Kekaisaran Partia: Perbedaan antara revisi

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Baris 1:
{{Infoboxinfobox country
| native_name =
| conventional_long_name = Kekaisaran Partia
| common_name = Kekaisaran Partia|
| era = [[Zaman Klasik]]
|
| government_type = [[Monarki]] [[Feodalisme|Feodal]]<ref name="sheldon_2010_231">{{harvnb|Sheldon|2010|p=231}}</ref>|
|era = [[Zaman Klasik]]
|stat_area1 year_start = 2800000247 SM
|government_type = [[Monarki]] [[Feodalisme|Feodal]]<ref name="sheldon_2010_231">{{harvnb|Sheldon|2010|p=231}}</ref>
|religion year_end = {{plainlist224 M|
|
|year_start p1 = 247Kekaisaran Wangsa pra-MasehiSeleukos
|year_end flag_p1 = 224Vergina Sun MasehiWIPO.svg
| border_p1 = no 1 Thor Ragnarok
|
|p1 s1 = Kekaisaran Wangsa SeleukosSasan
|flag_p1 flag_s1 = VerginaDerafsh Kaviani flag of Sunthe -late GoldenSassanid LarnaxEmpire.pngsvg
| image_map = Parthian Empire at its greatest extent (geographical).jpg
|border_p1 = no
|s1 image_map_caption = Keseluruhan wilayah yang =pernah Kekaisarandikuasai Wangsawangsa SasanArsak
|flag_s1 image_flag = Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg
| capital = [[Ctesiphon|Tisfon]],<ref name=IP>{{cite book|last=Fattah|first=Hala Mundhir|title=A Brief History of Iraq|year=2009|publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]]|isbn=978-0-8160-5767-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofir0000fatt/page/46 46]|quote=Salah satu ciri khas bangsa Partia yang masih dilestarikan raja-rajanya sendiri adalah naluri [[nomaden]] mereka. Raja-raja Partia mendirikan maupun merebut banyak kota untuk dijadikan ibu kota. Kota terpenting di antaranya adalah [[Ctesiphon|Tisfon]] ({{lang-el|Κτησιφῶν}}, ''Ktesifon'') di tepi [[Sungai Tigris]], yang merupakan hasil pemekaran kota kuno [[Opis|Upi]].|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofir0000fatt/page/46}}</ref> [[Ekbatana|Ahmadan]], [[Qumis, Iran|Komis]], [[Susa]], [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]], [[Asaak|Arsak]], [[Ray, Iran|Raga]]
|image_map = Parthian Empire at its greatest extent (geographical).jpg
| common_languages = [[bahasa Yunani Koine|Yunani]] (bahasa resmi),<ref name="Green 1992 45"/> [[bahasa Parthia|Partawa]] (bahasa resmi),<ref>{{cite web|last1=Skjaervo|first1=Prods Oktor|title=IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Doc – Encyclopaedia Iranica|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi2-documentation|website=www.iranicaonline.org|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica|accessdate=8 February 2017|language=en|quote=Partawa adalah nama daerah di kawasan sebelah timur Laut Kaspia dan nama bahasa resmi negara Partia (negara wangsa Arsak) yang diketahui dari piagam-piagam pada batu dan logam, termasuk pada uang logam dan segel, dan dari sekumpulan besar tembereng label dari kendi-kendi anggur yang ditemukan di Nisa, ibu kota Partia, serta dari pustaka-pustaka agama Mani.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117083610/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi2-documentation|archive-date=17 November 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[bahasa Aram|Aram]] (''lingua franca''basantara)<ref name="Green 1992 45">{{harvnb|Green|1992|p=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chyet|first=Michael L.|authorlink=Michael L. Chyet|editor1-last=Afsaruddin|editor1-first=Asma|editor2-last=Krotkoff|editor2-first=Georg|editor3-last=Zahniser|editor3-first=A. H. Mathias|editor1-link=Asma Afsaruddin|title=Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff|url=https://archive.org/details/humanismculturel0000unse|year=1997|publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]]|isbn=978-1-57506-020-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/humanismculturel0000unse/page/284 284]|quote=Pada zaman Persia Pertengahan (zaman Kekaisaran Partia dan zaman [[Kekaisaran Wangsa Sasan]]), [[bahasa Aram]] merupakan bahasa yang digunakan dalam kegiatan tulis-menulis sehari-hari, dan [[abjad Aram]] digunakan untuk menulis dalam [[bahasa Persia Pertengahan]], [[bahasa Parthia|bahasa Partawa]], [[bahasa Sogdia]], dan [[bahasa Kawarizmi]].}}</ref>
|image_map_caption = Keseluruhan wilayah yang pernah dikuasai wangsa Arsak
| title_leader = [[Daftar kepala monarki Iran#Arsak Partia|Syahansyah]]
|image_flag =
| leader1 = [[Arsak I dari Parthia|Arsak I]] <small>(pertama)</small>
|capital = [[Ctesiphon|Tisfon]],<ref name=IP>{{cite book|last=Fattah|first=Hala Mundhir|title=A Brief History of Iraq|year=2009|publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]]|isbn=978-0-8160-5767-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofir0000fatt/page/46 46]|quote=Salah satu ciri khas bangsa Partia yang masih dilestarikan raja-rajanya sendiri adalah naluri [[nomaden]] mereka. Raja-raja Partia mendirikan maupun merebut banyak kota untuk dijadikan ibu kota. Kota terpenting di antaranya adalah [[Ctesiphon|Tisfon]] ({{lang-el|Κτησιφῶν}}, ''Ktesifon'') di tepi [[Sungai Tigris]], yang merupakan hasil pemekaran kota kuno [[Opis|Upi]].|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofir0000fatt/page/46}}</ref> [[Ekbatana|Ahmadan]], [[Qumis, Iran|Komis]], [[Susa]], [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]], [[Asaak|Arsak]], [[Ray, Iran|Raga]]
