Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab: Perbedaan antara revisi
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Baris 1:
{{Short description|Bentuk kuno dari bahasa Ibrani}}
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▲|imagecaption= [[Inskripsi Siloam]] di [[Museum Arkeologi Istanbul]]
| fam2 = {{PRBahasa|Semitik}}
▲|familycolor = Afro-Asiatik
| fam3 = {{PRBahasa|Semit Barat}}
| fam4 = {{PRBahasa|Semit Tengah}}
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{{Contains
'''Bahasa Ibrani
| title = The Biblical World
| volume = 2
Baris 35 ⟶ 37:
| year = 2004
| orig-year = 2002
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LtD4Xomh4XgC&pg=PA7
| page = 7
| quote = Interestingly, the term 'Hebrew' (ibrit) is not used of the language in the biblical text ({{lang-id|Menariknya, istilah 'Ibrani' (ibrit) tidak digunakan untuk bahasa tersebut dalam teks Alkitab}}
| isbn = 9780415350914
}}
</ref> dan digantikan dengan istilah yang disebut sebagai {{lang|he| שְֹפַת כְּנַעַן}} (''sefat kena'an'', terjemahan: Bahasa dari Kanaan) atau {{lang|he|יְהוּדִית}} (''Yehudit'', terjemahan: [[orang Yahudi]]).<ref name=Barton/> Sementara itu, istilah ''ibrit'' digunakan pada teks Alkitab dalam bahasa {{PBahasa|Yunani Kuno}} dan {{PBahasa|Ibrani Mishnaik}}.<ref name=Barton/>
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab diperkirakan berasal dari abad ke-10 sebelum Masehi dengan ditemukannya sebuah prasasti tertua yang mendukung keberadaan bahasa tersebut.<ref name="eurekalert.org">{{Harvcoltxt|Feldman|2010}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab terus dituturkan oleh bangsa Ibrani hingga [[Pengepungan Yerusalem (70)|Pengepungan Yerusalem]] berlangsung pada tahun 70 Masehi, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa bahasa tersebut dituturkan melebihi masa [[Bait Allah Kedua]].<ref name="bar" /> Bahasa tersebut kemudian berkembang menjadi bahasa {{PBahasa|Ibrani Mishnaik}} dan dituturkan hingga akhir abad ke-5 Masehi.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab dituangkan dalam [[Alkitab Ibrani]] yang melambangkan strata mendalam dan tahapan-tahapan dari bahasa Ibrani dan [[Akar kata rumpun bahasa Semit|struktur konsonanta Semit]]nya, dan juga penambahan [[vokalisasi Tiberian|struktur vokalisasi]] pada [[Abad Pertengahan]] oleh [[Kaum Masorah]]. Terdapat beberapa bukti dari variasi [[dialek]]al, termasuk perbedaan antara Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab yang dituturkan di wilayah utara ([[Kerajaan Israel (Samaria)|Kerajaan Israel]]) dengan wilayah selatan ([[Kerajaan Yehuda]]). Teks [[Abjad|konsonanta]] dituliskan kedalam bentuk prasasti dan Kitab. Sistem penulisan semacam itu mengalami perubahan sistem tulis pada masa [[Bait Allah Kedua]], sehingga beberapa bagian karya tulis yang lebih awal (seperti Kitab [[Kitab Amos|Amos]], [[Kitab Yesaya|Yesaya]], [[Kitab Hosea|Hosea]] and [[Kitab Mikha|Mikha]]) [[penanggalan Alkitab|yang berasal]] dari akhir abad ke-8 hingga awal abad ke-7 sebelum Masehi menunjukkan tanda-tanda penulisan sebelum perubahan dilakukan.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab telah dituliskan kedalam beberapa [[sistem penulisan]]. Dari kisaran abad ke-12 hingga abad ke-6 sebelim Masehi, bangsa Ibrani menggunakan [[alfabet Paleo-Ibrani]]. Penggunaan alfabet ini kemudian digantikan oleh aksara turunan [[Abjad Samaria]] oleh [[orang Samaria]] hingga hari ini. Meskipun demikian, [[alfabet Aram Imperium]] juga turut menggantikan alfabet Paleo-Ibrani setelah terjadinya [[Pembuangan ke Babilonia|pemindahan bangsa Ibrani ke Babilonia]], dan alfabet tersebut menjadi sumber dari [[bahasa Ibrani Modern#Alfabet|Alfabet bahasa Ibrani Modern]]. Semua dari sistem penulisan diatas tidak benar-benar dapat melambangkan semua [[fonem]] bahasa Ibrani Alkitab dikarenakan kurangnya huruf yang tersedia. Meskipun begitu, terjemahan ataupun alih-aksara dalam [[bahasa Yunani]] maupun [[bahasa Latin]] dapat memuat fonem yang ada. Aksara-aksara ini awalnya hanya melambangkan konsonan, akan tetapi beberapa diantaranya dapat memiliki penanda [[vokal]] dalam beberapa kata maupun huruf yang dikenal sebagai [[Mater lectionis|''matres lectionis'']] dalam istilah Latin. Pada masa Abad Pertengahan, berbagai macam [[diakritik]] bermunculan untuk melambangkan vokal. Meskipun begitu, dari sekian jenis, hanya [[vokalisasi Tiberian]] yang digunakan secara luas hingga saat ini.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab memiliki berbagai macam [[konsonan emfatis]] yang [[fonetik artikuloris]] pastinya masih diperdebatkan, fonem emfatis tersebut kemungkinan merupakan [[konsonan sembur]] ataupun konsonan yang [[faringalisasi|terfaringalisasi]]. Bahasa Ibrani periode awal memiliki tiga konsonan yang tidak memiliki huruf perlambangan dalam sistem penulisan Ibrani, tetapi fonem tersebut mengalami penyatuan dengan konsonan lain seiring berjalannya waktu. [[Konsonan letup]] yang ada menghasilkan [[alofoni]] konsonan [[konsonan frikatif|frikatif]] karena adanya pengaruh dari [[bahasa Aram]], sehingga konsonan tersebut pada akhirnya menjadi konsonan [[fonem|fonemik]]. Konsonan [[Konsonan faringal|faringal]] dan [[konsonan celah-suara|celah-suara]] mengalami pelemahan pada beberapa dialek regional, seperti yang dapat dilihat pada kebudayaan membaca masyarakat Ibrani Samaria. Sistem vokal dari bahasa Ibrani Alkitab mengalami perubahan seiring dengan waktu, hal ini menyebabkan penerjemahan dan alih aksara beberapa sastra dan kitab dalam bahasa Yunani Kuno, Latin, sistem vokalisasi abad pertengahan, dan kebudayaan literatur modern menjadi berbeda satu sama lainnya.
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab memiliki morfologi Semit umum dengan [[morfologi tak berkelanjutan]], sehingga memungkinkan [[akar kata rumpun bahasa Semit]]nya disusun menggunakan beberapa pola untuk menghasilkan sebuah kata. Bahasa Ibrani Alkitab memiliki dua penggolongan [[gender (tata bahasa)|gender]] (maskulin, dan feminim), tiga [[nominalia (tata bahasa)|nominalia]] (tunggal, jamak, dan ganda—untuk kasus yang sangat jarang terjadi). [[Verba]] ditandai dengan adanya [[diatesis]] dan [[modus]] dan memiliki dua [[konjungsi (tata bahasa)|konjungsi]] yang mungkin ditandai dengan adanya [[aspek (tata bahasa)|aspek]] dan/atau [[kala (linguistik)|kala]] (masih menjadi perdebatan). Unsur aspek dan kala pada verba juga dipengaruhi oleh konjungsi {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}, yang seringkali disebut sebagai struktur [[konsekutif wau]]. Tidak seperti bahasa Ibrani Modern, susunan kata dasar pada bahasa Ibrani Alkitab adalah [[predikat-subjek-objek]] (PSO), sementara verba berubah dan diinfleksikan menurut numeralia, gender, dan [[persona (tata bahasa)|persona]] dari subjek. Akhiran pronomina juga dapat ditambahkan pada verba (untuk mengindikasikan [[Objek (tata bahasa)|objek]]) atau nomina (untuk mengindikasikan [[posesi (tata bahasa)|posesi]]), dan nomina memiliki [[tingkatan konstruktif]] istimewa untuk digunakan dalam penyusunan posesi.
