ('penyakit') {{lang|hbo|חֲלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ħăˈli/}} ('ornamen'), {{lang|hbo|עֲלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʕăˈli/}} ('naiklah!') (Bilangan 21:17) dan {{lang|hbo|בַּעֱלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/baʕɛ̆ˈli/}} ('[dengan] pestle'; Amsal 27:22). {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}} {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}} sering beralternasi dengan {{IPA|/ă/}} dan jarang berkontras dengannya, e.g. {{lang|hbo|אֱדוֹם|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʔɛ̆ˈðom/}} ('[[Edom]]') versus {{lang|hbo|אֲדֹמִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʔăðoˈmi/}} ('orang Edom'). {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}} {{IPA|/ɔ̆/}} jelas fonemik tetapi memuat [[functional load|beban fungsional]] minimal. {{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=110}} {{IPA|/ă/}} ditulis baik dengan ''mobile šwa'' ⟨ְ ⟩ dan ''hataf patah'' ⟨ֲ ⟩.{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=117}}</ref> {{IPA|/ă/}} di bawah suatu huruf ''non-guttural'' dilafalkan sebagai tiruan sangat pendek (''ultrashort copy'') huruf hidup setelahnya sebelum suatu guttural, misalnya {{lang|hbo|וּבָקְעָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[uvɔqɔ̆ˈʕɔ]}}, dan sebagai {{IPA|[ĭ]}} mendahului {{IPA|/j/}}, misalnya {{lang|hbo|תְדֵמְּיוּ֫נִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[θăðamːĭˈjuni]}}, tetapi selalu dilafalkan sebagai {{IPA|[ă]}} di bawah guttural, misalnya {{rtl-lang|he|שָחֲחו, חֲיִי}}.<ref name="y281-282">{{Harvcoltxt|Yeivin|1980|pp=281–282}}</ref><ref name="b105-106">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=105–106}}</ref> Ketika direduksi, {{IPA|*/a i u/}} etimologis menjadi {{IPA|/ă ɛ̆⁓ă ɔ̆/}} di bawah guttural (misalnya {{lang|hbo|אֲמרתם|rtl=yes}} 'kalian [mp.] berkata' (waktu lampau) bandingkan {{lang|hbo|אָמר|rtl=yes}} 'dia [laki-laki] berkata' (waktu lampau)), dan umumnya {{IPA|/ă/}} ''under non-gutturals'', tetapi {{IPA|*/u/}} > {{IPA|/ɔ̆/}} (dan jarang {{IPA|*/i/}} > {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}}) masih dapat terjadi, khususnya setelah ''stop'' (atau pasangan ''spirantized''-nya) dan {{IPA|/sʼ ʃ/}} (misalnya {{lang|hbo|דֳּמִי|rtl=yes}} /dɔ̆ˈmi/).<ref name="b84-85">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=84–85}}</ref><ref name="y282-283">{{Harvcoltxt|Yeivin|1980|pp=282–283}}</ref> Ibrani Samaria dan Qumran memiliki huruf hidup penuh bukannya huruf hidup tereduksi seperti pada Ibrani Tiberias.<ref name="s160" />
<!--Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length, e.g. {{IPA|/rɒb/}} {{lang|hbo|רב|rtl=yes}} ('great') vs. {{IPA|/rɒːb/}} {{lang|hbo|רחב|rtl=yes}} ('wide').<ref name="bhlen">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=45, 47–48}} (while Ben-Hayyim notates four degrees of vowel length, he concedes that only his "fourth degree" has phonemic value)</ref> Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened (to a lesser degree) in open syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|המצרי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[ammisˤriˑ]}}, {{lang|hbo|היא|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[iˑ]}}, though this is less strong in post-tonic vowels.<ref name="bhlen" /> Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew, but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew, e.g. {{lang|hbo|גמלים|rtl=yes}} TH {{IPA|/ɡămalːim/}} SH {{IPA|/ɡɒmɒləm/}}; {{lang|hbo|שלמים|rtl=yes}} TH {{IPA|/ʃălɔmim/}} SH {{IPA|/ʃelamːəm/}}.<ref name="bh62">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=62}}</ref> While Proto-Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew,<ref name="r77">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=77}}</ref><ref name="jlong">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54, 123–127}}</ref> in Samaritan Hebrew {{IPA|*/iː/}} may have reflex {{IPA|/e/}} in closed stressed syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דין|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/den}}/, {{IPA|*/aː/}} may become either {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/ɒ/}},<ref name="bhlong" /> and {{IPA|*/oː/}} > {{IPA|/u/}}.<ref name="bhlong">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=83}}</ref> The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels, though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction. <!-- needs to be elaborated on --><!--Samaritan {{IPA|/ə/}} results from the neutralization of the distinction between {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in closed post-tonic syllables, e.g. {{IPA|/bit/}} {{lang|hbo|בית|rtl=yes}} ('house') {{IPA|/abbət/}} {{lang|hbo|הבית|rtl=yes}} ('the house') {{IPA|/ɡer/}} {{lang|hbo|גר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/aɡɡər/}} {{rtl-lang|he|הגר}}.<ref name="bh49" />
Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred. Diphthongs were frequently monopthongized, but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects. In particular, the Samaria ostraca show {{IPA|/jeːn/}} < {{IPA|*/jajn/}} < {{IPA|*/wajn/}}<ref group="nb">For {{IPA|/w-/}} > {{IPA|/j-/}}, see above. The Semitic form {{IPA|*/wajn-/}} was borrowed into [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] as {{IPA|*/wojn-om/}}, eventually yielding Latin ''vīnum'' and English ''wine''.</ref> for Southern {{IPA|/jajin/}} ('wine'), and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift {{IPA|*/aj/}} > {{IPA|/iː/}}.<ref name="sclas" /><ref name="ssam" /> Original {{IPA|*/u/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|אֹמֶר|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|אִמְרָה|rtl=yes}} 'word'; {{lang|hbo|חוץ|rtl=yes}} 'outside' and {{lang|hbo|חיצון|rtl=yes}} 'outer') beginning in the second half of the second millennium BC.<ref name="sdis">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=138–139}}</ref> This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions.<ref name="sdis" /> [[Philippi's law]] is the process by which original {{IPA|*/i/}} in closed stressed syllables shifts to {{IPA|/a/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*bint/}} > {{lang|hbo|בַּת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/bat/}} 'daughter'), or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*ʔamint/}} > {{lang|hbo|אֱמֶת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɛ̆mɛt/}} 'truth').<ref name="bphil">{{harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=133–136}}</ref><ref group="nb">Note that this {{IPA|/a/}} does not become {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in pause, thus {{lang|hbo|בת|rtl=yes}} has a patah vowel in pause as well as in context. {{cite book|title=Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 1|url=https://archive.org/details/eblaiticaessayso0004unse|year=1987|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-0-931464-34-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/eblaiticaessayso0004unse/page/20 20]}}</ref> This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=66}}</ref> but there is evidence that the law's onset predates the Secunda. In the Samaritan tradition Philippi's law is applied consistently, e.g. {{IPA|*/libː-u/}} > {{IPA|/lab/}} ('heart').<ref name="bhp">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=79}}</ref><ref group="nb">The only known case where Philippi's Law does not apply is in the word {{lang|hbo|קן|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/qen/}} < {{IPA|*/qinn-u/}} ('nest'). The shift {{IPA|*/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} has been extended by analogy to similar forms, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃam/}} ('name'; but {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃem/}} 'reputation'!). {{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=76,79}}</ref> In some traditions the short vowel {{IPA|/*a/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} in unstressed closed syllables: this is known as the [[law of attenuation]]. It is common in the Tiberian tradition, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃabʕat/}} > Tiberian {{lang|hbo|שִבְעָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʃivˈʕɔ/}} ('seven'), but exceptions are frequent.<ref name="b132">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=132}}</ref> It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization, e.g. {{IPA|/ʃabʕɔ/}} ('seven'), and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late.<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation generally did not occur before {{IPA|/i⁓e/}}, e.g. Tiberian {{lang|hbo|מַפְתֵּחַ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mafˈteaħ/}} ('key') versus {{lang|hbo|מִפְתַּח|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mifˈtaħ/}} ('opening [construct]'), and often was blocked before a geminate, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מתנה|rtl=yes}} ('gift').<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מקדש|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/maqdaʃ/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=81}}</ref><ref group="nb">Verbal forms such as {{lang|hbo|יפקד|rtl=yes}} = Samaritan {{IPA|/jifqɒd/}} < {{IPA|*/jafqud/}} may be examples of Barth's law rather than attenuation.</ref> In the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/e i o u/}} take offglide {{IPA|/a/}} before {{IPA|/h ħ ʕ/}}.<ref name="b83">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref><ref group="nb">This is known as ''pataḥ furtivum'', literally 'stolen pataḥ' and perhaps a mistranslation of Hebrew {{lang|hbo|פתח גנובה|rtl=yes}} ('pataḥ of the stolen [letter]'), as if {{lang|hbo|אֵ|rtl=yes}} were being inserted. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref> This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome.<ref name="ssam">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=156}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=43,133}}</ref> In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort [[echo vowel]] is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural, e.g. {{lang|hbo|יַאֲזִין|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔăzin/}} ('he will listen') {{lang|hbo|פָּעֳלוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/pɔʕɔ̆lo/}} ('his work') but {{lang|hbo|יַאְדִּיר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔdir/}} ('he will make glorious') {{lang|hbo|רָחְבּוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʀɔħbo/}} 'its breadth'.<ref name="b84-85" /><ref group="nb">It is evident that this epenthesis must have been a late phenomenon, since a short vowel preceding a guttural is preserved even though it becomes in an open syllable, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=85}}.</ref><ref group="nb">This is less common when the consonant following the guttural is a [[begadkefat]] letter, e.g. {{lang|hbo|תֵּחְבֹּל|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/taħbol/}} ('you take in pledge'). This suggests that begadkefat spirantization was no longer automatic by the time that this epenthesis occurred, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=79}}</ref><!--loss of final short vowels – differences bw/ nouns and verbs--><!-- {{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} / gutterals -->
Tabel berikut meringkas refleks-refleks paling umum untuk huruf-huruf hidup Proto-Semit dalam berbagai tahapan bahasa Ibrani:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Proto-Semit !! Proto-Ibrani !! ''Secunda'' !! Tiberias !! Babilonia !! Palestinia !! Samaria<sup>1</sup>
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*aː}}
| {{IPA|*aː}}
| {{IPA|aː}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɔ}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| {{IPA|a, ɒ}}
|-
| {{IPA|*oː}}
| {{IPA|oː}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|o}}
| {{IPA|u}}
|-
! {{IPA|*iː}}
| {{IPA|*iː}}
| {{IPA|iː}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|e, i}}
|-
! {{IPA|*uː}}
| {{IPA|*uː}}
| {{IPA|uː}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|u}}
| {{IPA|o, u}}<sup>4</sup>
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2" | Proto-Semit
!rowspan="2" | Proto-Ibrani
! colspan="5" | "''lengthened''"<sup>5</sup>
! colspan="5" | "''reduced''"<sup>6</sup>
! colspan="5" | ''word-final''
! colspan="5" | lainnya<sup>7</sup>
|-
! Sc !! T !! B !! P !! Sm<sup>1</sup>
! Sc !! T !! B !! P !! Sm<sup>1</sup>
! Sc !! T !! B !! P !! Sm<sup>1</sup>
! Sc !! T !! B !! P !! Sm<sup>1</sup>
|-
! {{IPA|*a}}
| {{IPA|*a}}
| {{IPA|aː}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɔ}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| {{IPA|a, ɒ}}
| {{IPA|ə}}
| {{IPA|ă}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ə}}
| *<sup>9</sup>
| rowspan="3" colspan="5" | {{IPA|Ø}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|a, i}}<sup>2</sup>
| {{IPA|a, ɒ}}
|-
! {{IPA|*i}}
| {{IPA|*i}}
| {{IPA|eː}}
| colspan="4" | {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|ə}}
| {{IPA|ă, ɛ̆}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ə}}
| *<sup>9</sup>
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|ɛ, i}}<sup>8</sup>{{IPA|, a}}<sup>3</sup>
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|e, i}}<sup>8</sup>{{IPA|, a}}<sup>3</sup>
| {{IPA|e, i, a}}<sup>3</sup>
|-
! {{IPA|*u}}
| {{IPA|*u}}
| {{IPA|oː}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|o}}
| {{IPA|a, ɒ, i}}
| {{IPA|ə}}
| {{IPA|ă, ɔ̆}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ə}}
| *<sup>9</sup>
| {{IPA|o}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɔ, u}}<sup>8</sup>
| {{IPA|o, u}}<sup>8</sup>
| {{IPA|a, ɒ, i}}
|}
<div style="font-size:88%">
# Huruf-huruf hidup Samaria dapat diperpanjang jika ada konsonan guttural etimologis. {{IPA|/ə/}} dihasilkan baik dari {{IPA|/i/}} maupun {{IPA|/e/}} dalam ''closed post-tonic syllables''.
# di bawah kondisi ''law of attenuation''
# di bawah kondisi ''Phillipi's law''
# Huruf hidup Samaria {{IPA|/o u/}} hampir dalam distribusi komplementer ({{IPA|/o/}} dalam open syllables, {{IPA|/u/}} dalam closed syllables)
# perpanjangan (''lengthening'') terjadi dalam sejumlah ''open pretonic syllables'' dan sejumlah ''stressed syllables''; kondisi-kondisi tepatnya tergantung pada huruf hidup dan pada tradisi
# reduksi terjadi dalam ''open syllables'' dua suku kata jauhnya dari ''stress'' dan kadang kala juga dalam ''pretonic and stressed open syllables''
# secara efektif dalam kebanyakan ''closed syllables''
# lebih umum sebelum ''geminate consonants''
# Ibrani Samaria mempunyai huruf-huruf hidup penuh ketika tradisi-tradisi lain telah mereduksi huruf-huruf hidup, tetapi ini tidak selalu berkorelasi dengan pendahulu Proto-Ibrani bahasa itu.
