Peradaban Lembah Indus: Perbedaan antara revisi

'''Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus''',<ref>For example, in the titles of the works used to reference this article by Habib (''Indus2015), ValleyMarshall Civilization'';(ed., '''IVC'''1931 and 1996), Parpola (2015), Possehl (2002), and Sullivan (1964)</ref> [[abad ke-28 SM|2800 SM]]–[[abad ke-18 SM|1800 SM]], merupakan sebuah peradaban kuno yang hidup sepanjang [[Sungai Indus]] yang sekarang merupakan wilayah [[Pakistan]] dan [[India]] barat.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Indus Valley Civilization|url=https://www.ancient.eu/Indus_Valley_Civilization/|website=Ancient History Encyclopedia|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Peradaban ini juga dikenal sebagai peradaban yang berpusat di kota Mohenjo Daro dan Harrapa.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Media|first=Kompas Cybernews|title=Sejarah Peradaban India Kuno Halaman all|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/05/29/113000769/sejarah-peradaban-india-kuno|websitework=KOMPAS[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-08-30|editor-last=Welianto|editor-first=Ari|first=Ari|last=Welianto}}</ref> Keruntuhan peradaban ini ditengarai disebabkan [[Sungai Saraswati Weda|Sungai Saraswati Veda]] yang mengalami kekeringan pada sekitar akhir 1900 SM akibat tingkat radiasi matahari yang cukup tinggi sehingga memengaruhi curah hujan di sekitar lembah.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=StaubwasserMarris|first=M|date=2003Emma|title=ClimateTwo-hundred-year changedrought at the 4.2 ka BP termination of thedoomed Indus valleyValley civilization and Holocene south Asian monsoon variabilityCivilization|url=httpshttp://scholarwww.googlenature.com/scholar_url?url=https:news//agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2002GL016822&hl=id&sa=T&oi=ucasa&ct=ufr&ei=rPxMX7ODOIHQyQTenpC4Dw&scisig=AAGBfm21JinTfL5yxkiZkm8FQcKERHE8qQh_Asian_monsoon_variability/links/574578c508ae9f741b409342/Climatetwo-changehundred-atyear-thedrought-42doomed-ka-BP-termination-of-the-Indusindus-valley-civilisationcivilization-and-Holocene-south-Asian-monsoon-variability1.pdf14800|journal=GeophysicalNature Research LettersNews|volumelanguage=30|issue=8|pages=4en|doi=10.10291038/2002GL016822nature.2014.14800}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marris|first=Emmaweb|title=Two-hundred-yearClimate droughtchange doomedled to collapse of ancient Indus Valleycivilization, study Civilizationfinds|url=httphttps://www.naturesciencedaily.com/newsreleases/two-hundred-year-drought-doomed-indus-valley-civilization-12012/05/120528154943.14800htm|journalwebsite=Nature NewsScienceDaily|language=en|doiaccess-date=10.1038/nature.2014.148002020-08-31}}</ref> Para arkeolog mengungkapkan peradaban Lembah Indus merupakan peradaban kuno paling luas yang ditemukan setelah situs peradaban Mesopotamia dan Mesir. Pada tahun 1980 peradaban Lembah Indus ditetapkan sebagai situs warisan dunia oleh UNESCO.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indus civilization {{!}} History, Location, Map, Art, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref>