| year_leader1 = 247–211 pra-Masehi
|common_languages = [[bahasa Yunani Koine|Yunani]] (bahasa resmi),<ref name="Green 1992 45"/> [[bahasa Parthia|Partawa]] (bahasa resmi),<ref>{{cite web|last1=Skjaervo|first1=Prods Oktor|title=IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Doc – Encyclopaedia Iranica|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi2-documentation|website=www.iranicaonline.org|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica|accessdate=8 February 2017|language=en|quote=Partawa adalah nama daerah di kawasan sebelah timur Laut Kaspia dan nama bahasa resmi negara Partia (negara wangsa Arsak) yang diketahui dari piagam-piagam pada batu dan logam, termasuk pada uang logam dan segel, dan dari sekumpulan besar tembereng label dari kendi-kendi anggur yang ditemukan di Nisa, ibu kota Partia, serta dari pustaka-pustaka agama Mani.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117083610/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi2-documentation|archive-date=17 November 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[bahasa Aram|Aram]] (''lingua franca'')<ref name="Green 1992 45">{{harvnb|Green|1992|p=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chyet|first=Michael L.|authorlink=Michael L. Chyet|editor1-last=Afsaruddin|editor1-first=Asma|editor2-last=Krotkoff|editor2-first=Georg|editor3-last=Zahniser|editor3-first=A. H. Mathias|editor1-link=Asma Afsaruddin|title=Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff|year=1997|publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]]|isbn=978-1-57506-020-0|page=284|quote=Pada zaman Persia Pertengahan (zaman Kekaisaran Partia dan zaman [[Kekaisaran Wangsa Sasan]]), [[bahasa Aram]] merupakan bahasa yang digunakan dalam kegiatan tulis-menulis sehari-hari, dan [[abjad Aram]] digunakan untuk menulis dalam [[bahasa Persia Pertengahan]], [[bahasa Parthia|bahasa Partawa]], [[bahasa Sogdia]], dan [[bahasa Kawarizmi]].}}</ref>
|title_leader leader2 = [[DaftarArdawan RajaIV Persiadari Parthia|SyahansyahArdawan IV]] <small>(terakhir)</small>
|leader1 year_leader2 = [[Arsak I dari Parthia|Arsak I]]208–224 <small>(pertama)</small>Masehi
| stat_year1 = Pada tahun 1 Masehi<ref name="Turchin223">{{cite journal|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|journal=Journal of World-systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|issn=1076-156X|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|accessdate=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917031715/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|archive-date=17 September 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Taagepera121">{{cite journal|date=1979|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|journal=Social Science History|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=121|doi=10.2307/1170959|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|jstor=1170959}}</ref>
|year_leader1 = 247–211 pra-Masehi
|leader2 stat_area1 = [[Ardawan IV dari Parthia2800000|Ardawan IV]] <small>(terakhir)</small>
| legislature = [[Sejarah demokrasi Iran pada Zaman Klasik#Zaman wangsa Arsak|Dewan Bangsawan]]|
|year_leader2 = 208–224 Masehi
| religion = {{plainlist|
|stat_year1 = Pada tahun 1 Masehi<ref name="Turchin223">{{cite journal|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|journal=Journal of World-systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|issn=1076-156X|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|accessdate=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917031715/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|archive-date=17 September 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Taagepera121">{{cite journal|date=1979|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|journal=Social Science History|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=121|doi=10.2307/1170959|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|jstor=1170959}}</ref>
|stat_area1 = 2800000
|
|legislature = [[Sejarah demokrasi Iran pada Zaman Klasik#Zaman wangsa Arsak|Dewan Bangsawan]]
|
|religion = {{plainlist|
*[[Zoroastrianisme|Mazdayasna]]
*[[Agama Babilonia|Agama asli Babel]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Brosius|first=Maria|title=The Persians|url=https://archive.org/details/persiansintroduc00bros|year=2006|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-203-06815-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/persiansintroduc00bros/page/125 125]|quote=Bangsa Partia maupun rakyat Kekaisaran Partia adalah masyarakat penganut paham [[politeisme]]. Tiap-tiap suku bangsa, kota, negeri, maupun kerajaan bebas berbakti kepada dewa-dewinya sendiri, dan bebas beribadat menurut ajaran agama dan kepercayaannya masing-masing. Di [[Babel]], Dewa [[Marduk]], dewa kota Babel, tetap dipuja sebagai dewa utama bersama-sama dengan Dewi [[Inanna|Istar]] dan Dewi [[Nanaya|Nanai]], sementara di [[Hatra]], Dewa [[Utu|Syamas]], dewa matahari, tetap dipuja sebagai dewa utama bersama-sama dengan sejumlah besar dewa-dewi lain.}}</ref>}}
| currency = [[Kekaisaran Partia#Mata uang|Dirham]]
}}
 
