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[[ImageBerkas:Shroud-of-Turin-1898-photo positive negative compare.jpg|thumbjmpl|rightka|Foto pertamaperbandingan Kain Kafan dari TurinTorino yangasli diambil pada tahun 1898. Foto ini memilikidengan tampilan gambaran pada foto negatifnya lebih jelas daripada gambaran nyatanyanegatif.<ref>B. Ruffin, 1999 ISBN 0879736178</ref>]]
'''Kain Kafan dari TurinTorino''' ('''Sindone di Torino''' atau '''Sacra Sindone''') adalah sepotong kain yang memiliki gambaran seorang pria yang tampak telah disiksa secara fisik yang konsisten dengan siksaan penyaliban. Kain ini disimpan di kapel kerajaan di [[Katedral Santo Yohanes Pembaptis Turin|Katedral Santo Yohanes Pembaptis]] di kota Turin[[Torino]], [[Italia]]. Kain initersebut dipercaya oleh banyak orang sebagai kain kafan Yesus Kristus saat ia dimakamkan.
== Sejarah ==
Gambaran pada kain kafan tersebut jauh lebih jelas dalam hitam-putih (foto negatif) dibandingkan dalam warna kecoklatan aslinya. Gambar negatif yang menyolok ini pertama kali dilihat pada malam hari tanggal 28 Mei 1898 di piringan fotografi terbalik milik fotografer amatir Secondo Pia yang diperbolehkan mengambil foto kain tersebut setika sedang dipamerkan di Katedral Turin. Menurut Pia, ia hampir menjatuhkan dan memecahkan piringan fotografi tersebut akibat keterkejutannya melihat gambaran seseorang di kain tersebut.<ref>David Van Biema, ''Science and the Shroud'', Time Magazine, April 20, 1998 http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988184-1,00.html</ref><ref>Bernard Ruffin, 1999, ''The Shroud of Turin'' ISBN 0879736178</ref>
Gambaran pada kain kafan tersebut jauh lebih jelas dalam hitam-putih (foto negatif) dibandingkan dalam warna kecoklatan aslinya. Gambar negatif yang mencolok ini pertama kali dilihat pada malam hari tanggal 28 Mei 1898 di piringan fotografi terbalik milik fotografer amatir Secondo Pia yang diperbolehkan mengambil foto kain tersebut setika sedang dipamerkan di Katedral Turin. Menurut Pia, ia hampir menjatuhkan dan memecahkan piringan fotografi tersebut akibat keterkejutannya melihat gambaran seseorang di kain tersebut.<ref>David Van Biema, ''Science and the Shroud'', Time Magazine, April 20, 1998 http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988184-1,00.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414103111/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988184-1,00.html |date=2009-04-14 }}</ref><ref>Bernard Ruffin, 1999, ''The Shroud of Turin'' ISBN 0-87973-617-8</ref>
== Perdebatan dan pengujian ==
Kain kafan ini menjadi topik perdebatan sengit diantara para ilmuwan, rohaniwan, sejarawan, dan penulis mengenai dimana, kapan dan bagaimana kain kafan serta gambaran di atasnya tercipta. Dari pandangan rohani, di tahun 1958 [[Paus Pius XII]] menyetujui gambaran kain kafan tersebut dalam hubungannya dengan devosi Katolik Roma atas Wajah Suci Yesus, yang dirayakan tiap tahunnya pada Hari Selasa Pengampunan Dosa (Inggris: Shrove Tuesday) atau Hari Selasa sebelum Hari Rabu Abu. Beberapa pihak percaya bahwa kain kafan ini merupakan kain yang menutupi Yesus ketika Ia diletakkan di dalam makamnya dan gambarannya tercetak pada serat-seratnya pada saat atau dekat saat Ia dipercaya bangkit dari mati. Pihak skeptis, di sisi lain, beranggapan bahwa kain kafan tersebut merupakan karya pemalsuan Abad Pertengahan; beberapa pihak lain menghubungkan terciptanya gambaran ini dengan reaksi-rekasi kimia atau proses-proses alamiah lainnya.
Kain kafan ini menjadi topik perdebatan sengit di antara para ilmuwan, rohaniwan, sejarawan, dan penulis mengenai di mana, kapan dan bagaimana kain kafan serta gambaran di atasnya tercipta. Dari pandangan rohani, pada tahun 1958 [[Paus Pius XII]] menyetujui gambaran kain kafan tersebut dalam hubungannya dengan ketaatan Katolik Roma atas Wajah Suci Yesus, yang dirayakan tiap tahunnya pada Hari Selasa Pengampunan Dosa (Inggris: Shrove Tuesday) atau Hari Selasa sebelum Hari [[Rabu Abu]]. Beberapa pihak percaya bahwa kain kafan ini merupakan kain yang menutupi Yesus ketika Ia diletakkan di dalam makamnya dan gambarannya tercetak pada serat-seratnya pada saat atau dekat saat Ia dipercaya bangkit dari mati. Pihak skeptis, di sisi lain, beranggapan bahwa kain kafan tersebut merupakan karya pemalsuan [[Abad Pertengahan]]; beberapa pihak lain menghubungkan terciptanya gambaran ini dengan reaksi-reaksi kimia atau proses-proses alamiah lainnya.
Berbagai pengujian telah dilakukan terhadpterhadap kain kafan ini, namun demikian perdebatan mengenai asal- usulnya tetap berlangsung. Penanggalan radio-karbon dipada tahun 1988 oleh tiga kelompok ilmuwan yang berdiri sendiri mengeluarkan hasil yang diterbitkan di dalam Jurnal[[jurnal akademik]] ''[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]]'' yang mengindikasikan bahwa kain kafan tersebut dibuat selama Abad Pertengahan, sekitar 1300 tahun setelah Yesus hidup.<ref name="Turin_Nature" /> Pernyataan-pernyataan akan adanya prasangka dan kesalahan di dalam pengujian-pengujian tersebut langsung muncul begitu hasil ini terbit, dan dijawab oleh Harry E. Gove<ref>H E Gove, ''Dating the Turin Shroud-An Assessment'', Radiocarbon 32:1, 87-92, 1990[ http://digitalcommons.library.arizona.edu/objectviewer?o=http%3A%2F%2Fradiocarbon.library.arizona.edu%2FVolume32%2FNumber1%2Fazu_radiocarbon_v32_n1_87_92_v.pdf ''Dating the Turin Shroud-An Assessment'', Radiocarbon 32:1, 87-92, 1990]</ref> atau beberapa orang lainnya. Walau demikian kontroversi penanggalan ini terus berlanjut.