== Penamaan ==▼
{{Hiero | ˁ[[Apiru]] (ʕprw)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Budge|1920|p=119}}</ref> | <hiero>a:p:r-G43-A1</hiero> | align=right | era=default }}▼
== Nomenklatur==
Sumber tertulis tertua menyebut bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah menurut nama negeri di mana bahasa itu digunakan yaitu: {{lang|hbo|שפת כנען|rtl=yes}} ''sefat kena'an'', artinya "bahasa Kanaan" (lihat [[Yesaya 19:18]]).<ref name="s1"/> Selain itu juga tercatat disebut sebagai {{lang|hbo|יהודית|rtl=yes}} ''Yehudit'', artinya "bahasa Yehuda" atau "bahasa Yudea" (misalnya, [[2 Raja-raja 18:26]][[2 Raja-raja 18:28|,28]]).<ref name="s1"/> Dalam periode Hellenistik, tulisan-tulisan Yunani menggunakan istilah ''Hebraios'', ''Hebraïsti'' (Yosefus, [[Antiquitates Iudaicae|''Antiquities'']] I, 1:2, dll.), dan dalam Ibrani Mishnah didapati istilah {{lang|hbo|עברית|rtl=yes}} ''ivrit'', artinya "(bahasa) Ibrani dan {{lang|hbo|לשון עברית|rtl=yes}} "bahasa Ibrani" ([[:en:Nashim|Mishnah Gittin]] 9:8, dll.).<ref name="s1"/>▼
▲{{Hiero | ˁ[[Apiru]] (ʕprw)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Budge|1920|p=119}}</ref> | <hiero>a:p:r-G43-A1</hiero> | align=
▲Sumber tertulis tertua menyebut bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah menurut nama negeri di mana bahasa itu digunakan yaitu: {{lang|hbo|שפת כנען|rtl=yes}} ''sefat kena'an'', artinya "bahasa Kanaan" (lihat [[Yesaya 19:18]]).<ref name="s1"/> Selain itu juga tercatat disebut sebagai {{lang|hbo|יהודית|rtl=yes}} ''Yehudit'', artinya "bahasa Yehuda" atau "bahasa Yudea" (misalnya, [[2 Raja-raja 18:26]][[2 Raja-raja 18:28|,28]]).<ref name="s1"/> Dalam periode
Asal usul istilah ini tidak jelas; sejumlah usulan asal mulanya meliputi nama tokoh Alkitab [[Eber]], [[:en:ethnonym|etnonim]] [[Habiru|Ḫabiru]], Ḫapiru, dan ˁApiru yang ditemukan dalam sumber-sumber dari Mesir dan [[Timur Dekat]], serta turunan atau derivasi dari akar kata {{lang|hbo|עבר|rtl=yes}} "melewati", "menyeberangi", yang mengacu pada penyeberangan melewati sungai Yordan.<ref name="s1"/>{{sfn|Rainey|2008}} Orang Yahudi juga menyebut bahasa Ibrani sebagai {{lang|hbo|לשון הקדש|rtl=yes}} "Bahasa Kudus" (Inggris: "''the Holy Tongue''") dalam Ibrani Mishnah.<ref name="s1"/>▼
Istilah ''Bahasa Ibrani Klasik'' dapat meliputi semua dialek Ibrani sebelum [[Abad Pertengahan]], termasuk Ibrani Mishnah, atau dapat dibatasi pada bahasa Ibrani yang sezaman dengan Alkitab Ibrani. Istilah ''Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah'' merujuk kepada dialek-dialek sebelum [[Mishnah]] (kadang kala tidak memasukkan bahasa Ibrani yang dipakai dalam karya-karya non-Alkitab dari antara [[Naskah Laut Mati]]). Istilah Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah juga dapat meliputi atau tidak meliputi teks-teks di luar Alkitab, seperti prasasti-prasasti (misalnya: [[Inskripsi Siloam]]), dan umumnya juga meliputi tradisi vokalisasi di kemudian hari untuk teks konsonantal Alkitab Ibrani, di mana yang paling umum adalah vokalisasi Tiberias dari awal Abad Pertengahan.▼
▲Asal usul istilah ini tidak jelas; sejumlah usulan asal mulanya meliputi nama tokoh Alkitab [[Eber]], [[
▲Istilah ''Bahasa Ibrani Klasik'' dapat meliputi semua dialek Ibrani sebelum [[Abad Pertengahan]], termasuk Ibrani Mishnah, atau dapat dibatasi pada bahasa Ibrani yang sezaman dengan Alkitab Ibrani. Istilah ''Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah'' merujuk kepada dialek-dialek sebelum [[Mishnah]] (kadang kala tidak memasukkan bahasa Ibrani yang dipakai dalam karya-karya non-Alkitab dari antara [[Naskah Laut Mati]]). Istilah Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah juga dapat meliputi atau tidak meliputi teks-teks di luar Alkitab, seperti prasasti-prasasti (misalnya: [[Inskripsi Siloam]]), dan umumnya juga meliputi tradisi vokalisasi di kemudian hari untuk teks konsonantal Alkitab Ibrani, di mana yang paling umum
== Sejarah ==
<!--{{See also|Ancient Hebrew writings}}-->
[[
Catatan [[arkeologi]] mengenai prasejarah bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah jauh lebih lengkap daripada catatan bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah itu sendiri.<ref name="enws">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|pp=6–7}}</ref> Materi terkait [[
Bahasa Ibrani berkembang selama paruh kedua [[milenium kedua SM]] di antara sungai Yordan dan [[Laut Tengah]], daerah yang dikenal sebagai [[Kanaan]].<ref name="s1"/> Suku-suku Israel mendirikan suatu kerajaan di Kanaan pada permulaan milennium pertama SM, yang kemudian terpecah menjadi kerajaan Israel di utara dan [[kerajaan Yehuda]] di selatan setelahs pertikaian terkait pergantian tahta.<ref name="sthist">{{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=145}}</ref> Tulisan bahasa Ibrani tertua saat ini ditemukan di [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]] dan bertarikh abad ke-10 SM.<ref name="eurekalert.org">{{Harvcoltxt|Feldman|2010}}</ref><ref name="bar" />
The kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BCE.<ref name="sthist" /> The kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, its higher classes were exiled into the [[Babylonian captivity]] and [[Solomon's Temple]] was destroyed.<ref name="sthist" /><ref name="s112" /> Later the Persians made Judah a province and permitted Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple.<ref name="sthist" /> According to the ''[[Gemara]]'', Hebrew of this period was similar to [[Imperial Aramaic]];<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t2bJ1UqfNXAC&lpg=PA115 History of the Jewish People: From Yavneh to Pumbedisa, Meir. Holder, p115]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe7WXki-ZQsC&lpg=PA79 One-minute History Lessons: Six Millennia of Great Jewish Leaders, Moshe Goldberger, p79]</ref><ref>[http://m.chabad.org/m/article_cdo/aid/1051040 Aramaic: the Yiddish of the Middle East]</ref> in [[Pesachim (Talmud)|Pesahim]], Tractate 87b, [[Hanina bar Hama]] said that God sent the exiled Jews to Babylon because "[the Babylonian] language is akin to the ''[[Leshon Hakodesh]]''".▼
▲
Bahasa Aram menjadi bahasa umum di Israel utara, di [[Galilea]] dan [[Samaria]].<ref name="s112" /> Bahasa Ibrani tetap digunakan di Yehuda; tetapi orang-orang buangan membawa pulang pengaruh bahasa Aram dan memakai bahasa itu untuk berkomunikasi dengan suku bangsa lain selama periode Persia.<ref name="s112">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=112–113}}</ref> Aleksander Agung menguasai Yehuda pada tahun 332 SM, memulai periode dominasi Helenistik (Yunani).<ref name="s112" /> Selama periode Helenistik Yudea menjadi merdeka di bawah [[Hashmonayim|dinasti Hashmonayim]], tetapi kemudian orang Romawi mengakhiri kemerdekaan mereka, menjadikan [[Herodes Agung]] gubernur mereka.<ref name="sthist" /> Pemberontakan orang Yahudi melawan orang Romawi sampai kehancuran [[Bait Kedua]] pada tahun 70 M, dan [[Perang Bar Kokhba]] kedua pada tahun 132–135 menyebabkan keberangkatan sejumlah besar penduduk Yahudi dari Yudea.<ref name="sthist"/>
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah setelah periode Bait Suci Kedua berkembang menjadi bahasa Ibrani Mishnah, yang berhenti menjadi bahasa percakapan dan berkembang menjadi bahasa sastra sekitar tahun 200 M.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=166, 171}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani terus digunakan sebagai bahasa sastra dan liturgis dalam bentuk [[:en:Medieval Hebrew|bahasa Ibrani Abad Pertengahan]], lalu bahasa Ibrani memulai proses revival pada abad ke-19, berpuncak dengan dijadikannya [[:en:Modern Hebrew|bahasa Ibrani Modern]] sebagai bahasa resmi [[Israel]]. Saat ini, bahasa Ibrani Klasik umumnya diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah publik di [[Israel]], sedangkan bentuk-bentuk bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah kadang-kadang digunakan dalam sastra Ibrani Modern, sebanyak konstruksi arkaik dan alkiabiah digunakan dalam sastra Inggris Modern. Mengingat bahasa Ibrani Modern memuat banyak unsur-unsur alkitabiah, bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah cukup mudah dibaca oleh para pemakai bahasa Ibrani Modern.<ref name="blau11">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=11–12}}</ref>▼
▲Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah setelah periode Bait Suci Kedua berkembang menjadi bahasa Ibrani Mishnah, yang berhenti menjadi bahasa percakapan dan berkembang menjadi bahasa sastra sekitar tahun 200 M.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=166, 171}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani terus digunakan sebagai bahasa sastra dan liturgis dalam bentuk [[