Baris 55 ⟶ 50:
 
[[Berkas:Rome-Seleucia-Parthia 200bc.jpg|jmpl|kiri|300px|Daerah [[Parthia|Partawa]] (kuning), [[Kekaisaran Seleukia|Kekaisaran Wangsa Seleukos]] (biru), dan [[Republik Romawi]] (ungu) sekitar tahun 200 pra-Masehi]]
Wangsa Arsak memanfaatkan masa-masa invasi [[Kerajaan Ptolemaik|Mesir]] ke kawasan barat wilayah wangsa Seleukos yang dilancarkan [[Ptolemaios III Euergetes|Ptolemeos Everietis]] (memerintah 246–222 pra-Masehi) untuk mengukuhkan kekuasaan mereka atas daerah Partawa dan [[Hyrcania|Warkana]]. Konflik dari tahun 246 sampai tahun 241 pra-Masehi antara wangsa Seleukos dan wangsa Ptolemeos yang dikenal dengan sebutan [[Peperangan Suriah|Perang Suriah III]] ini juga dimanfaatkan Satrap [[Diodotos I]] untuk memberontak dan mendirikan [[Kerajaan Yunani-Baktria|Kerajaan Yunani-Bahlika]] di Asia Tengah.<ref name="brosius_2006_85"/> [[Diodotos II]], Pengganti Diodotos I, menjalin persekutuan dengan Arsak untuk melawan wangsa Seleukos, tetapi Arsak harus mundur untuk sementara waktu dari Partawa akibat serangan [[Seleukos II|Seleukos II]] (memerintah 246–225 pra-Masehi).<ref name="brosius_2006_85-86">{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=85–86}}</ref> Sesudah beberapa lama hidup tersingkir bersama suku pengembara [[Apasiacae|Apasiak]], Arsak melancarkan serangan balasan dan merebut kembali daerah Partawa. [[Antiokhos yang Agung|Antiokhos Agung]] (memerintah 222–187 pra-Masehi), pengganti Seleukos II, tidak mampu membendung serangan Arsak karena angkatan bersenjatanya sedang sibuk memadamkan pemberontakan Satrap [[Molon]] di daerah [[Media (kawasan)|Mada]].<ref name="brosius_2006_85-86"/>
 