AnalisaAnalisis lanjutan yang diterbitkan dipada tahun 2005, misalnya, menyatakan bahwa contoh kain yang diambil oleh para kelompok penguji tadi untuk dihitung usianya diambil dari sebuah bagian kain kafan yang bukan merupakan bagian dari kain asli. Kain kafan ini juga rusak akibat kebakaran di akhir Abad Pertengahan yang mungkin bisa juga menambahkan material karbon pada kain tersebut, yang menyebabkan kadar [[radiokarbon]] yang lebih tinggi dan asal- usul usia yang lebih belakangan. AnalisaAnalisis ini pun dipertanyakan oleh pihak skeptis seperti Joe Nickell yang berargumen bahwa kesimpulan tersebut dari penulis Raymond Rogers berasal dari "menganalisamenganalisis dengan cara mulai dari kesimpulan yang diinginkan dan kemudian baru menelusuri kembali pada bukti-bukti yang ada".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/shroud.html|title=Claims of Invalid “Shroud” Radiocarbon Date Cut from Whole Cloth|accessdate=2007-12-24|author=[[Joe Nickell]]|work=[[Skeptical Inquirer]]|publisher=[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]|archive-date=2007-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214081924/http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/shroud.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Mantan editor Jurnal 'Nature' Philip Ball telah mengatakan bahwa ide yang menyatakan Rogers mengarahkan penelitiannya pada suatu kesimpulan yang telah tercipta sebelumnya adalah "tidak adil" karena Rogers memiliki "sejarah karya-karya penelitian yang patut dihargai".
Namun begitu, penelitian tahun 2008 di Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit mungkin merubahmengubah penanggalan tahun [[1260]]-[[1390]] yang sebelumnya diterima, yang menyebabkan direktur institusi ini Christopher Ramsey untuk mengundang komunitas ilmiah untuk melakukan penelitian baru atas keaslian kain kafan ini.<ref>Daily Telegraph article on Carbon dating http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/02/25/nshroud125.xml {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406005858/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2008%2F02%2F25%2Fnshroud125.xml |date=2008-04-06 }}</ref><ref name="Lorenzi">{{cite web|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/03/21/shroud-turin.html|title=Shroud of Turin's Authenticity Probed Anew|accessdate=2008-03-30|author=Lorenzi, Rossella|work=[[Discovery Channel]]|publisher=[[Discovery Communications]]}}</ref> "Dengan perhitungan-perhitungan radiokarbon dan dengan semua bukti lainnya yang kita miliki mengenai kain kafan ini, terlihat adanya suatu konflik dalam interpretasi terhadap bukti-bukti yang berbeda" kata Gordan kepada BBC dipada tahun 2008 setelah penelitian yang baru muncul.<ref>''Shroud mystery refuses to go away'': BBC News 2008 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7307646.stm</ref> Walau tetap berpikiran terbuka, Christopher Ramsey menekankan bahwa ia akan sangat terkejut bila hasil pengujian tahun 1988 terbukti berbeda jauh dengan hasil pengujian yang baru ini, apalagi bila bedanya sampai "seribu tahun".
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==Characteristics==
[[Image:SudarioFace.jpg|thumb|[[Secondo Pia]]'s negative of the image on the Shroud of Turin has an appearance suggesting a positive image. It is used as part of the devotion to [[Holy Face of Jesus]].]]
The shroud is rectangular, measuring approximately 4.4 × 1.1 [[metre|m]] (14.3 × 3.7 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The cloth is woven in a three-to-one [[herringbone]] [[twill]] composed of [[flax]] fibrils. Its most distinctive characteristic is the faint, yellowish image of a front and back view of a naked man with his hands folded across his groin. The two views are aligned along the midplane of the body and point in opposite directions. The front and back views of the head nearly meet at the middle of the cloth. The views are consistent with an [[orthographic projection]] of a [[human body]], but see [[Shroud of Turin#Analysis of the image as the work of an artist|Analysis of the image as the work of an artist]].
== Kain Kafan dari Torino di dalam Gereja Katolik Roma ==
The "Man of the Shroud" has a [[beard]], [[moustache]], and shoulder-length [[hair]] parted in the middle. He is muscular and tall (various experts have measured him as from 1.75 m, or roughly 5 ft 9 [[inch|in]], to 1.88 m, or 6 ft 2 [[inch|in]]). For a man of the first century (the time of Jesus' death), or of the [[Middle Ages]] (the time of the first uncontested report of the shroud's existence and the proposed time of a possible forgery), these figures present an above-average height.<ref>[http://www.shroudofturin4journalists.com/Details/howtall.htm How Tall is the Man of the Shroud of Turin]</ref> Reddish brown stains that have been said to include [[whole blood]] are found on the cloth, showing various wounds that correlate with the yellowish image, the pathophysiology of crucifixion, and the Biblical description of the death of [[Jesus]]:<ref name="heller">Heller, John H. ''Report on the Shroud of Turin''. Houghton Mifflin, 1983. ISBN 0395339677</ref>
[[Berkas:OntstaanLijkwade GiovanniBattista.png|jmpl|''Tubuh Yesus diturunkan dari Salib beserta Kain Kafan dari Torino''. Lukisan karya Giovanni Battista della Rovere, abad ke-16.]]