Sumber utama materi bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah adalah Alkitab Ibrani.<ref name="wo8-9"/><ref name="b10" /> Materi [[epigrafi]] dari wilayah Israel ditulis dalam suatu bentuk bahasa Ibrani yang disebut ''Inscriptional Hebrew'', meskipun buktinya tidak banyak.<ref name="b10">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=10}}</ref><ref name="wo8a">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|pp=8}}: "Materi linguistik di luar Alkitab (''extrabiblical'') dari Zaman Besi terutama adalah epigrafis, yakni teks-teks yang tertulis pada bahan keras (tembikar, batu, tembok, dll.). Teks epigrafis dari wilayah Israel ditulis dalam bahasa Ibrani dalam suatu bentuk bahasa yang dapat disebut ''Inscriptional Hebrew''; "dialek" ini tidak jauh berbeda dengan bahasa Ibrani yang terlestarikan dalam teks Masoret. Sayangnya, bukti-buktinya hanya sedikit."</ref> Menurut Waltke & O'Connor, Inscriptional Hebrew "tidak jauh berbeda dari bahasa Ibrani yang terlestarikan dalam teks Masoret."<ref name="wo8a"/> Iklim lembap Israel menyebabkan cepatnya kerusakan dokumen papirus dan perkamen, berlawanan dengan lingkungan kering di Mesir, sehingga pelestarian Alkitab Ibrani lebih dikarenakan tekad para jurutulis dalam membuat salinan-salinan.<ref name="wo16">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|p=16}}</ref> Tidak ditemukan naskah Alkitab Ibrani sebelum tahun 400 SM, meskipun dua gulungan perak (gulungan [[Ketef Hinnom]]) dari abad ke-7 atau ke-6 SM yang memuat suatu versi [[Berkat Imamat]].<ref name="wo16" /><ref name="yheb" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|p=118}}</ref> Huruf hidup dan tanda-tanda [[kantilasi]] ditambahkan pada lapisan konsonantal yang lebih tua pada Alkitab antara tahun 600 M dan awal abad ke-10.<ref name="b7" /><ref group="nb">Ini diketahui karena redaksi akhir [[Talmud]], yang tidak menyebutkan tambahan-tambahan ini, adalah sekitar tahun 600 M, sedangkan naskah dengan vokalisasi bertarikh mulai awal abad ke-10. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=7}}</ref> Para cendekiawan yang melestarikan pelafalan Alkitab dikenal sebagai [[kaum Masoret]]. Sistem yang dikembangkan dan terlestarikan terbaik serta satu-satunya yang masih digunakan dalam keagamaan adalah vokalisasi Tiberias, tetapi baik vokalisasi Babilonia dan Palestina juga ada bukti keberadaannya.<ref name="b7"/> Sistem Palestinian terlestarikan terutama dalam [[piyyut]]im, yang memuat kutipan-kutipan Alkitab.<ref name="b7"/>
== Klasifikasi ==
{{Lihat pula|Rumpun bahasa Semit|Rumpun bahasa Semit Barat Laut|Rumpun bahasa Kanaan}}
{{IPA notice}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+Refleks konsonan Proto-
! rowspan="2" | Proto-
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="4" |
|-
! Ibrani
Baris 122 ⟶ 125:
| 'tahun'
|-
! [[
! {{IPA|*/θ/}}
| {{IPA|/t/}} {{lang|arc-Hebr|ת|rtl=yes}}
Baris 131 ⟶ 134:
| 'tiga'
|-
! [[
! {{IPA|*/θʼ/}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/sˤ/}} {{lang|hbo|צ|rtl=yes}}
Baris 160 ⟶ 163:
|}
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah merupakan suatu [[Rumpun bahasa Semit Barat Laut|bahasa Semit Barat Laut]] dari [[Rumpun bahasa Kanaan|subgrup Kanaan]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=65}}</ref>{{sfn|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=29}} Karena bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah berkembang dari [[Proto-Semitic language|bahasa Proto-Semit]], maka mengalami sejumlah penggabungan atau peleburan konsonantal yang paralel dengan bahasa-bahasa Kanaan lainnya.<ref name="bmerge" /><ref name="sclas" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|pp=57–59}}</ref><ref group="nb">Namun, perlu dicatat bahwa bahasa Akkadia juga memiliki banyak pergeseran suara ini tetapi kurang terkait dengan bahasa Ibrani dibandingkan dengan bahasa Aram. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=19}}</ref> Tidak ada bukti bahwa peleburan ini terjadi setelah adaptasi abjad Ibrani.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=76}}</ref><ref group="nb">Namun, contohnya, ketika bahasa Aram Tua meminjam abjad Kanaan, masih memiliki interdental, tetapi menandainya dengan apa peleburannya dalam bahasa Kanaan. Misalnya, "lembu" ditulis {{lang|hbo|שר|rtl=yes}} tetapi dilafalkan dengan suara {{IPA|/θ/}} di awalnya ("inisial"; ''initial''). Gejala yang sama juga terjadi ketika orang Arab mengadopsi abjad Nabath. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=74–75}}.</ref>
Sebagai suatu bahasa Semit Barat Laut, bahasa Ibrani menunjukkan pergeseran {{IPA|*/w/}} inisial menjadi {{IPA|/j/}}, suatu sistem kata ganti orang independen yang mirip dengan bahasa-bahasa Semit Barat Laut lainnya (dengan kata ganti orang ketiga tidak pernah memuat {{IPA|/ʃ/}}), bentuk-bentuk purba/arkaik, seperti {{IPA|/naħnu/}} "kita" atau "kami", akhiran untuk kata ganti orang pertama tunggal -i atau -ya, dan {{IPA|/n/}} umumnya mendahului akhiran-akhiran kata ganti orang (''pronominal suffixes'').<ref name="sclas" /> Akhiran-akhiran semacam itu dijumpai dalam bahasa-bahasa Semit Barat Laut pada milennium kedua SM, tetapi kemudian menghilang hampir seluruhnya.<ref name="sclas" /> ''[[Mimation]]'' tidak dijumpai dalam kata-kata benda tunggal/singular, tetapi sering dipertahankan dalam bentuk jamak/plural, sebagaimana dalam bahasa Ibrani.<ref name="sclas"/>
Bahasa-bahasa
▲Bahasa-bahasa Semitik Barat Laut membentuk suatu keberlangsungan (''continuum'') dialek pada [[Zaman Besi]] (1200–540 SM), dengan [[bahasa Fenisia]] dan Aram pada masing-masing ujungnya.<ref name="sclas">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=36–38,43–44,47–50}}</ref><ref name="scon" /> Bahasa Ibrani digolongkan bersama bahasa Fenisia dalam subgrup Kanaan, yang juga meliputi [[:en:Ammonite language|bahasa Amon]], [[:en:Edomite language|Edom]], dan [[:en:Moab#Language|Moab]].<ref name="sclas" /> Bahasa Moab dapat dianggap sebagai suatu dialek bahasa Ibrani, meskipun memiliki ciri-ciri khusus bahasa Aram.<ref name="scon">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|p=8}}</ref><ref name="bmoab">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=18}}</ref> Meskipun Ugaritik menunjukkan afinitas kuat dalam bahasa Ibrani untuk struktur puisi, kosa kata, dan sejumlah gramatika, tetapi tidak mempunyai sejumlah ciri Kanaan (seperti [[:en:Canaanite shift|pergeseran Kanaan]] dan pergeseran {{IPA|*/ð/}} > {{IPA|/z/}}), serta kemiripannya lebih mungkin dihasilkan baik dari kontak maupun pelestarian ''archaisme''.<ref name="b21">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=21}}</ref>
▲<!--Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift, where Proto-Semitic {{IPA|/aː/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/oː/}}, perhaps when stressed.<ref name="sclas" /><ref name="Blau 2010 136-137">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=136–137}}</ref> Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts {{IPA|*/ð/}} > {{IPA|/z/}}, {{IPA|*/θʼ/}} and {{IPA|*/ɬʼ/}} > {{IPA|/sʼ/}}, widespread reduction of diphthongs, and full assimilation of non-final /n/ to the following consonant if word final, i.e. {{lang|hbo|בת|rtl=yes}} /bat/ from *bant.<ref name="sclas" /> There is also evidence of a rule of assimilation of /y/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Garnier|Jacques|2012}}</ref>
▲Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include: {{lang|hbo|גג|rtl=yes}} "roof" {{lang|hbo|שלחן|rtl=yes}} "table" {{lang|hbo|חלון|rtl=yes}} "window" {{lang|hbo|ישן|rtl=yes}} "old (thing)" {{lang|hbo|זקן|rtl=yes}} "old (person)" and {{lang|hbo|גרש|rtl=yes}} "expel".<ref name="sclas" /> Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker {{lang|hbo|-ם}}, first person singular pronoun {{lang|hbo|אנכי|rtl=yes}}, interrogative pronoun {{lang|hbo|מי|rtl=yes}}, definite article {{lang|hbo|ה-}} (appearing in the first millennium BCE), and third person plural feminine verbal marker {{rtl-lang|he|ת-}}.<ref name="sclas" />
Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah yang dilestarikan dalam [[Alkitab Ibrani]] tersusun dari sejumlah lapisan linguistik. Kerangka konsonan teks adalah yang paling tua, sedangkan vokalisasi dan kantilasi adalah penambahan di kemudian hari dalam tahapan perkembangan bahasa.<ref name="b10" /> Tambahan-tambahan ini terjadi setelah tahun 600 M; bahasa Ibrani sudah berhenti menjadi bahasa percakapan sekitar tahun 200 M.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=7, 11}}</ref> Bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah yang dicerminkan dalam teks Alkitab dan prasasti-prasasti di luar Alkitab dapati dibagi menurut era.