Antikos Agung melancarkan aksi militer besar-besaran untuk merebut kembali Partawa dan Bahlika pada tahun 210 atau 209 pra-Masehi. Ia gagal mewujudkan niatnya, tetapi berhasil menyepakati perjanjian damai dengan Arsak II, yang kemudian dianugerahi gelar "raja" ({{lang-el|βασιλεύς}}, ''[[basileus]]'') sebagai imbalan kepatuhan kepada Antiokhos Agung selaku atasannya.<ref name="bivar_1983_29 brosius_2006_86 kennedy_1996_74">{{harvnb|Bivar|1983|p=29}}; {{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Kennedy|1996|p=74}}</ref> Kekaisaran Wangsa Seleukos tidak dapat lebih jauh mencampuri urusan daerah Partawa karena terkendala invasi [[Republik Romawi]] dan kekalahan wangsa Seleukos di [[Pertempuran Magnesia|Magnesia]] pada tahun 190 pra-Masehi.<ref name="bivar_1983_29 brosius_2006_86 kennedy_1996_74"/> [[Priapatius|Friyapita]] (memerintah sekitar 191–176 pra-Masehi) menggantikan Arsak II, dan kemudian hari digantikan oleh [[Frahat I]] (memerintah sekitar 176–171 pra-Masehi). Frahat I memerintah daerah Partawa tanpa campur tangan wangsa Seleukos.<ref>{{harvnb|Bivar|1983|pp=29–31}}; {{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=86}}</ref>
Baris 129 ⟶ 124:
=== Kewenangan terpusat dan semiotonom raja-raja ===
[[Berkas:650521.jpg|jmpl|Uang logam keluaran [[Kamaskiri III]] dan [[Anzaze]], Raja dan Permaisuri [[Elimais]] (sekarang [[Provinsi Khūzestān]]), abad pertama pra-Masehi]]
Jika dibandingkan dengan Kekaisaran Wangsa Hakhamanis, maka pemerintahan Kekaisaran Partia tampak sebagai pemerintahan yang [[desentralisasi|terdesentralisasi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Garthwaite|2005|pp=67–68}}</ref> Salah satu sumber sejarah asli Partia menyingkap bahwa tata pemerintahan daerah-daerah yang diawasi pemerintah pusat di Kekaisaran Partia sangat mirip dengan tata pemerintahan daerah di Kekaisaran Wangsa Seleukos. Kedua-duanya menerapkan tiga jenjang hierarki daerah. Daerah tingkat [[marzbān]], xšatrap, dan dizpat di Kekaisaran Partia mirip dengan daerah tingkat [[kesatrapan|satrapia]], [[eparki]]a, dan hiparkia di Kekaisaran Wangsa Seleukos.<ref name="widengren_1983_1263">{{harvnb|Widengren|1983|p=1263}}</ref> Kekaisaran Partia juga mencakup sejumlah kerajaan bawahan yang bersifat semiotonom, antara lain [[Kerajaan Iberia]], [[Kerajaan Armenia]], Kerajaan [[Atropatene]], Kerajaan [[Gordiene]], Kerajaan [[Adiabene]], Kerajaan [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edesa]], Kerajaan [[Hatra]], Kerajaan [[Mesene]], Kerajaan [[Elimais]], dan Kerajaan [[Raja-raja Parsa|Parsa]].<ref name="lukonin_1983_701">{{harvnb|Lukonin|1983|p=701}}</ref> Para penguasa negara bagian menjalankan pemerintahan di wilayah masing-masing dan mencetak uang sendiri yang berbeda dari uang kekaisaran yang dicetak oleh lembaga percetakan uang kekaisaran.<ref>{{harvnb|Lukonin|1983|p=701}}; {{harvnb|Curtis|2007|pp=19–21}}</ref> Menurut Brosius, kenyataan yang sama juga terjadi pada zaman wangsa Hakhamanis, yang juga membawahi beberapa negara kota, dan bahkan daerah-daerah kesatrapan yang jauh dari pusat dan bersifat semimerdeka, tetapi menurut Brosius tetap "mengakui kedaulatan tertinggi raja, membayar upeti, dan menyediakan dukungan militer".<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=113–114}}</ref> Meskipun demikian, para satrap Partia memerintah wilayah yang lebih kecil, dan mungkin tidak begitu bergengsi dan berpengaruh seperti wilayah-wilayah yang dulu diperintah satrap-satrap Hakhamanis.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=115–116}}</ref><!-- Pada zaman wangsa Seleukos, the trend of local ruling wangsa-wangsa with semi-autonomous rule, and sometimes outright rebellious rule, menjadi hal yang lumrah di mana-mana, a fact reflected in the later Parthian gaya pemerintahan.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=114–115}}</ref>
 