* one wrist bears a large, round wound, apparently from [[piercing]] (the second wrist is hidden by the folding of the hands)
Walaupun [[surat kabar]] [[Vatikan]] ''[[L'Osservatore Romano]]'' memberitakan cerita fotografi Secondo Pia tanggal [[28 Mei]] [[1898]] dalam edisinya tanggal [[15 Juni]] 1898, media ini melakukannya tanpa komentar dan setelah itu para pejabat Gereja pada umumnya menahan diri dari berkomentar secara resmi atas fotografi selama hampir setengah abad.
* upward gouge in the side penetrating into the thoracic cavity, a post-mortem event as indicated by separate components of red blood cells and serum draining from the lesion
* small punctures around the forehead and scalp
* scores of linear wounds on the torso and legs claimed to be consistent with the distinctive dumbbell wounds of a Roman ''[[flagrum]]''.
* swelling of the face from severe beatings
* streams of blood down both arms that include blood dripping from the main flow in response to gravity at an angle that would occur during crucifixion
* no evidence of either leg being fractured
* large puncture wounds in the feet as if pierced by a single spike
Hubungan resmi pertama antara gambar pada kain kafan tersebut dan Gereja Katolik terjadi pada tahun 1940 berdasarkan permintaan resmi Suster Marie Pierina De Micheli kepada kuria agama di kota [[Milan]], Italia, untuk memperoleh izin memproduksi sebuah medali dengan gambar tersebut. Izin ini diberikan dan medali pertama dengan gambar tersebut dipersembahkan kepada [[Paus Pius XII]] yang menyetujui keberadaan medali tersebut. Gambar wajah itu kemudian digunakan untuk menjadi apa yang dikenal sebagai Medali Wajah Suci yang dikenakan oleh banyak umat Katolik, yang pada mulanya sebagai sarana perlindungan selama masa [[Perang Dunia II]]. Pada tahun 1958 [[Paus Pius XII]] menyetujui gambar wajah tersebut dalam hubungannya dengan [[devosi Katolik]] pada Wajah Suci Yesus, dan menyatakan bahwa hari perayaannya adalah tiap tahun pada satu hari sebelum Hari Rabu Abu.<ref>Maria Rigamonti, ''Mother Maria Pierina'', Cenacle Publishing, 1999</ref><ref>Joan Carroll Cruz, OCDS. ''Saintly Men of Modern Times.'' (2003) ISBN 1-931709-77-7</ref>
[[Image:Shroud positive negative compare.jpg|thumb|hspace=8|vspace=8|left|More recent photo of the face, positive left, negative right. Note: Negative has been contrast enhanced.]]
Other physical characteristics of the shroud include the presence of large water stains, and from a fire in 1532, burn holes and scorched areas down both sides of the linen due to contact with molten silver that burned through it in places while it was folded. Some small burn holes that apparently are not from the 1532 event are also present. In places, there are permanent creases due to repeated foldings, such as the line that is evident below the chin of the image.
Pada tahun 1983 kain kafan ini diberikan kepada [[Tahta Suci]] oleh Keluarga Savoia. Namun, seperti banyak relik semacamnya, [[Gereja Katolik Roma]] tidak memberikan pernyataan bahwa kain tersebut merupakan kain kafan makam Yesus ataupun merupakan hasil pemalsuan. Seperti halnya devosi-devosi Katolik resmi lainnya, masalah tersebut diserahkan pada keputusan pribadi masing-masing umat selama pihak Gereja tidak mengeluarkan pernyataan yang bertentangan dengannya pada masa depan. Dalam pandangan Gereja, baik kain tersebut asli atau bukan tidak memiliki hubungan apapun dengan keabsahan ajaran Yesus.
On [[May 28]], [[1898]], amateur Italian photographer [[Secondo Pia]] took the first photograph of the shroud and was startled by the [[negative (photography)|negative]] in his [[darkroom]]<ref>Bernard Ruffin, 1999, ''The Shroud of Turin'' ISBN 0879736178</ref>. Negatives of the image give the appearance of a positive image, which implies that the shroud image is itself effectively a negative of some kind. Magician and paranormal skeptic [[Joe Nickell]], however, notes that: "it's not a true photographic negative. The hair and beard are white in the positive image. Unless Jesus was an [[albino]], there's a problem there."<ref>[http://www.scifidimensions.com/Aug00/jnf_shroud.htm The Joe Nickell Files: The Shroud of Turin]</ref>
Almarhum [[Paus Yohanes Paulus II]] menyatakan pada tahun [[1998]], "Semenjak kita tidak berurusan dengan masalah keimanan, Gereja tidak bisa memberikan jawaban terhadap pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut. Gereja mempercayakan tugas penelitian ini pada kaum ilmuwan untuk menghasilkan jawaban-jawaban yang cukup terhadap pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan kain kafan ini". Ia memperlihatkan dirinya tergerak secara mendalam oleh gambar kain kafan tersebut dan menyelenggarakan pameran publik pada tahun 1998 dan 2000. Dalam khotbahnya di Katedral Torino pada Hari Minggu tanggal 24 Mei [[1998]] (pada hari peringatan 100 tahun foto Secondo Pia tanggal 28 Mei 1898), [[Paus Yohanes Paulus II]] berkata: "... Kain Kafan ini merupakan sebuah gambaran cinta Tuhan dan dosa manusia" dan "... cetakan yang ditinggalkan oleh tubuh yang tersiksa dari Yang Disalib, yang memperlihatkan kemampuan manusia yang luar biasa untuk menyebabkan penderitaan dan kematian bagi sesama manusia, berdiri sebagai lambang pihak-pihak tak bersalah yang menderita di setiap zaman".<ref>Sambutan Paus Yohanes Paulus II tanggal 24 Mei 1998 di Torino http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html</ref>
Image analysis by scientists at the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] found that rather than being like a photographic negative, the image unexpectedly has the property of decoding into a 3-D image of the man when the darker parts of the image are interpreted to be those features of the man that were closest to the shroud and the lighter areas of the image those features that were farthest. This is not a property that occurs in [[photography]], and researchers could not replicate the effect when they attempted to transfer similar images using techniques of block print, engravings, a hot statue, and [[bas-relief]].<ref name="heller" />
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Daftar artefak terkait Alkitab]]
* [[Yohanes 20]]
==History Referensi ==
====Intermediate date between Christ and the Middle Ages====
"New Advent", a Catholic Encyclopaedia says: "A certain difficulty was caused by the existence elsewhere of other Shrouds similarly impressed with the figure of Jesus Christ and some of these cloths, notably those of Besançon, Cadouin, Champiègne, Xabregas, etc., "<ref>http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13762a.htm as at 26-07-08</ref>
The Shroud of Cadouin had quotations from the Koran <ref>http://www.mystae.com/restricted/reflections/messiah/shistory.html as at 26-07-08</ref>, and was said to be made in Egypt—a Muslim country in late seventh century.