▲The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew, Archaic Hebrew, is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE, the early [[Kingdoms of Israel and Judah|Monarchic Period]].<ref name="sb52">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=52}}</ref><ref name="r66">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=66}}</ref> This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew, and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew. The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the [[Tanakh]], including the [[Song of Moses]] ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 15) and the [[Song of Deborah]] ([[Book of Judges|Judges]] 5).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=56}}</ref> Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items, for example {{lang|hbo|חזה|rtl=yes}} for prose {{lang|hbo|ראה|rtl=yes}} 'see', {{lang|hbo|כביר|rtl=yes}} for {{lang|hbo|גדול|rtl=yes}} 'great'.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=60}}</ref> Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages, for example {{lang|hbo|פעל|rtl=yes}} 'do' and {{lang|hbo|חָרוּץ|rtl=yes}} 'gold' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=61}}</ref> Grammatical differences include the use of {{lang|hbo|זה|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|זוֹ|rtl=yes}}, and {{lang|hbo|זוּ|rtl=yes}} as relative particles, negative {{lang|hbo|בל|rtl=yes}}, and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=57–60}}</ref>
Later pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew (such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch, [[Nevi'im]], and some [[Ketuvim]]) is known as 'Biblical Hebrew proper' or 'Standard Biblical Hebrew'.<ref name="sb52" /><ref name="r66" /> This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE. In contrast to Archaic Hebrew, Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article {{lang|hbo|ה-}}, the accusative marker {{lang|hbo|את|rtl=yes}}, distinguishing between simple and [[waw-consecutive]] verb forms, and in using particles like {{lang|hbo|אשר|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|כי|rtl=yes}} rather than [[asyndeton]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=71}}</ref>
Baris 183 ⟶ 184:
Qumran Hebrew, attested in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] from ca. 200 BCE to 70 CE, is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew.<ref name="r66" /> Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew, though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=132}}</ref>
==
Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well-known [[shibboleth]] incident of Judges 12:6, where [[Jephthah]]'s forces from [[Gilead]] caught Ephraimites trying to cross the Jordan river by making them say {{lang|hbo|שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת|rtl=yes}} ('ear of corn')<ref name="bshib">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=8,40–41}}</ref> The Ephraimites' identity was given away by their pronunciation: {{rtl-lang|he|סִבֹּ֤לֶת}}.<ref name="bshib" /> The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had {{IPA|/s/}} for standard {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.<ref name="bshib" /> As an alternative explanation, it has been suggested that the proto-Semitic phoneme {{IPA|*/θ/}}, which shifted to {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in most dialects of Hebrew, may have been retained in the Hebrew of the trans-Jordan.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=70}}</ref><ref group="nb">As a consequence this would leave open the possibility that other proto-Semitic phonemes (such as *{{IPA|/ð/}}) may have been preserved regionally at one point See {{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=72}}</ref> However, there is evidence that the word {{lang|hbo|שִׁבֹּ֤לֶת|rtl=yes}} had initial consonant *{{IPA|/ʃ/}} in proto-Semitic, contradicting this theory.<ref name="bshib" />
Baris 192 ⟶ 193:
== Ortografi ==
<!--{{Main|Biblical Hebrew orthography}}-->
{| class="wikitable" style="float:
! Nama
! [[Abjad Ibrani Kuno|Ibrani Kuno]]
! [[Abjad Ibrani|Blok]]
! [[
! Nilai<br />fonetik<br />(Pra-Pembuangan)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=6,69}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997}}</ref><br />([[
|-
! [[Alef|Alef (''Aleph'')]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠀ
Baris 206 ⟶ 207:
|-
! [[Bet (huruf Ibrani)|Beth]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ב|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠁ
Baris 212 ⟶ 213:
|-
! [[Gimel]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ג|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠂ
| {{IPAblink|ɡ}}, {{IPA|ɣ}}
|-
! [[Dalet
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ד|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠃ
Baris 224 ⟶ 225:
|-
! [[He (huruf Ibrani)|He]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ה|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠄ
Baris 230 ⟶ 231:
|-
! [[Waw (huruf Ibrani)|Waw]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠅ
Baris 236 ⟶ 237:
|-
! [[Zayin]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ז|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠆ
Baris 242 ⟶ 243:
|-
! [[Het (huruf Ibrani)|Heth]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠇ
Baris 248 ⟶ 249:
|-
! [[Tet (huruf Ibrani)|Teth]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ט|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠈ
Baris 254 ⟶ 255:
|-
! [[Yod (huruf Ibrani)|Yodh]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|י|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠉ
Baris 260 ⟶ 261:
|-
! [[Kaf (huruf Ibrani)|Kaph]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|כ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ך|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠊ
| {{IPAblink|k}}, {{IPA|x}}
|-
! [[Lamed
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ל|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠋ
Baris 272 ⟶ 273:
|-
! [[Mem (huruf Ibrani)|Mem]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|מ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ם|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠌ
Baris 278 ⟶ 279:
|-
! [[Nun (huruf Ibrani)|Nun]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|נ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ן|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠍ
Baris 284 ⟶ 285:
|-
! [[Samekh]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠎ
Baris 290 ⟶ 291:
|-
! [[Ayin]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠏ
Baris 296 ⟶ 297:
|-
! [[Pe (huruf Ibrani)|Pe]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|פ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ף|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠐ
Baris 302 ⟶ 303:
|-
! [[Tsade|Sadhe/Tsade]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|צ|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ץ|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠑ
Baris 308 ⟶ 309:
|-
! [[Qoph]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ק|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠒ
Baris 314 ⟶ 315:
|-
! [[Resh]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ר|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠓ
Baris 320 ⟶ 321:
|-
! [[Syin (huruf Ibrani)|Shin/Syin]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠔ
Baris 326 ⟶ 327:
|-
! [[Taw]]
| [[
| style="font-size:200%" | {{lang|hbo|ת|rtl=yes}}
| style="font-size:200%" | ࠕ
Baris 332 ⟶ 333:
|}
Tulisan bahasa Ibrani tertua yang pernah ditemukan telah digali di [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]], bertarikh abad ke-10 SM.<ref name="eurekalert.org"/> [[Ostrakon]] [[
Suku-suku Israel yang menempati tanah Israel mengadopsi [[abjad Fenisia|huruf-huruf Fenisia]] sekitar abad ke-12 SM, sebagaimana ditemukan dalam [[Kalender Gezer]] (sekitar abad ke-10 SM).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|p=15}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hanson|2011}}</ref> Abjad ini berkembang menjadi [[abjad Ibrani Kuno|abjad Ibrani Kuno (''Paleo-Hebrew'')]] pada abad ke-10 atau ke-9 SM.<ref name="y">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=13,15,17}}</ref><ref name="tscript" /><ref name="s17" /> [[Abjad Ibrani Kuno]] mempunyai perbedaan utama dengan [[abjad Fenisia]] dalam hal "pelengkungan ke kiri goresan ke bawah pada aksara-aksara "berkaki panjang"... penggunaan konsisten huruf "[[Waw (huruf Ibrani)|Waw]]" dengan atas melengkung ke dalam (konkaf), [dan] "[[Taw]]" berbentuk "x"."<ref name="y" /><ref group="nb">Pada suatu waktu orang Moab, Amon, Edom, dan Filistin juga menggunakan abjad Ibrani Kuno. Lihat {{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|p=25}}</ref> Inkripsi tertua dalam abjad Ibrani Kuno bertarikh sekitar pertengahan abad ke-9 SM, yang paling terkenal adalah [[Prasasti Mesa|Prasasti Mesa (''Mesha Stele'')]] yang ditulis dalam [[
Menjelang akhir masa Bait Suci Pertama [[bahasa Aram|tulisan (skrip) Aram]], suatu turunan terpisah abjad Fenisia, menluas di seluruh wilayah, lambat laun menggantikan Ibrani Kuno.<ref name="yb" /><!-- The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE.<ref name="ysq">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=42,45,47–50}}</ref> It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script.<ref name="tscript" /> Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the [[tetragrammaton]] and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek biblical translations.<ref name="tscript" /><ref group="nb">Though some of these translations wrote the tetragrammaton in the square script See {{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|p=220}}</ref> While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed.<ref name="ybook">{{Harvcoltxt|Yardeni|1997|pp=65,84–91}}</ref> A number of regional "book-hand" styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes.<ref name="ybook" /> The [[Mizrahi]] and [[Ashkenazi]] book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press.<ref name="ybook" /> The modern [[Hebrew alphabet]], also known as the Assyrian or Square script, is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.<ref name="yb" />-->
Abjad Fenisia tidak lagi memakai lima huruf menjelang abad ke-12 SM, menyisakan dua puluh dua fonem konsonantal bahasa itu.<ref name="s17">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=16–18}}</ref> Akibatnya, 22 huruf abjad Ibrani Kuno berjumlah lebih sedikit daripada fonem konsonan Ibrani Alkitabiah; khususnya, huruf-huruf {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|ח, ע, ש}}}} masing-masing dapat menandai dua fonem berbeda.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=74–75,77}}</ref> Setelah suatu pergeseran bunyi, huruf-huruf {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}} hanya dapat menandai satu fonem, tetapi (kecuali dalam Ibrani Samaria) {{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}} masih menandai dua fonem. Sistem vokalisasi Babilonia kuno menulis suatu superskrip {{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}} di atas {{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}} untuk mengindikasikan nilai {{IPA|/s/}}, sedangkan kaum Masoret menambahkan [[