=== Kaum ningrat ===
{{further|Seven Great Houses of Iran}}
Raja Diraja mengepalai pemerintahan Partia. Ia [[poligami|beristri banyak]], dan biasanya digantikan oleh putra sulungnya.<ref name="brosius_2006_103-104">{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=103–104}}</ref> Like the Ptolemies of Egypt, there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half-sisters; Queen Musa married her own son, though this was an extreme and isolated case.<ref name="brosius_2006_103-104"/> Brosius provides an extract from a letter written in Greek by King Artabanus II pada tahun 21 Masehi, which addresses the governor (titled "[[archon]]") and citizens of the kota [[Susa]]. Specific government offices of Preferred Friend, Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that "while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office, the king could intervene on behalf of an individual, review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate."<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=119}}</ref>
 
The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sasanian monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era.<ref>{{harvnb|Lukonin|1983|pp=699–700}}</ref> There were three distinct tiers of nobility, the highest being the regional kings directly below the King of Kings, the second being those related to the King of Kings only through marriage, and the lowest order being heads of local clans and small territories.<ref>{{harvnb|Lukonin|1983|pp=700–704}}</ref>
 
By the 1st century AD, the Parthian nobility had assumed great power and influence in the succession and deposition of Arsacid kings.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=99–100, 104}}</ref> Some of the nobility functioned as court advisers to the king, as well as holy priests.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=104–105, 117–118}}</ref> [[Strabo]], in his ''[[Geographica]]'', preserved a claim by the Greek philosopher and historian [[Poseidonius]] that the Council of Parthia consisted of noble kinsmen and [[magi]], two groups from which "the kings were appointed."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:book=11:chapter=9:section=3|title=Strabo, Geography, Book 11, chapter 9, section 3|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=2017-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221063316/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D11%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D3|archive-date=2016-12-21|url-status=live}}</ref> Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sassanian period, only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents: the [[House of Suren]] and the [[House of Karen]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lukonin|1983|pp=704–705}}</ref> The historian [[Plutarch]] noted that members of the Suren family, the first among the nobility, were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations.<ref>{{harvnb|Lukonin|1983|p=704}}; {{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=104}}</ref>
 