Coincidentally the Koran was written in the late seventh century and the sudarium dates from the same time, providing an intermediate date if Raymond Roger's vanillan argument proves useful.
In fact, a Muslim scholar, Robert Spencer, said: "...A few examples: early in the eighth century sixty Christian pilgrims from Amorium were crucified..."<ref>http://www.wikiislam.com/wiki/Persecution_of_non-Muslims_in_Muslim_countries as at 26-07-08</ref><ref>http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=26CC3516-345F-4F9D-B448-3A027C0B1A46 as at 26-07-08</ref>
===Possible history before the 14th century: The Image of Edessa===
[[Image:Abgarwithimageofedessa10thcentury.jpg|thumb|175px|right|This 10th-century image shows [[Abgarus of Edessa]] displaying the [[Image of Edessa]]. The oblong cloth shown here is unusual for depictions of the image, leading some to suggest that the artist was influenced by seeing the Shroud.]]
According to the Gospel of John ({{bibleverse||John|20:5-7|}}), the Apostle Peter and the "beloved disciple" entered the sepulchre of Jesus, shortly after his resurrection — of which they were still unaware—and found the "linen clothes" that had wrapped his body and "the napkin, that was about his head."
There are numerous reports of Jesus' burial shroud, or an image of his head, of unknown origin, being venerated in various locations before the fourteenth century.<ref>Humber, Thomas: ''The Sacred Shroud''. New York: Pocket Books, 1980. ISBN 0-671-41889-0</ref> However, none of these reports has been connected with certainty to the current cloth held in the Turin cathedral. Except for the [[Image of Edessa]], none of the reports of these (up to 43) different "true shrouds" was known to mention an image of a body.
The [[Image of Edessa]] was reported to contain the image of the face of [[Jesus]] and its existence is reported since the sixth century. Some have suggested a connection between the Shroud of Turin and the Image of Edessa.<ref>Wilson, pp. 148-175</ref> No legend connected with that image suggests that it contained the image of a beaten and bloody Jesus. It was said to be an image transferred by Jesus to the cloth in life. This image is generally described as depicting only the face of Jesus, not the entire body. Proponents of the theory that the Edessa image was actually the shroud, led by [[Ian Wilson (Christianity)|Ian Wilson]], theorize that it was always folded in such a way as to show only the face.
Ian Wilson, under 'Reconstructed Chronology of the Turin Shroud'<ref>p287 Ian Wilson, 1978, The Turin Shroud, Penguin Books (1979) first published by Doubleday & Company Inc., (1978) Under the title 'The Shroud of Turin'</ref> recounts that the 'Doctrine of Addai' mentions a 'mysterious portrait' in connection with the healing of Abgar V. A similar story is recorded in Eusebius' 'History of the Church' bk 1, ch 13,<ref>Trans. G A Williamson, Ed Andrew Louth, Eusebius, 'The History of the Church', Penguin Books</ref> which does not mention the portrait.
Three principal pieces of evidence are cited in favor of the identification with the shroud. [[John_Damascene|Saint John of Damascus]] mentions the image in his anti-[[iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] work ''On Holy Images''<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/damascus/icons.html St. John of Damascene on Holy Images (Followed by Three Sermons on the Assumption) | Christian Classics Ethereal Library]</ref>, describing the Edessa image as being a "strip," or oblong cloth, rather than a square, as other accounts of the Edessa cloth hold. However, in his description, [[John_Damascene|St. John]] still speaks of the image of Jesus' face when he was alive.
To the contrary, [[Averil Cameron]] - expert of Late Antique and Byzantine History at the University of Oxford - denies the possibility of the Turin shroud being identified with the Image of Edessa. Among the reasons are too big differences in the historical descriptions of the Image of Edessa compared to the shroud<ref>Averil Cameron, ''The Sceptic and the Shroud'' London: King's College Inaugural Lecture monograph (1980)</ref>. The Image of Edessa has according to her its origin in the resistance to the [[Iconoclasm (Byzantine)|byzantine iconoclasm]]<ref>Averil Cameron, ''The mandylion and Byzantine Iconoclasm.'' in H. Kessler, G. Wolf, eds, ''The holy face and the paradox of representation.'' Bologna, (1998), 33-54</ref>.
[[Image:Hungarianpraymanuscript1192-1195.jpg|thumb|left|This image from a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] manuscript dates from 1192 to 1195. Shroud proponents cite it as evidence for the shroud's existence before the fourteenth century, citing an L-shaped patch near the hands, which would correspond to four burn holes in the relic. Also, the weave of the cloth in the lower panel suggests to them the unusual weave of the shroud.]]
On the occasion of the transfer of the cloth to [[Constantinople]] in 944, Gregory Referendarius, [[archdeacon]] of [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople, preached a sermon about the artifact. This sermon had been lost, but was rediscovered in the Vatican Archives and translated by [[Mark Guscin]] {{PDFlink|[http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/guscin3.pdf]|187 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} in 2004. This sermon says that this Edessa cloth contained not only the face, but a full-length image, which was believed to be of Jesus. The sermon also mentions bloodstains from a wound in the side. Other documents have since been found in the [[Vatican library]] and the [[University of Leiden]], Netherlands, confirming this impression. ''"Non tantum faciei figuram sed totius corporis figuram cernere poteris"'' (You can see not only the figure of a face, but [also] the figure of the whole body). ([http://www.imperobizantino.it/content/view/76/2/ In Italian]) (Cf. Codex Vossianus Latinus Q69 and Vatican Library Codex 5696, p. 35.)