Abjad Ibrani asli hanya terdiri dari [[konsonan|huruf mati (konsonan)]], tetapi lambat laun huruf-huruf {{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ה|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|ו|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|י|rtl=yes}}, juga digunakan untuk mengindikasikan huruf hidup (vokal atau ''vowel''), dikenal sebagai ''matres lectionis'' ketika digunakan dalam fungsi ini.<ref name="s17" /><ref name="to1" /> Diyakini bahwa ini merupakan hasil perkembangan fonetik: misalnya, *bayt ('rumah'; 'bait') bergeser menjadi {{lang|hbo|בֵּית|rtl=yes}} dalam [[
The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today.<ref name="to1" /> Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis, with the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]] and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=96,108,222}}</ref> The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels, showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word-internal {{IPA|/aː/}}.<ref name="b6" /><ref group="nb">There are rare-cases of {{angle bracket|{{lang|hbo|א|rtl=yes}}}} being used medially as a true vowel letter, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דָּאג|rtl=yes}} for the usual {{lang|hbo|דָּג|rtl=yes}} 'fish'. Most cases, however, of {{angle bracket|א}} being used as a vowel letter stem from conservative spelling of words which originally contained {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, e.g. {{lang|hbo|רֹאשׁ|rtl=yes}} ('head') from original {{IPA|*/raʔʃ/}}. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=86}}. There are also a number of exceptions to the rule of marking other long vowels, e.g. when the following syllable contains a vowel letters (like in {{lang|hbo|קֹלֹוֹת|rtl=yes}} 'voices' rather than {{lang|hbo|קוֹלוֹת|rtl=yes}}) or when a vowel letter already marks a consonant (so {{lang|hbo|גּוֹיִם|rtl=yes}} 'nations' rather than *{{lang|hbo|גּוֹיִים|rtl=yes}}), and within the Bible there is often little consistency in spelling. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=6}}</ref> In the Qumran tradition, [[back vowel]]s are usually represented by {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|ו}}}} whether short or long.<ref name="tq1">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=108–109}}</ref><ref name="sq">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=136}}</ref> {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|י}}}} is generally used for both long {{IPA|[iː]}} and {{IPA|[eː]}} ({{lang|hbo|אבילים|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|מית|rtl=yes}}), and final {{IPA|[iː]}} is often written as {{rtl-lang|he|יא-}} in analogy to words like {{lang|hbo|היא|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|hbo|הביא|rtl=yes}}, e.g. {{lang|hbo|כיא|rtl=yes}}, sometimes {{rtl-lang|he|מיא}}.<ref name="tq1" /><ref name="sq" /> {{angle bracket|{{rtl-lang|he|ה}}}} is found finally in forms like {{rtl-lang|he|חוטה}} (Tiberian {{rtl-lang|he|חוטא}}), {{rtl-lang|he|קורה}} (Tiberian {{rtl-lang|he|קורא}}) while {{angle bracket|א}} may be used for an a-quality vowel in final position (e.g. {{rtl-lang|he|עליהא}}) and in medial position (e.g. {{rtl-lang|he|יאתום}}).<ref name="tq1" /> Pre-Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories (e.g. {{rtl-lang|he|כוחי}} vs. Masoretic {{rtl-lang|he|כחי}} in Genesis 49:3) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=96–97}}</ref>
Baris 348 ⟶ 349:
At an early stage, in documents written in the paleo-Hebrew script, words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots, as reflected by the Mesha Stone, the Siloam inscription, the Ophel inscription, and paleo-Hebrew script documents from Qumran.<ref name="tsp" /> Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions; however, there is not direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division, as suggested by [[Nahmanides]] in his introduction to the Torah.<ref name="tsp" /> Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script.<ref name="tsp">{{Harvcoltxt|Tov|1992|pp=208–209}}</ref> In addition to marking vowels, the Tiberian system also uses [[cantillation]] marks, which serve to mark word stress, semantic structure, and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=7,143}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yeivin|1980|pp=157–158}}</ref>-->
Sementara tradisi pembacaan Tiberias, Babilonia, dan Palestinia punah, berbagai sistem pelafalan lain berevolusi sejalan waktu, terutama tradisi-tradisi [[
== Fonologi ==
Baris 362 ⟶ 363:
! [[Konsonan labial|Labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[Konsonan dental|Dental]]/<br>[[Konsonan alveolar|Alveolar]]
! [[
! [[Konsonan palatal|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Konsonan velar|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[
! [[
! [[Konsonan celah suara|Glottal]]
|-
Baris 379 ⟶ 380:
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[
! {{small|[[
| {{IPA|p}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|t}}
Baris 390 ⟶ 391:
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! {{small|[[
| {{IPA|b}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|d}}
Baris 400 ⟶ 401:
|
|-
! {{small|[[
|
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|tʼ}}<ref name="b69" /><ref name="r" />
Baris 410 ⟶ 411:
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Frikatif]]
! {{small| [[
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|ɸ}}
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|θ}}
Baris 422 ⟶ 423:
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
! {{small|[[
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|β}}
| style="background:#CAFF70" | {{IPA|ð}}
Baris 433 ⟶ 434:
|
|-
! {{small|[[
|
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|sʼ/ʦʼ}}<ref name="b69" />
Baris 463 ⟶ 464:
|
|}
Sifat fonetik sejumlah huruf mati Ibrani Alkitabiah masih diperdebatkan. Apa yang dinamakan "emfatika" ("''emphatics") kemungkinan adalah [[
Aslinya, huruf-huruf Ibrani {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|[[Heth|ח]]}}}} dan {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|[[Ayin|ע]]}}}} masing-masing mewakili dua kemungkinan fonem, uvular dan pharyngeal, dengan perbedaan yang tidak ditandai dalam ortografi Ibrani. Namun, fonem uvular {{IPA|/χ/}} {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}} dan {{IPA|/ʁ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}} bergabung dengan pasangan pharyngeal masing-masing {{IPA|/ħ/}} {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}} dan {{IPA|/ʕ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}} sekitar tahun 200 SM.
{{Clear}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Proto-
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" | Ibrani
Baris 480 ⟶ 481:
! arti
|-
! [[
! {{IPA|*/χ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ħ/}} {{lang|hbo|ח|rtl=yes}}
Baris 498 ⟶ 499:
| 'garam'
|-
! [[
! {{IPA|*/ʁ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*/ʕ/}} {{lang|hbo|ע|rtl=yes}}
Baris 519 ⟶ 520:
Ini diamati dari pembedaan konsisten fonem-fonem tersebut dalam [[Taurat]] [[Septuaginta]] (contoh [[Ishak]] {{lang|he|יצחק|rtl=yes}} = {{lang|grc|Ἰσαάκ}} dibandingkan [[Rahel]] {{lang|he|רחל|rtl=yes}} = {{lang|grc|Ῥαχήλ}}), tetapi ini menjadi lebih sporadis pada kitab-kitab kemudian dan umumnya absen dalam [[Kitab Ezra]] dan [[Kitab Nehemia]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|pp=73–74}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=56, 75–76}}</ref>
<!--The phoneme {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments: It is written with {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}}} (also used for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}) but later merged with {{IPA|/s/}} (normally indicated with {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}}}}). As a result, three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation: {{IPA|/s/}} written {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ס|rtl=yes}}}}, {{IPA|/ʃ/}} written {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}}}, and {{IPA|/ś/}} (pronounced {{IPA|/ɬ/}} but written {{angbr|{{lang|hbo|ש|rtl=yes}}}}). -->Pelafalan khusus {{IPA|/ś/}} sebagai {{IPA|[ɬ]}} didasarkan pada bukti komparatif ({{IPA|/ɬ/}} setara dengan fonem [[
<!--
Allophonic [[spirantization]] of {{IPA|/b ɡ d k p t/}} to {{IPA|[v ɣ ð x f θ]}} (known as [[begadkefat]] spirantization) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic.<ref group="nb">Or perhaps [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]], but this is unlikely See {{Harvcoltxt|Dolgoposky|1999|pp=72–3}}{{Citation not found|date=January 2018}}.</ref> This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} disappeared in the 7th century BCE,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=72}}</ref> and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} c. 200 BCE.<ref group="nb">According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} and {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}}, or else {{IPA|[x, χ]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ, ʁ]}} would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However Blau argues that it is possible that lenited {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/χ/}} could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac). See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=56}}.</ref> It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=73}}</ref> After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low [[functional load]]), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<ref name="bbgd">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=78–81}}</ref> This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization's consistent use of word-initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi, as well as Rabbi [[Saadia Gaon]]'s attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE.<ref name="bbgd" />
Baris 529 ⟶ 530:
=== Huruf hidup ===
Sistem huruf hidup (''vowel system'') bahasa Ibrani Alkitabiah telah berubah banyak menurut jalannya waktu. Huruf-huruf hidup (''vowels'') berikut direkonstruksi untuk tahapan paling awal bahasa Ibrani, untuk yang dibuktikan dalam ''Secunda'', untuk berbagai tradisi vokalisasi ([[
{|
! style="width:25%" | Proto-Ibrani<ref name="david">{{Harvcoltxt|Steinberg|2010}}</ref> <!-- possible to find a written source? -->
Baris 539 ⟶ 540:
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[
! [[
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|i iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u uː}}
|-
! [[
| align=center | ({{IPA|eː}})
| align=center | {{IPA|oː}}
|-
! [[
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA|a aː}}
|}
Baris 556 ⟶ 557:
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[
! [[
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|uː}}
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|e eː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|o oː}}
|-
! [[
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA|a}}<sup>1</sup> {{IPA|aː}}
|-
Baris 576 ⟶ 577:
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[
! [[
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|i}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|e}}
| align=center | {{IPA|o}}
|-
! [[
| align=center style="background:#BBDDEE" | {{IPA|ɛ}}<sup>1</sup>
| align=center style="background:#BBDDEE" | {{IPA|ɔ}}<sup>2</sup>
|-
! [[
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA|a}}
|-
Baris 600 ⟶ 601:
{|class="wikitable"
!