Orang-orang Dravida atau penutur bahasa Proto-Dravida (leluhur dari Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, dan Malayalam) yang diperkirakan merupakan pendiri kota kuno ini sendiri masih menjadi perdebatan dikalangan para arkeolog.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Joseph|first=Tony|date=2017-12-23|title=Who built the Indus Valley civilisation?|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/who-built-the-indus-valley-civilisation/article22261315.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Riwayat mereka tak dapat ditelusuri hingga sekarang. Bahasa dan aksara mereka dalam artefak-artefak yang ditemukan di sana masih sedikit yang dapat dipecahkan hingga sekarang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=M. A.|first=Anthropology|last2=B. Ed.|first2=Illinois State University|title=Archaeological Evidence for Indus Civilization Script and Seals|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/seals-and-the-indus-civilization-script-171330|website=ThoughtCo|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31|last3=Twitter|first3=Twitter}}</ref> Uniknya di kota tersebut tidak ditemukan bangunan untuk kegiatan religius dan tanda-tanda sistem kasta seperti kuil-kuil dan monumen besar yang megah.<ref>{{Cite web|datename=2009-10-09|title=Lost City of Mohenjo Daro Puzzles Archaeologists|url=https":2"//www.nationalgeographic.com/history/archaeology/mohenjo-daro/|website=Science|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Early Civilization in the Indus Valley [ushistory.org]|url=https://www.ushistory.org/civ/8a.asp|website=www.ushistory.org|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Hal ini mengakibatkan para peneliti berspekulasi kalau masyarakat Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa merupakan peradaban yang hidup bergantung sepenuhnya pada ilmu pengetahuan (sudah meninggalkan praktik keagamaan) dan memiliki filosofi hidup yang tinggi (terlihat dari ketiadaan sistem kasta dalam hierarki sosial).<ref>[http://www.merdeka.com/gaya/6-situs-misterius-dunia-yang-keberadaannya-nyaris-terlupakan/kota-kuno-mohenjo-daro-dan-harappa-india.html Kota kuno Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa, India]</ref> Berdasarkan dari peninggalan yang ditemukan, mereka merupakan salah satu peradaban yang sudah maju dengan adanya bukti timbangan dan ukuran yang sudah memiliki standar, ukiran cap, stempel perangko, tembikar dan telah mengenal teknik peleburan logam seperti tembaga, perunggu, dan timah.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Indus River Valley civilizations (article)|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/ancient-india/a/the-indus-river-valley-civilizations|website=Khan Academy|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref> Disamping itu Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa merupakan kota yang sangat berkembang, banyak rumah yang memiliki sumur dan kamar mandi serta Sistemsistem saluran air bawah tanah yang kompleks.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2009-10-09|title=Lost City of Mohenjo Daro Puzzles Archaeologists|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/archaeology/mohenjo-daro/|website=Science|language=en|access-date=2020-08-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan M|date=1991|title=The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India|url=https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Kenoyer1991%20Indus%20Valley%20Tradition.pdf|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|volume=5|issue=4|pages=353|doi=}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Keruntuhan peradaban ini diduga disebabkan oleh perubahan iklim. Perubahan iklim pada masa itu menyebabkan [[zaman es kecil]] yang mengakibatkan musim kemarau menjadi lebih kering yang berdampak negatif terhadap pertanian. Hal inilah yang membuat masyarakat peradaban tersebut pindah ke desa-desa kecil di kaki bukit [[Himalaya]]. Selain itu pada saat yang sama datang peradaban Indo-Arya dengan membawa peralatan yang lebih canggih.<ref> {{cite web|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/131243316/peradaban-lembah-sungai-indus-di-himalaya-runtuh-ini-penyebabnya?|title= Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus di Himalaya Runtuh, Ini Penyebabnya|acces date= 6 Agustus 2020}} </ref> . Bangsa Indo-Arya ini ditengarai menyerang masyarakat Lembah Sungai Indus karena di sekitar bekas kota ditemukan sisa kerangka yang seolah-olah menunjukkan bukti kuat adanya penyerbuan.<ref name="Welianto">{{Cite web|last=Media|first=Kompas Cybernews|title=Peninggalan dan Runtuhnya Peradaban India Kuno Halaman all|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/05/29/141500269/peninggalan-dan-runtuhnya-peradaban-india-kuno|websitework=KOMPAS[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-08-30|editor-last=Welianto|editor-first=Ari|first=Ari|last=Welianto}}</ref>. Dugaan lainnya dari keruntuhan peradaban ini adalah disebabkan oleh banjir karena kota ini nampaknyatampaknya begitu padat penduduk dan banjir telah terjadi berulang kali,<ref>{{Cite web|lastname=Media|first=Kompas"Welianto"/> Cyber|title=Peninggalannamun dansayangnya Runtuhnyabukti Peradabanini Indiadirasa Kunokurang Halamankuat all|urlkarena tidak seluruh kota hancur oleh banjir.<ref name=https":2" //www> Dugaan lainnya adalah karena perkembangan sosial budaya dari pertanian ke bidang lainnya sehingga kota ini kemudian ditinggalkan.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/05/29/141500269/peninggalan-dan-runtuhnya-peradaban-india-kuno|website<ref name=KOMPAS.com|language=id|access-date=2020-08-30}}<":2" /ref>,

<ref name="milleniumold">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/indus-valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/article1-954601.aspx|title=Indus Valley 2,000 years older than thought|access-date=2018-06-13|archive-date=2015-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909090345/http://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/indus-valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/article1-954601.aspx|dead-url=yes}}</ref>

* {{cite book|last=Aronovsky|first=Ilona|author2=Gopinath, Sujata|year=2005|title=The Indus Valley|url=https://archive.org/details/indusvalley0000aron_t8d4|location=Chicago|publisher=Heinemann|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book|first=D. K.|last=Chakrabarti|year=2004|title=Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries|url=https://archive.org/details/induscivilizatio0000unse|publisher=Marg Publications|location=Mumbai|isbn=81-85026-63-7|ref=harv}}

* {{Citation |last=Dikshit |first=K.N. |year=2013 |title=Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates |journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology |issue=9 |url=http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118032736/http://server2.docfoc.com/uploads/Z2015/11/21/vESLakMBYz/45a03572f94e7a873d7c350293cca188.pdf |archivedate=18 January 2017 |df= }}