In 1203, a Crusader knight named [[Robert de Clari]] claims the cloth was among the countless relics in Constantinople: "Where there was the Shroud in which our Lord had been wrapped, which every Friday raised itself upright so one could see the figure of our Lord on it." However, the historians [[Thomas Madden|Madden]] and Queller describe this part of Robert's account as a mistake: Robert had actually seen or heard of the ''sudarium'', the handkerchief of Saint Veronica (which also purportedly contained the image of Jesus), and confused it with the grave cloth (''sindon'').<ref>Madden, Thomas, and Donald Queller. ''The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople''. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. Second edition. page 139.</ref> After the Fourth Crusade, in 1205, the following letter was sent by [[Theodore Angelos]], a nephew of one of three [[Byzantine]] [[Emperor]]s who were deposed during the Fourth Crusade, to Pope Innocent III protesting the attack on the capital. From the document, dated [[1 August]] 1205: "The Venetians partitioned the treasures of gold, silver, and ivory while the French did the same with the relics of the saints and the most sacred of all, the linen in which our Lord Jesus Christ was wrapped after his death and before the resurrection. We know that the sacred objects are preserved by their predators in Venice, in France, and in other places, the sacred linen in Athens." --><!--Latin original: Thesauros ex auro, ex argento, ex ebore coeperunt, in partitione, Veneti, reliquias Sanctorum & sacerrimum inter illas linteum quo post mortem et ante Resurrectionem noster Dominus Jesus Christus involutus est, Galli. Scimus res sacras Venexiae, in Gallia & ceteris locis praedatorum servari, Sacrum Linteum in Athenis.--> ([[Codex]] Chartularium Culisanense, fol. CXXVI (copia), National Library Palermo)<ref>"The letter was rediscovered in the archive of the Abbey of St. Caterina a Formiello, Naples; it is folio CXXVI of the Chartularium Culisanense, originating in 1290, a copy of which came to the Naples as a result of close political ties with the imperial Angelus-Comnenus family from 1481 on. The Greek original had been lost." in: [http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/subject/hd/fak7/hist/o1/logs/byzans-l/log.started961101/0103.html]; see also: [http://histor.ws/grabtuch/bild/beschwerde.gif a photo of the document]<!--in: [http://histor.ws/grabtuch/geschichte02.htm], year 1205--></ref>
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Unless it is the Shroud of Turin, then the location of the Image of Edessa since the 13th century is unknown.
Some historians suggest that the shroud was captured by the knight [[Otto de la Roche]]<ref>Eyewitnesses reports by [[Geoffrey of Villehardouin|Geoffroy de Villehardouin]] and [[Robert de Clari]], accounts of the Fourth Crusade</ref>--><!--Quotation: "Der Burgunder Othon de la Roche bemächtigte sich mit seinen Rittern des neuen Blachernen-Palastes, den der Kaiser kurz zuvor gerade bezogen hatte und in dessen Marienkirche hinter Bronze- und Silbertüren "die sydoine (das Grabtuch) aufbewahrt wurde, in die unser Herr eingehüllt war.""; in: Michael Hesemann, Die Jesus-Tafel, Herder 1999, page 237; Attention (!!): Here Hesemann does not make an indication of source, only on the next side with another quotation: Robert de Clari--><!-- who became [[Duke of Athens]], but that he soon relinquished it to the [[Knights Templar]]. It was subsequently taken to France, where the first known keeper of the Turin Shroud had links both to the Templars as well the descendants of Otto. Some speculate that the shroud could have been a major part of the famed 'Templar treasure' that treasure hunters still seek today.
The association with the Templars seems to be based on a coincidence of family names, especially since the Templars were a celibate order, and so unlikely to have (especially acknowledged) children. However, the location of the Shroud in the 13th-14th centuries is interesting, since the Frankish (French) contingent in 4th Crusade, which resulted in the sack of Constantinople, was led by Tibaut of Champagne. Lirey, the first known location of the Turin Shroud, is located in the territory of this Count.
===14th century===
The known provenance of the cloth now stored in Turin dates to 1357, when the widow of the French knight [[Geoffroi de Charny]] (said to be a descendant of Templar [[Geoffroy de Charney]] who was burned at the stake with [[Jacques de Molay]]) had it displayed in a church at [[Lirey, France]] (diocese of [[Troyes]]):
<blockquote>On 20 June, 1353, Geoffroy de Charny, Lord of Savoisy and Lirey, founded at Lirey in honour of the Annunciation a collegiate church with six canonries, and in this church he exposed for veneration the Holy Winding Sheet. Opposition arose on the part of the Bishop of Troyes, who declared after due inquiry that the relic was nothing but a painting, and opposed its exposition. Clement VI by four Bulls, 6 Jan., 1390, approved the exposition as lawful. In 1418 during the civil wars, the canons entrusted the Winding Sheet to Humbert, Count de La Roche, Lord of Lirey. Margaret, widow of Humbert, never returned it but gave it in 1452 to the Duke of Savoy. The requests of the canons of Lirey were unavailing, and the Lirey Winding Sheet is the same that is now exposed and honoured at Turin."<ref>[http://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=11715 ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', ''s.v.'' "Troyes (Trecensis)"].</ref></blockquote>
In the [[Museum Cluny]] in Paris, the coats of arms of this knight and his widow can be seen on a pilgrim medallion, which also shows an image of the Shroud of Turin.
During the fourteenth century, the shroud was often publicly exposed, though not continuously, because the [[bishop of Troyes]], [[Henri de Poitiers]], had prohibited veneration of the image. Thirty-two years after this pronouncement, the image was displayed again, and King [[Charles VI of France]] ordered its removal to Troyes, citing the impropriety of the image. The sheriffs were unable to carry out the order.