! [[
! [[
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|uː}}
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|e}} {{IPA|eː}}
| align=center | ({{IPA|o}})<sup>1</sup>
|-
! [[
| align=center | {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|aː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ɒ}} {{IPA|ɒː}}
Baris 621 ⟶ 622:
|
|
# {{small|kemungkinan dilafalkan {{IPA|[æ]}}, sebagaimana alternat ortografi {{angle bracket|α}} dan {{angle bracket|ε}}<ref name="j173">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=173}}</ref><!-- add ref -->}}
|
# {{small|melebur dengan {{IPA|/e/}} dalam tradisi Palestina dan dengan {{IPA|/a/}} dalam tradisi Babilonia}}<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=112}}</ref><ref name="b118-119">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=118–119}}</ref><ref name="seph" group="nb">In this respect the Palestinian tradition corresponds to the modern [[Sephardi Hebrew|Sephardi pronunciation]], and the Babylonian tradition to the modern [[Yemenite Hebrew|Yemenite pronunciation]].</ref><ref group="nb">While the vowels {{IPA|/a e i ɔ o u/}} certainly have phonemic status in the Tiberian tradition, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} has phonemic value in final stressed position but in other positions it may reflect loss of the opposition {{IPA|/a ː i/}}. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=111–112}}</ref>
# {{small|melebur dengan {{IPA|/a/}} atau {{IPA|/o/}} in the Palestinian tradition}}<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="seph" group="nb" /><ref name="y16">{{Harvcoltxt|Yahalom|1997|p=16}}</ref>
# {{small|The Tiberian tradition has the reduced vowel phonemes {{IPA|/ă ɔ̆/}} and marginal {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}}, while Palestinian and Babylonian have one, {{IPA|/ə/}} (pronounced as {{IPA|[ɛ]}} in later Palestinian Hebrew)}}
|
# {{small|{{IPA|/u/}} dan {{IPA|/o/}} hanya kontras dalam open post-tonic syllables, contoh {{lang|hbo|ידו|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jedu/}} ('his hand') {{lang|hbo|ידיו|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jedo/}} ('his hands'), where {{IPA|/o/}} stems from a contracted diphthong.<ref name="bhou">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=44, 48–49}}</ref> In other environments, {{IPA|/o/}} appears in closed syllables and {{IPA|/u/}} in open syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דור|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/dor/}} {{lang|hbo|דורות|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/durot/}}.<ref name="bhou" />}}
# {{small|results from both {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in closed post-tonic syllables<ref name="bh49">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=49}}</ref>}}
|}
<!--
Baris 670 ⟶ 671:
The short vowels {{IPA|*/a i u/}} tended to lengthen in various positions.
*First, short vowels lengthened in an open syllable in pretonic position (i.e. directly before the stressed syllable).
*Later, short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables.<ref name="Janssens 1982 56-57">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=56–57}}</ref>
In the process of lengthening, the high vowels were lowered. In the Secunda, the lengthened reflexes of {{IPA|/a i u/}} are {{IPA|/aː eː oː/}}; when kept short they generally have reflexes {{IPA|/a e o/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54, 118–120, 132}}</ref><ref group="nb">Long {{IPA|/aː eː oː/}} were written as {{angle bracket|α η ω}}, while short {{IPA|/a e o/}} were written {{angle bracket|α/ε ε ο}}. This length distinction is also found in the LXX. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=110–111}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=54}}, and {{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=14}}</ref><ref group="nb">In the Secunda {{IPA|/*a *i *u/}} are preserved as short in syllables closed by two consonants and in the third syllable before the stress. See {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54, 58–59}}</ref>
-->
<!--Stressed [[open syllable]]s with a short vowel (i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel) had the vowel reduced to {{IPA|/ə/}} and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word (usually to the last syllable of the word).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=56–57}}.</ref> Stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress. However, words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point. This change did not happen in [[pausa]]l position, where the penultimate stress is preserved, and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs.
Baris 697 ⟶ 698:
! 'engkau [perempuan tunggal] (fem. sg.) membunuh'
|-
! Proto-Central-
| {{IPA|*ˈqaːtilu}}
| {{IPA|*ˈqatala}}
Baris 841 ⟶ 842:
The later Jewish traditions (Tiberian, Babylonian, Palestinian) show similar vowel developments. By the Tiberian time, all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened, making vowel length allophonic.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=149}}</ref><ref group="nb">In fact, first all stressed vowels were lengthened in pause, see {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=58–59}}. This can be seen by forms like Tiberian {{lang|hbo|כַּף|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/kaf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaf/}}, pausal {{lang|hbo|כָּף|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/kɔf/}} < {{IPA|*/kɔːf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaːf/}} < {{IPA|*/kaf/}}. The shift in Tiberian Hebrew of {{IPA|*/aː/}} > {{IPA|*/ɔː/}} occurred after this lengthening, but before the loss of phonemicity of length (since words like {{lang|hbo|ירחם|rtl=yes}} with allophonically long {{IPA|[aː]}} don't show this shift).</ref><ref name="Blau 2010 82, 110">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=82, 110}}</ref> Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length (e.g. {{IPA|/a/}} in {{lang|hbo|יְרַחֵם|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jəraˈħem/}} {{IPA|[jəraːˈħeːm]}} ('he will have mercy') < previously short {{IPA|[jəraˈħeːm]}} < {{IPA|[jəraħˈħeːm]}} by Tiberian degemination of {{IPA|/ħ/}} < PSem {{IPA|*/juraħˈħimu/}}).<ref name="Blau 2010 82, 110" /><ref group="nb">This is attested to by the testimony of Rabbi [[Joseph Qimḥi]] (12th century) and by medieval Arabic transcriptions, see {{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54–56}}. There is also possible evidence from the cantillation marks' behavior and Babylonian pataḥ, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=82}}.</ref> The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length.<ref name="length" /><ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="jqimhi">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54–56}}</ref> In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems, {{IPA|*/aː/}} and lengthened {{IPA|*/a/}} become the back vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}}.<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="r77" /> In unaccented closed syllables, {{IPA|*/i u/}} become {{IPA|/ɛ⁓i ɔ⁓u/}} (Tiberian), {{IPA|/a⁓i u/}} (Babylonian), or {{IPA|/e⁓i o⁓u/}} (Palestinian) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates (e.g. {{lang|hbo|לִבִּי|rtl=yes}}) and the first otherwise.<ref name="b118-119" /><ref name="y16" /><ref name="r77" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bergstrasser|Daniels|1995|p=53}}</ref><ref group="nb">The Palestinian reflexes of Tiberian {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ({{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}) thus reflect the qamatz gadol-qamatz qatan distinction.</ref> In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda. It does not occur for {{IPA|/*a/}}, but is occasional for {{IPA|/*i/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|מסמְרים|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/masməˈrim/}} 'nails' < {{IPA|*/masmiriːm/}}), and is common for {{IPA|/*u/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|רְחוֹב|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/rəˈħoβ}} 'open place' < {{IPA|*/ruħaːb/}}).<ref name="j120" /><ref name="breduc">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=129,136}}</ref> In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic {{IPA|/*u/}} is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant, e.g. {{lang|hbo|אדֻמּים|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ăðumˈmim/}} ('red' pl.) (cf. {{IPA|/ăˈðom/}} 'red' sg.); this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like {{lang|hbo|אַסִּיר|rtl=yes}}⁓{{lang|hbo|אָסִיר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɔˈsir/⁓/asˈsir/}} ('prisoner').<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=124, 136}}</ref>-->
Sistem Babilonia dan Palestina hanya memiliki satu fonem huruf hidup tereduksi {{IPA|/ə/}} seperti Secunda, meskipun dalam Ibrani Palestina dikembangkan pelafalan {{IPA|[ɛ]}}.<ref name="j54" /><ref name="b118-119" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=97}}</ref> Namun, tradisi Tiberias memiliki tiga huruf hidup tereduksi {{IPA|/ă ɔ̆ ɛ̆/}} di mana {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}} dipertanyakan fonemisitasnya.<ref name="b117-118">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=110}}</ref><ref group="nb">See {{lang|hbo|אֳנִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɔ̆ˈni/}} ('kapal-kapal') {{lang|hbo|אֲנִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ăˈni/}} ('aku'), {{lang|hbo|חֳלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ħɔ̆ˈli/}} ('penyakit') {{lang|hbo|חֲלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ħăˈli/}} ('ornamen'), {{lang|hbo|עֲלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʕăˈli/}} ('naiklah!') (Bilangan 21:17) dan {{lang|hbo|בַּעֱלִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/baʕɛ̆ˈli/}} ('[dengan] pestle'; Amsal 27:22). {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}} {{IPA|/ɛ̆/}} sering beralternasi dengan {{IPA|/ă/}} dan jarang berkontras dengannya, e.g. {{lang|hbo|אֱדוֹם|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʔɛ̆ˈðom/}} ('[[Edom]]') versus {{lang|hbo|אֲדֹמִי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʔăðoˈmi/}} ('orang Edom'). {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=117–118}} {{IPA|/ɔ̆/}} jelas fonemik tetapi memuat [[