</div>
=== Penekanan ===
Bahasa Ibrani purba (Proto-Ibrani; ''Proto-Hebrew'') umumnya mempunyai penekanan (''stress'') pada satu suku kata sebelum suku kata terakhir (dalam bahasa Inggris: ''penultimate stress'').<ref name="j52">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=52}}</ref> <!-- perhatikan bagaimana Janssens melihat sejumlah perkecualian yang tidak dilihat oleh Blau --><ref group="nb">Untuk tujuan pergeseran kualitas huruf hidup (''vowel quality shifts''), kata-kata dalam [[construct state|keadaan konstruk]] diperlakukan seakan-akan penekanan jatuh langsung pada suku kata pertama yang mengikuti kata itu. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=52}}</ref> Penekanan akhir (''ultimate stress'') pada tradisi-tradisi bahasa Ibrani di kemudian hari biasanya dihasilkan dari hilangnya huruf-huruf hidup pada akhir kata (''final vowel'') dalam banyak kata, melestarikan lokasi penekanan proto-Semit.<ref group="nb">Additionally, short stressed vowels in open syllables were reduced and lost stress, leading to ultimate stress in forms like {{lang|hbo|קטלו|rtl=yes}} < {{IPA|*/qaˈtʼaluː/}}. In Tiberian Hebrew some words have penultimate stress in pause (before a break in reading), but ultimate stress in context, such as {{lang|hbo|שָמָ֫רָה|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|שָמְרָה|rtl=yes}} ('she watched'), because the penultimate vowel in the original form {{IPA|*/ʃaˈmaru/}} lengthened in pause, while in context it was not lengthened, and then lost the stress and was reduced due to this sound shift. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=146–148, 154}}</ref><!-- Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress, e.g. {{lang|hbo|בָּנוּ֫|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/bɔˈnu/}} ('they built') vs. {{lang|hbo|בָּ֫נוּ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ˈbɔnu/}} ('in us'); stress is most commonly ultimate, less commonly penultimate, and antipenultimate stress exists marginally, e.g. {{lang|hbo|הָאֹ֫הֱלָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/hɔˈʔohɛ̆lɔ/}} ('into the tent').<ref name="b143-144">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=143–144}}</ref><ref group="nb">It is not clear that a reduced vowel should be considered as comprising a whole syllable. Note for example that the rule whereby a word's stress shifts to a preceding open syllable to avoid being adjacent to another stressed syllable skips over ultrashort vowels, e.g. {{lang|hbo|עִם־יוֹ֫רְדֵי בוֹר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʕim-ˈjorăde vor/}} ('with those who go down into the pit') {{lang|hbo|מְטֹ֫עֲנֵי חָ֫רֶב|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/măˈtʼoʕăne ˈħɔrɛv/}} ('pierced with a sword'). See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=143–144}}</ref> There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=53}}</ref> Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew, Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto-Semitic stress, and has predominantly penultimate stress, with occasional ultimate stress.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=68}}</ref>--> Ada bukti bahwa Ibrani Qumran memiliki suatu pola penekanan serupa dengan Ibrani Samaria.<ref name="s160">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=160}}</ref>
== Catatan ==
<references group="nb" />
Baris 207 ⟶ 953:
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="b69">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=69}}</ref>
<ref name="eurekalert.org">{{Harvcoltxt|Feldman|2010}}</ref>
<ref name="r">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|pp=70–73}}</ref>
<ref name="s1">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=1–2}}</ref>
<ref name="wo8-9">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|pp=8–9}}</ref>
}}
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== Pranala luar ==
{{Wikisource|1=Gesenius'_Hebrew_Grammar|2=Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar}}
Baris 257 ⟶ 1.005:
** [http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/grammar.html Basic Biblical Hebrew Grammar (introductory)]
** [http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Aleph-Bet/aleph-bet.html Learn to write the Biblical Hebrew characters]
** [http://www.biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html The Alphabet of Biblical Hebrew] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015041252/http://biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html |date=2007-10-15 }}
{{Bahasa Semit}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ibrani Alkitabiah, bahasa kuno}}
[[Kategori:Bahasa kuno|Ibrani]]
[[Kategori:Bahasa Ibrani|Alkitabiah]]
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