[[Image:Shroudofturin.jpg|thumb|Full-length negative of the Shroud of Turin.]]
In 1389, the image was denounced as a fraud by Bishop [[Pierre D'Arcis]] in a letter to the Avignon [[Antipope Clement VII]], mentioning that the image had previously been denounced by his predecessor Henri de Poitiers, who had been concerned that no such image was mentioned in scripture. Bishop D'Arcis continued, "Eventually, after diligent inquiry and examination, he discovered how the said cloth had been cunningly painted, the truth being attested by the artist who had painted it, to wit, that it was a work of human skill and not miraculously wrought or bestowed." (In German: [http://www.huinfo.at/grabtuch/grabtuch.htm#_Toc499394755].) The artist is not named in the letter.<ref>English translation of Memorandum contained in Ian Wilson, ''The Turin Shroud'', p. 230-235 (Victor Gollancz Ltd; 1978 ISBN 0 575 02483 6).</ref>
The letter of Bishop D'Arcis also mentions Bishop Henri's attempt to suppress veneration, but notes that the cloth was quickly hidden "for 35 years or so," thus agreeing with the historical details already established above. The letter provides an accurate description of the cloth: "upon which by a clever sleight of hand was depicted the twofold image of one man, that is to say, the back and the front, he falsely declaring and pretending that this was the actual shroud in which our Saviour Jesus Christ was enfolded in the tomb, and upon which the whole likeness of the Saviour had remained thus impressed together with the wounds which He bore."
Despite the pronouncement of Bishop D'Arcis, [[Antipope Clement VII]] (first [[antipope]] of the [[Western Schism]]) prescribed [[indulgence]]s for pilgrimages to the shroud, so that veneration continued, though the shroud was not permitted to be styled the "True Shroud."<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_5_25/ai_77757762 Scandals and Follies of the 'Holy Shroud' | Skeptical Inquirer | Find Articles at BNET.com]</ref>
====Alternative 14th century origins====
In their novel''The Second Messiah'' by [[Christopher Knight (author)|Christopher Knight]] and [[Robert Lomas]] argue that the Shroud's image is that of the final [[Knights Templar]] leader, [[Jacques de Molay]].
On Friday, 13 October 1307, the Templars were arrested by [[Philip the Fair]] under the authority of [[Pope Clement V]]. De Molay was nailed to a door and tortured but not killed, and his almost comatose body was wrapped in a cloth and left for 30 hours to recover. According to the hypothesis of Dr. Alan A. Mills in his article "Image formation on the Shroud of Turin," in ''Interdisciplinary Science Reviews'', 1995, vol. 20 No. 4, pp 319–326, convection currents from the [[lactic acid]] in de Molay's perspiration created the image. The image corresponds to what would have been produced by a volatile chemical if the intensity of the color change were inversely proportional to the distance of the cloth from the body, and the slightly bent position accounts for the extension of the hands onto the thighs, something not possible if the body had been laid flat.
Further, according to Knight and Lomas, de Molay, and co-accused [[Geoffroy de Charney]], were then cared for by brother Jean de Charney, whose family retained the shroud after de Molay's execution on 19 March 1314.
===15th century===
In 1418, Humbert of Villersexel, Count de la Roche, Lord of Saint-Hippolyte-sur-Doubs, moved the shroud to his castle at [[Montfort, Doubs]], to provide protection against criminal bands, after he married Charny's granddaughter Margaret. It was later moved to [[Saint-Hippolyte-sur-Doubs, France|Saint-Hippolyte-sur-Doubs]]. After Humbert's death, [[Canon (priest)|canon]]s of Lirey fought through the courts to force the widow to return the cloth, but the parliament of Dole and the Court of [[Besançon]] left it to the widow, who traveled with the shroud to various expositions, notably in [[Liège (city)|Liège]] and [[Geneva]].
The widow sold the shroud in exchange for a castle in [[Varambon, France]] in 1453. [[Louis of Savoy]], the new owner, stored it in his capital at [[Chambery]] in the newly built ''Saint-Chapelle'', which [[Pope Paul II]] shortly thereafter raised to the dignity of a collegiate church. In 1464, the duke agreed to pay an annual fee to the Lirey canons in exchange for their dropping claims of ownership of the cloth. Beginning in 1471, the shroud was moved between many cities of Europe, being housed briefly in [[Vercelli]], [[Turin]], [[Ivrea]], [[Susa, Italy|Susa]], [[Chambery]], Avigliana--><!-- before inserting a link here, see Talk --><!--, [[Rivoli]], and [[Pinerolo]]. A description of the cloth by two sacristans of the Sainte-Chapelle from around this time noted that it was stored in a reliquary: "enveloped in a red silk drape, and kept in a case covered with crimson velours, decorated with silver-gilt nails, and locked with a golden key."
===16th century to present===
[[Image:Shroud of Turin 1898 poster.jpg|thumb|left|This poster advertises the 1898 exhibition of the shroud.]]
In 1532, the shroud suffered damage from a fire in the chapel where it was stored. A drop of molten [[silver]] from the reliquary produced a symmetrically placed mark through the layers of the folded cloth. [[Poor Clare Nuns]] attempted to repair this damage with patches. Some have suggested that there was also water damage from the extinguishing of the fire. However, there is some evidence that the watermarks were made by condensation in the bottom of a burial jar in which the folded shroud may have been kept at some point. In 1578, the shroud arrived again at its current location in Turin. It was the property of the [[House of Savoy]] until 1983, when it was given to the [[Holy See]].