<!--Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length, e.g. {{IPA|/rɒb/}} {{lang|hbo|רב|rtl=yes}} ('great') vs. {{IPA|/rɒːb/}} {{lang|hbo|רחב|rtl=yes}} ('wide').<ref name="bhlen">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=45, 47–48}} (while Ben-Hayyim notates four degrees of vowel length, he concedes that only his "fourth degree" has phonemic value)</ref> Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened (to a lesser degree) in open syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|המצרי|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[ammisˤriˑ]}}, {{lang|hbo|היא|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|[iˑ]}}, though this is less strong in post-tonic vowels.<ref name="bhlen" /> Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew, but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew, e.g. {{lang|hbo|גמלים|rtl=yes}} TH {{IPA|/ɡămalːim/}} SH {{IPA|/ɡɒmɒləm/}}; {{lang|hbo|שלמים|rtl=yes}} TH {{IPA|/ʃălɔmim/}} SH {{IPA|/ʃelamːəm/}}.<ref name="bh62">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=62}}</ref> While Proto-Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew,<ref name="r77">{{Harvcoltxt|Rendsburg|1997|p=77}}</ref><ref name="jlong">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=54, 123–127}}</ref> in Samaritan Hebrew {{IPA|*/iː/}} may have reflex {{IPA|/e/}} in closed stressed syllables, e.g. {{lang|hbo|דין|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/den}}/, {{IPA|*/aː/}} may become either {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/ɒ/}},<ref name="bhlong" /> and {{IPA|*/oː/}} > {{IPA|/u/}}.<ref name="bhlong">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=83}}</ref> The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels, though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction. <!-- needs to be elaborated on --><!--Samaritan {{IPA|/ə/}} results from the neutralization of the distinction between {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in closed post-tonic syllables, e.g. {{IPA|/bit/}} {{lang|hbo|בית|rtl=yes}} ('house') {{IPA|/abbət/}} {{lang|hbo|הבית|rtl=yes}} ('the house') {{IPA|/ɡer/}} {{lang|hbo|גר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/aɡɡər/}} {{rtl-lang|he|הגר}}.<ref name="bh49" />
Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred. Diphthongs were frequently monopthongized, but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects. In particular, the Samaria ostraca show {{IPA|/jeːn/}} < {{IPA|*/jajn/}} < {{IPA|*/wajn/}}<ref group="nb">For {{IPA|/w-/}} > {{IPA|/j-/}}, see above. The Semitic form {{IPA|*/wajn-/}} was borrowed into [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] as {{IPA|*/wojn-om/}}, eventually yielding Latin ''vīnum'' and English ''wine''.</ref> for Southern {{IPA|/jajin/}} ('wine'), and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift {{IPA|*/aj/}} > {{IPA|/iː/}}.<ref name="sclas" /><ref name="ssam" /> Original {{IPA|*/u/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} (e.g. {{lang|hbo|אֹמֶר|rtl=yes}} and {{lang|hbo|אִמְרָה|rtl=yes}} 'word'; {{lang|hbo|חוץ|rtl=yes}} 'outside' and {{lang|hbo|חיצון|rtl=yes}} 'outer') beginning in the second half of the second millennium BC.<ref name="sdis">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=138–139}}</ref> This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions.<ref name="sdis" /> [[Philippi's law]] is the process by which original {{IPA|*/i/}} in closed stressed syllables shifts to {{IPA|/a/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*bint/}} > {{lang|hbo|בַּת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/bat/}} 'daughter'), or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/*ʔamint/}} > {{lang|hbo|אֱמֶת|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ɛ̆mɛt/}} 'truth').<ref name="bphil">{{harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|pp=133–136}}</ref><ref group="nb">Note that this {{IPA|/a/}} does not become {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in pause, thus {{lang|hbo|בת|rtl=yes}} has a patah vowel in pause as well as in context. {{cite book|title=Eblaitica: essays on the Ebla archives and Eblaite language, Volume 1|url=https://archive.org/details/eblaiticaessayso0004unse|year=1987|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-0-931464-34-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/eblaiticaessayso0004unse/page/20 20]}}</ref> This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=66}}</ref> but there is evidence that the law's onset predates the Secunda. In the Samaritan tradition Philippi's law is applied consistently, e.g. {{IPA|*/libː-u/}} > {{IPA|/lab/}} ('heart').<ref name="bhp">{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=79}}</ref><ref group="nb">The only known case where Philippi's Law does not apply is in the word {{lang|hbo|קן|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/qen/}} < {{IPA|*/qinn-u/}} ('nest'). The shift {{IPA|*/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} has been extended by analogy to similar forms, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃam/}} ('name'; but {{IPA|*/ʃim-u/}} > {{IPA|/ʃem/}} 'reputation'!). {{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|pp=76,79}}</ref> In some traditions the short vowel {{IPA|/*a/}} tended to shift to {{IPA|/i/}} in unstressed closed syllables: this is known as the [[law of attenuation]]. It is common in the Tiberian tradition, e.g. {{IPA|*/ʃabʕat/}} > Tiberian {{lang|hbo|שִבְעָה|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʃivˈʕɔ/}} ('seven'), but exceptions are frequent.<ref name="b132">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=132}}</ref> It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization, e.g. {{IPA|/ʃabʕɔ/}} ('seven'), and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late.<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation generally did not occur before {{IPA|/i⁓e/}}, e.g. Tiberian {{lang|hbo|מַפְתֵּחַ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mafˈteaħ/}} ('key') versus {{lang|hbo|מִפְתַּח|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/mifˈtaħ/}} ('opening [construct]'), and often was blocked before a geminate, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מתנה|rtl=yes}} ('gift').<ref name="b132" /> Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew, e.g. {{lang|hbo|מקדש|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/maqdaʃ/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ben-Ḥayyim|2000|p=81}}</ref><ref group="nb">Verbal forms such as {{lang|hbo|יפקד|rtl=yes}} = Samaritan {{IPA|/jifqɒd/}} < {{IPA|*/jafqud/}} may be examples of Barth's law rather than attenuation.</ref> In the Tiberian tradition {{IPA|/e i o u/}} take offglide {{IPA|/a/}} before {{IPA|/h ħ ʕ/}}.<ref name="b83">{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref><ref group="nb">This is known as ''pataḥ furtivum'', literally 'stolen pataḥ' and perhaps a mistranslation of Hebrew {{lang|hbo|פתח גנובה|rtl=yes}} ('pataḥ of the stolen [letter]'), as if {{lang|hbo|אֵ|rtl=yes}} were being inserted. See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=83}}</ref> This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome.<ref name="ssam">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|p=156}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|pp=43,133}}</ref> In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort [[echo vowel]] is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural, e.g. {{lang|hbo|יַאֲזִין|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔăzin/}} ('he will listen') {{lang|hbo|פָּעֳלוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/pɔʕɔ̆lo/}} ('his work') but {{lang|hbo|יַאְדִּיר|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/jaʔdir/}} ('he will make glorious') {{lang|hbo|רָחְבּוֹ|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ʀɔħbo/}} 'its breadth'.<ref name="b84-85" /><ref group="nb">It is evident that this epenthesis must have been a late phenomenon, since a short vowel preceding a guttural is preserved even though it becomes in an open syllable, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=85}}.</ref><ref group="nb">This is less common when the consonant following the guttural is a [[begadkefat]] letter, e.g. {{lang|hbo|תֵּחְבֹּל|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/taħbol/}} ('you take in pledge'). This suggests that begadkefat spirantization was no longer automatic by the time that this epenthesis occurred, see {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=79}}</ref><!--loss of final short vowels – differences bw/ nouns and verbs--><!-- {{IPA|/i/}} > {{IPA|/a/}} / gutterals -->
Tabel berikut meringkas refleks-refleks paling umum untuk huruf-huruf hidup Proto-
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Proto-
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{IPA|*aː}}
Baris 877:
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2" | Proto-
!rowspan="2" | Proto-Ibrani
! colspan="5" | "''lengthened''"<sup>5</sup>
Baris 932:
|}
<div style="font-size:88%">
#
#
#
#
# perpanjangan (''lengthening'')
#
#
#
# Ibrani Samaria mempunyai huruf-huruf hidup penuh ketika tradisi-tradisi lain telah mereduksi huruf-huruf hidup, tetapi ini tidak selalu berkorelasi dengan pendahulu Proto-Ibrani bahasa itu.