* {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf |authorlink=Alf Hiltebeitel |editor=Adluri, Vishwa |editor2=Bagchee, Joydeep|title=When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies – Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZupXwid01CoC|year=2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-19380-2 |chapter=The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Re-examined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas}}

* {{cite book | authorlink=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|year=1998|title=Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation| url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcitiesofi0000keno|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-577940-1|ref=harv}}

* {{cite book | authorlink=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|author2=Heuston, Kimberly|year=2005|title=The Ancient South Asian World| url=https://archive.org/details/ancientsouthasia0000keno|location=Oxford/New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-517422-4|ref=harv}}

* {{Citation | last =Kumar | first =Dhavendra | year =2004 | title =Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent | publisher =Springer | accessdate =2008-11-25 | isbn =1-4020-1215-2 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC }}

* {{Citation | last =Mani | first =B.R. | year =2008 | title =Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan : A Linkage | journal =Pragdhara | volume =18 | pages =229–247 | url =http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/kneh_brm.pdf | accessdate =2018-06-13 | archive-date =2017-01-18 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170118050909/http://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/kneh_brm.pdf | dead-url =yes }}

* {{Citation | last =Manuel | first =Mark | year =2010 | chapter =Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley | editor-last1 =Gunawardhana | editor-first1 =P. | editor-last2 =Adikari | editor-first2 =G. | editor-last3 = Coningham Battaramulla | editor-first3 =R.A.E. | title =Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume | publisher =Neptune | url =https://www.academia.edu/243477/Chronology_and_Culture-History_in_the_Indus_Valley }}

* {{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=FA275|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2|chapter=Religion and ideology|ref=harv}}

* {{Citation | last1 =Mukherjee | first1 =Namita | ref ={{harvid|Mukherjee|2001}} | last2 =Nebel | first2 =Almut | last3 =Oppenheim | first3 =Ariella | last4 =Majumder | first4 =Partha P. | year =2001 | title =High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India | journal =Journal of Genetics | publisher =Springer India | volume =80 | issue =3 | doi =10.1007/BF02717908 | accessdate =2008-11-25 | url =http://www.springerlink.com/content/qw238444x1q3128h/fulltext.pdf | format =PDF | pmid =11988631 | pages =125–35 }}{{Pranala mati|date=Maret 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

* <span class="citation web" id="Reference-Parpola-2005">{{cite web |authorlink=Asko Parpola |last=Parpola |first=Asko |url=http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060306111112/http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=6 March 2006 |title=Study of the Indus Script |date=19 May 2005 |ref=harv |df=dmy-all }} (50th ICES Tokyo Session)</span><!-- This element is used linked to from the inline references, please don't delete -->

* {{cite book | author= Pittman, Holly | title= ''Art of the Bronze Age: southeastern Iran, western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1984 | isbn=978-0-87099-365-7 | url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/33948 }}

* {{cite book|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L. |authorlink=Gregory Possehl|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|date=11 November 2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9|ref=harv}}

* {{Citation | last1 =Sarkar | first1 =Anindya | year =2016 | title =Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization | journal =Scientific Reports | url =http://www.nature.com/articles/srep26555 | doi =10.1038/srep26555 }}

* {{cite journal|last=Sullivan|first=Herbert P.|title=A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-religions_summer-1964_4_1/page/115|journal=History of Religions|year=1964|volume=4|issue=1|pages=115–125|jstor=1061875|doi=10.1086/462498|ref=harv}}

* {{Citation | last1 =Underhill | first1 =Peter A. | year =2014 | title =The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal =[[European Journal of Human Genetics]] | volume =23 | issue =1 | accessdate =15 June 2016 | pages =124–131 | issn =1018-4813 | doi =10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | url =http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/pdf/ejhg201450a.pdf | pmid =24667786 | pmc =4266736 }}

* {{Citation | last =Underhill | first =Peter A. | display-authors =etal | year = 2015 | title =The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal =European Journal of Human Genetics | volume =23 | pages =124–131 | url =http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/pdf/ejhg201450a.pdf | doi =10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid =24667786 | pmc =4266736 }}

* [http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629091226/http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc |date=2011-06-29 }}

* [http://www.flonnet.com/fl1720/17200040.htm Horseplay in Harappa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050620073752/http://www.flonnet.com/fl1720/17200040.htm |date=2005-06-20 }} article debunking claims of decipherment of the "Indus script"

** [http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/frontline.html A reply to Frontline’s cover story by Michael Danino] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305121336/http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/frontline.html |date=2005-03-05 }}

* [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/members/indus.html Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101164930/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/members/indus.html |date=2007-01-01 }}