In 1988, the Holy See agreed to a [[radiocarbon dating]] of the [[relic]], for which a small piece from a corner of the shroud was removed, divided, and sent to laboratories. (More on the testing is seen below.) Another fire, possibly caused by [[arson]], threatened the shroud on 11 April 1997, but fireman [[Mario Trematore]] was able to remove it from its heavily protected display case and prevent further damage. In 2002, the Holy See had the shroud restored. The cloth backing and thirty patches were removed. This made it possible to photograph and scan the reverse side of the cloth, which had been hidden from view. Using sophisticated mathematical and optical techniques, a ghostly part-image of the body was found on the back of the shroud in 2004. Italian scientists had exposed the faint imprint of the face and hands of the figure.--><!--see also: http://de.wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Turiner_Grabtuch#Bild_auf_der_R.C3.BCckseite and http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,1190554,00.html -->
<!--The most recent public exhibition of the Shroud was in 2000 for the [[Great Jubilee]]. The next scheduled exhibition is in 2010.
==The controversy==
The origin of the relic is hotly disputed. Researchers have coined the term '''sindonology''' to describe its general study (from [[Greek (language)|Greek]] σινδών—sindon, the word used in the [[Gospel of Mark]] to describe the type of cloth that [[Joseph of Arimathea]] bought to use as Jesus' burial cloth).
===Possible means of image formation===
The image on the cloth has many peculiar and closely studied {{PDFlink|[http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/doclist.pdf characteristics]|114 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}, for example, it is entirely superficial, not penetrating into the cloth fibers under the surface, so that the flax and cotton fibers are not colored; the image yarn is composed of discolored fibers placed side by side with non-discolored fibers so many striations appear. Thus the cloth is not simply dyed, though many other explanations, natural and otherwise, have been suggested for the image formation. Alone among published researchers, [[Walter McCrone]] believed the entire image to be composed of pigment. However, this hypothesis was disproved after closer inspection showed that there was no more pigment particles on the image area than on the non-image area of the shroud.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Other results have shown the image to be a discoloration, not a "coloration."
====Maillard reaction hypothesis====
[[Image:discyellow.jpg|thumbnail|Phase contrast microscopic view of image-bearing fiber from the Shroud of Turin. Carbohydrate layer is visible along top edge. The lower-right edge shows that coating is missing. The coating can be scraped off or removed with adhesive or diimide.]]
The [[Maillard reaction]] is a form of non-enzymatic browning involving an amino acid and a reducing sugar. The [[cellulose]] fibers of the shroud are coated with a thin [[carbohydrate]] layer of [[starch]] fractions, various [[sugars]], and other impurities. In a paper entitled "The Shroud of Turin: an amino-carbonyl reaction may explain the image formation,"<ref>Rogers, R.N. and Arnoldi, A.: "The Shroud of Turin: an amino-carbonyl reaction (Maillard reaction) may explain the image formation." In Ames, J.M. (Ed.): ''Melanoidins in Food and Health'', Volume 4, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2003, pp. 106–113. ISBN 92-894-5724-4</ref> R.N. Rogers and A. Arnoldi propose that [[amine]]s from a recently deceased human body may have undergone Maillard reactions with this carbohydrate layer within a reasonable period of time, before liquid [[decomposition]] products stained or damaged the cloth. The gases produced by a dead body are extremely reactive chemically and within a few hours, in an environment such as a tomb, a body starts to produce heavier amines in its tissues such as [[putrescine]] and [[cadaverine]]. This raises questions, however, as to why the images (both [[ventral]] and [[Dorsum (biology)|dorsal]] views) are so photorealistic,{{Fact|date=April 2008}} and why they were not destroyed by later decomposition products. Removal of the cloth from the body within a short enough time frame would prevent exposure to these later decomposition products.
It is worth noting, however, that the [[Maillard reaction]] is ordinarily observed as the browned parts of cooked foods, especially in broiled, grilled, or fried dishes, in which cases, the most superficial portions are subjected to high temperature (310 Fahrenheit/155 Celsius), low moisture conditions.
====Auto-oxidation====
Masonic historians [[Christopher Knight (author)|Christopher Knight]] and [[Robert Lomas]] (1997) claim that the image on the shroud is that of [[Jacques de Molay]], the last Grand Master of the [[Knights Templars|Order of the Knights Templar]], arrested for [[heresy]] at the Paris Temple by [[Philip IV of France]] on [[13 October]] [[1307]]. De Molay suffered torture under the auspices of the Chief Inquisitor of France, William Imbert. His arms and legs were nailed, possibly to a large wooden door. According to Knight and Lomas, after the torture De Molay was laid on a piece of cloth on a soft bed; the excess section of the cloth was lifted over his head to cover his front and he was left, perhaps in a coma, for perhaps 30 hours. They claim that the use of a shroud is explained by the Paris Temple keeping shrouds for ceremonial purposes.
De Molay survived the torture but was burned at the stake on [[19 March]] [[1314]] together with [[Geoffroy de Charney]], Templar preceptor of [[Normandy]]. De Charney's grandson was Jean de Charney who died at the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|battle of Poitiers]]. After his death, his widow, Jeanne de Vergy, purportedly found the shroud in his possession and had it displayed at a church in Lirey.
Knight and Lomas base their argument partly on the 1988 radiocarbon dating and Mills' 1995 research about a chemical reaction called [[auto-oxidation]] and they claim that their theory accords with the factors known about the creation of the shroud and the carbon dating results. The counter argument is that the Templars acquired the shroud upon one of the crusades{{Fact|date=June 2007}} and brought it to France where it remained a secret until Jean de Charney died.