</div>
=== Penekanan ===
Bahasa Ibrani purba (Proto-Ibrani; ''Proto-Hebrew'') umumnya mempunyai penekanan (''stress'') pada satu suku kata sebelum suku kata terakhir (dalam bahasa Inggris: ''penultimate stress'').<ref name="j52">{{Harvcoltxt|Janssens|1982|p=52}}</ref> <!-- perhatikan bagaimana Janssens melihat sejumlah perkecualian yang tidak dilihat oleh Blau --><ref group="nb">Untuk tujuan pergeseran kualitas huruf hidup (''vowel quality shifts''), kata-kata dalam [[
== Catatan ==
Baris 962:
* {{cite book|last = Ben-Ḥayyim|first = Ze'ev|title = A Grammar of Samaritan Hebrew|year = 2000|publisher = The Hebrew University Magnes Press|location= Jerusalem|ref=harv|isbn=1-57506-047-7}}
* {{cite book|last1 = Bergstrasser|first1=Gotthelf|last2=Daniels|first2=Peter T.|title=Introduction to the Semitic Languages: Text Specimens and Grammatical Sketches|year=1995|publisher=Max Hueber Verlag München|location=München|pages=50–75|isbn=0-931464-10-2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Bergsträsser|first=G.|year=1983|title=Introduction to the Semitic Languages|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontose0000berg|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-0-931464-10-2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|
* {{cite book|last = Blau|first = Joshua|title = Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew|year = 2010|publisher = Eisenbrauns|location= Winona Lake, Indiana|isbn=1-57506-129-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, in Two Volumes|last=Budge|first=E. A. Wallis|authorlink =<!-- E. A. Wallis Budge-->|volume=1|publisher = Dover Publications, Inc.|place= New York|year=1920|isbn=0-7661-7649-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Davis|first= Craig|year= 2007|title= Dating the Old Testament|publisher=RJ Communications|location=New York|isbn=978-0-9795062-0-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Dolgopolsky|first = Aron| title = From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew| year = 1999 | publisher = Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano | location = Milan|ref=harv}}
* {{citation
* {{cite web|last=Feldman|first=Rachel|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/uoh-mah010710.php|year=2010|title=Most ancient Hebrew biblical inscription deciphered|accessdate=15 June 2011|ref=harv| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110607150148/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/uoh-mah010710.php| archivedate= 7 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}
* {{cite book|last = Frank|first = Yitzhak| title = Grammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos|url = https://archive.org/details/grammarforgemara0000fran| year = 2003| publisher =Ariel United Israel Institutes | location = Jerusalem, Israel|isbn=1-58330-606-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Garnier|first1=Romain|last2=Jacques|first2=Guillaume|title=A neglected phonetic law: The assimilation of pretonic yod to a following coronal in North-West Semitic|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=75.1|pages=135–145|year=2012|url=https://www.academia.edu/1468535/A_neglected_phonetic_law_The_assimilation_of_pretonic_yod_to_a_following_coronal_in_North-West_Semitic|ref=harv|doi=10.1017/s0041977x11001261}}
* {{cite book|last=Glinert|first= Lewis|year= 2004|title= The Grammar of Modern Hebrew|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-61188-1|ref=harv}}
Baris 977:
* {{cite book |last1=Jobes|first1=Karen H.|last2=Silva|first2=Moises|title=Invitation to the Septuagint |year=2001 |publisher=[[Paternoster Press]] | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OysSAQAAIAAJ&q|ref=harv |isbn=1-84227-061-3 }}
* {{Cite book|last = LaSor|first=William Sanford|title=Handbook of Biblical Hebrew|year=1978|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.|location=Grand Rapids, MI|isbn=978-0-8028-0444-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal| last = Rainey| first = Anson| title = Shasu or Habiru. Who Were the Early Israelites?| journal = Biblical Archeology Review| volume = 34| issue = 6 (Nov/Dec)| publisher = Biblical Archaeology Society| year = 2008| url = http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=34&Issue=6&ArticleID=9| ref = harv| access-date = 2018-11-08| archive-date = 2012-05-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120531102030/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=34&Issue=6&ArticleID=9| dead-url = yes}}
* {{citation|last=Rendsburg |first=Gary A. |year=1997 |contribution=Ancient Hebrew Phonology |pages=65–83 |title=Phonologies of Asia and Africa |editor-last=Kaye |editor-first=Alan |publisher=Eisenbrauns |url=http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/component/docman/doc_view/93-ancient-hebrew-phonology |isbn=1-57506-019-1 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720041841/http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/component/docman/doc_view/93-ancient-hebrew-phonology |archivedate=20 July 2011 |df=dmy }}
* {{citation|last=Rendsburg |first=Gary A. |url=http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=97&Itemid=158 |contribution=Notes on Israelian Hebrew (I) |editor-last=Avishur |editor-first=Yitzhak Avishur |editor2-last=Deutsch |editor2-first=Robert |title=Michael: Historical, Epigraphical and Biblical Studies in Honor of Prof. Michael Heltzer |location=Tel Aviv |publisher=Archaeological Center Publications |year=1999 |pages=255–258 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720041518/http://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=97&Itemid=158 |archivedate=20 July 2011 |df= }}
* {{cite journal|last=Rosén|first=H.|title=Israel Language Policy and Linguistics|journal=Ariel|volume=25|year=1969|pages= 48–63|url=http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israel_lang_policy_rosen.htm|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Sáenz-Badillos|first=Angel|title=A History of the Hebrew Language|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-55634-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal|last=Shanks|first=Hershel|title=Oldest Hebrew Inscription Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine Border|journal=Biblical Archaeology Review|year=
* {{cite book|last=Sperber|first=Alexander|title=A Grammar of Masoretic Hebrew|year=1959|publisher=Ejnar Munksgaard|location=Copenhagen|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Sperber|first=Alexander|title=A Historical Grammar of Biblical Hebrew|year=1966|publisher=E. J. Brill|location=Leiden|ref=harv}}
Baris 988:
* {{citation |last=Steiner|first=Richard C.|year=1997|contribution = Ancient Hebrew|pages=145–173|title = The Semitic Languages |editor-last=Hetzron|editor-first=Robert|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-05767-1|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Tov|first=Emanuel|title=Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible|year=1992|publisher=Augsburg Fortress|location=Minneapolis|isbn=978-0-8006-3429-2|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last1=Waltke|first1=Bruce K.|last2 = O'Connor|first2=M.|title = An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobi0000walt|year=1990|publisher=Eisenbrauns|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|isbn=0-931464-31-5|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Yahalom|first=Joseph|title = Palestinian Vocalised Piyyut Manuscripts in the Cambridge Genizah Collections|url=https://archive.org/details/palestinianvocal0000camb|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University|isbn=0-521-58399-3|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last = Yardeni|first = Ada|title = The Book of Hebrew Script|url = https://archive.org/details/bookofhebrewscri0000yard|year = 1997|publisher = Carta|location= Jerusalem|isbn=965-220-369-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Yeivin|first=Israel|title = Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah|year=1980|publisher=Scholars Press|isbn=0-89130-373-1|ref=harv}}
* {{citation |last=[[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann]]|first=Ghil'ad|year=2006|contribution = Complement Clause Types in Israeli|title = Complementation: a cross-linguistic typology |editor-last=Dixon|editor-first=R. M. W.|editor2-last=Aikhenvald|editor2-first=Alexandra Y.|ref=harv}}.
== Pranala luar ==
{{Wikisource|1=Gesenius'_Hebrew_Grammar|2=Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar}}
Baris 1.006 ⟶ 1.005:
** [http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/grammar.html Basic Biblical Hebrew Grammar (introductory)]
** [http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Aleph-Bet/aleph-bet.html Learn to write the Biblical Hebrew characters]
** [http://www.biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html The Alphabet of Biblical Hebrew] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015041252/http://biblescripture.net/Hebrew.html |date=2007-10-15 }}
{{Bahasa Semit}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ibrani Alkitabiah, bahasa kuno}}
[[Kategori:Bahasa kuno|Ibrani]]
[[Kategori:Bahasa Ibrani|Alkitabiah]]
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