===Military===
{{further|Parthian army}}
The Parthian Empire had no [[standing army]], yet were able to quickly recruit troops in the event of local crises.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=116, 122}}; {{harvnb|Sheldon|2010|pp=231–232}}</ref> There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king, comprising nobles, [[serf]]s and [[mercenaries]], but this royal retinue was small.<ref name="kennedy_1996_84">{{harvnb|Kennedy|1996|p=84}}</ref> Garrisons were also permanently maintained at border forts; Parthian inscriptions reveal some of the military titles granted to the commanders of these locations.<ref name="kennedy_1996_84"/> Military forces could also be used in diplomatic gestures. For example, when Chinese envoys visited Parthia in the late 2nd century BC, the ''[[Shiji]]'' maintains that 20,000 horsemen were sent to the eastern borders to serve as escorts for the embassy, although this figure is perhaps an exaggeration.<ref>{{harvnb|Wang|2007|pp=99–100}}</ref>
{{multiple image
| image1 = ParthianHorseman.jpg
| caption1 = Parthian [[horse archer]], now on display at the [[Palazzo Madama, Turin]]
| image2 = ParthianCataphract.JPG
| caption2 = Parthian [[cataphract]] fighting a lion
| image3 = Zahhak castle stucco 2.JPG
| caption3 = Relief of an infantryman, from [[Zahhak Castle]], Iran
| total_width = 500
| footer = The combination of horse archers and cataphracts formed an effective backbone for the Parthian military
}}
 
The main striking force of the Parthian army was its [[cataphract]]s, heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in [[Mail (armour)|mailed armor]].<ref name="brosius_2006_120 garthwaite_2005_78">{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Garthwaite|2005|p=78}}</ref> The cataphracts were equipped with a lance for charging into enemy lines, but were not equipped with bows and arrows which were restricted to horse archers.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Kennedy|1996|p=84}}</ref> Due to the cost of their equipment and armor, cataphracts were recruited from among the aristocratic class who, in return for their services, demanded a measure of autonomy at the local level from the Arsacid kings.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|pp=116–118}}; see also {{harvnb|Garthwaite|2005|p=78}} and {{harvnb|Kennedy|1996|p=84}}</ref> The light cavalry was recruited from among the commoner class and acted as [[horse archer]]s; they wore a simple tunic and trousers into battle.<ref name="brosius_2006_120 garthwaite_2005_78"/> They used [[composite bow]]s and were able to shoot at enemies while riding and facing away from them; this technique, known as the [[Parthian shot]], was a highly effective tactic.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Garthwaite|2005|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Kurz|1983|p=561}}</ref>
The heavy and light cavalry of Parthia proved to be a decisive factor in the [[Battle of Carrhae]] where a Parthian force defeated a much larger Roman army under Crassus.
Light infantry units, composed of [[Conscription|levied commoners]] and mercenaries, were used to disperse enemy troops after cavalry charges.<ref>{{harvnb|Brosius|2006|p=122}}</ref>
 
The size of the Parthian army is unknown, as is the size of the empire's overall population. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower.<ref name="kennedy_1996_83">{{harvnb|Kennedy|1996|p=83}}</ref> Dense population centers in regions like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land.<ref name="kennedy_1996_83"/>-->
 
=== Mata uang ===
Baris 235 ⟶ 202:
* {{cite journal |last=Olbrycht|first=Marek Jan|authorlink=| title=The Sacral Kingship of the early Arsacids. I. Fire Cult and Kingly Glory|journal=Anabasis |date=2016|volume=7 |pages=91–106 |url=https://www.academia.edu/33754166/THE_SACRAL_KINGSHIP_OF_THE_EARLY_ARSACIDS_I._FIRE_CULT_AND_KINGLY_GLORY|ref=harv|url-access=registration}}
* {{citation|last=Posch|first=Walter|chapter=Chinesische Quellen zu den Parthern|pages=355–364|title=Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse|editor-last=Weisehöfer|editor-first=Josef|series=Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte, Jld. 122|location=Stuttgart|publisher=Franz Steiner|year=1998|language=de}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Rezakhani |first1=Khodadad |authorlink1=Khodadad Rezakhani|editor-last=Potts|editor-first=Daniel T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_s1j3 |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199733309 |chapter=Arsacid, Elymaean, and Persid Coinage|ref=harv}}
*{{Citation|last=Roller |first=Duane W. |title=Cleopatra: a biography|year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-536553-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EZo6DwAAQBAJ |postscript=.}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran|volume=3b|last=Schlumberger|first=Daniel|chapter=Parthian Art|pages=1027–1054}}.