====Photographic image production====
According to the art historian Nicolas Allen the image on the shroud was formed by a primitive photographic technique in the 13. century<ref>[http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=7268 Nicholas P L Allen, ''Verification of the Nature and Causes of the Photo-negative Images on the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin]''</ref>. Contrary to similar proposals by others, N. Allen denies the possibility that Leonardo da Vinci was in any way involved in production of the shroud. He rather maintains that techniques already available before the 14. century, as e.g. described in the [[Book of Optics]] which was just in this time translated from Arabic into Latin, were sufficient for primitive photographic techniques and that people familiar with these techniques could be able to produce an image as found on the shroud. To demonstrate this, he has experimentally produced photographic images using only techniques available at that time. He described his results in his PhD Thesis <ref> Nicholas P L Allen, ''The methods and techniques employed in the manufacture of the Shroud of Turin.'' Unpublished DPhil thesis, University of Durban-Westville. (1993)</ref>, in papers published in several science journals<ref> Nicholas P L Allen, ''Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph? The South African Journal of Art History, November 11, 23-32 (1993)</ref><ref> Nicholas P L Allen, ''A reappraisal of late thirteenth-century responses to the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin: encolpia of the Eucharist, vera eikon or supreme relic?'' The Southern African Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 4 (1),62-94 (1994)</ref>, and in a book<ref>N. Allen, "The Turin Shroud and the Crystal Lens." Empowerment Technologies Pty. Ltd., - Port Elizabeth, South Africa (1998)</ref>
[[Image:Selbstportrait Leonardo da Vincis.jpg|thumb|Some suggest that there is a strong resemblance between this purported self-portrait of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and the Man of the Shroud.]]
Others have also proposed photographic techniques for producing the image in the Middle Ages. [[Lynn Picknett]] and [[Clive Prince]] (1994) proposed that the shroud is perhaps the first ever example of [[photography]], showing the portrait of its purported maker, [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. According to this hypothesis, the image was made with the aid of a "[[magic lantern]]," a simple projecting device, or by means of a [[camera obscura]] and light-sensitive silver compounds applied to the cloth.
Although Leonardo was born a century after the first documented appearance of the cloth, supporters of this hypothesis propose that the original cloth was an inferior fake, which was replaced with a superior hoax created by Leonardo. However, no contemporaneous reports indicate a sudden change in the quality of the image. The Turin Library holds a drawing of an old man that is widely but not universally accepted as a self-portrait by Leonardo. As the image depicts a man with a prominent brow and cheekbones and a beard, some{{who}} consider that it resembles the image on the Shroud and have suggested that as part of a complex hoax, Leonardo may have placed his own portrait on the Shroud as the face of Jesus. There is however, no mention of this supposed resemblance in any known contemporary account, nor any reference to a connection between the Shroud and Leonardo.
There is also conjecture that he was commissioned by the royal family of Turin, with whom he was friends, to create a work which could return to Turin that which had been lost for so many years. Such notions, however, are conjectural and are not taken seriously by most academic scholars.
====Painting====
The technique used for producing the image is according to W. McCrone already described in a book about medieval painting published in 1847 by [[Charles Lock Eastlake]] ("Methods and Materials of Painting of the Great Schools and Masters"). Eastlake describes in the chapter "Practice of Painting Generally During the XIVth Century" a special technique of painting on linen using tempera paint which produces images with unusual transparent features which McCrone compares to the image on the shroud<ref>Walter C. McCrone: Judgment day for the Shroud of Turin. Amherst, N.Y., Prometheus Books, (1999) ISBN 1-57392-679-5</ref>.
McCrone came to this conclusion by his research on the shroud the which began as a member of the STURP team. In 1977, a team of scientists selected by the [[Holy Shroud Guild]] developed a program of tests to conduct on the Shroud, designated the Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP). [[Anastasio Cardinal Ballestrero]], the archbishop of Turin, granted permission, despite disagreement within the Church. The STURP scientists conducted their testing over five days in 1978. [[Walter McCrone]], a member of the team, upon analyzing the samples he had, concluded in 1979 that the image is actually made up of billions of submicrometre pigment particles.<ref>McCrone, W. C., Skirius, C., ''The Microscope'', 28, 1980, pp 1-13; McCrone, W. C., ''The Microscope'', 29, 1981, p. 19-38.</ref> The only [[fibril]]s that had been made available for testing of the stains were those that remained affixed to custom-designed adhesive tape applied to thirty-two different sections of the image. (This was done in order to avoid damaging the cloth.) According to McCrone, the pigments used were a combination of [[red ochre]] and [[vermillion]] [[tempera]] paint. The Electron Optics Group of McCrone Associates published the results of these studies in five articles in peer-reviewed journals: Microscope 1980, 28, 105, 115; 1981, 29, 19; Wiener Berichte uber Naturwissenschaft in der Kunst 1987/1988, 4/5, 50 and Acc. Chem. Res. 1990, 23, 77–83. STURP, upon learning of his findings, confiscated McCrone's samples, and brought in other scientists to replace him. In McCrone's words, he was "drummed out" of STURP and continued to defend the analysis he had performed, becoming a prominent proponent of the position that the Shroud is a forgery.
Dr. John Heller and Dr. Alan Adler, the scientists whom STURP asked for a second opinion after McCrone's, examined the same samples as McCrone researched. They confirmed McCrone's result that the cloth contains iron oxide. However, they concluded, both due to the exceptional purity of the chemical and due to comparisons with other ancient textiles which showed that [[Flax#Retting_flax|retting flax]] draws in iron, that the iron was not the source of the body image.<ref>Ian Wilson, ''The Blood and the Shroud''. New York: Free Press, 1998. pp. 80-81 ISBN 0684853590</ref> McCrone's response to their analysis has been vehement and negative.<ref>Wilson, p. 82</ref>
Other microscopic analysis of the fibers seems to indicate that the image is strictly limited to the carbohydrate layer, with no additional layer of pigment visible. Proponents of the position that the Shroud is authentic say that no known technique for hand application of paint could apply a pigment with the necessary degree of control on such a nano-scale fibrillar surface plane. Moreover, they claim the technical skill required to produce the photographic or near-photographic realism in the image on the Shroud would be impressive in any century, much less the twelfth or thirteenth.<ref>Wilson, p. 21-25</ref> However, Renaissance painters have produced a number of photorealistic artworks.<ref>[http://jonathanscorner.com/writing/icons/icons4.html Jonathan's Corner: Lesser Icons: Reflections on Faith, Icons, and Art]</ref>
In the television program "Decoding The Past: The Shroud of Turin," [[The History Channel]] reported the official finding of STURP that no pigments were found in the shroud image and multiple scientists asserted this conclusion on camera. No hint of controversy over this claim was suggested. The program stated that a [[NASA]] scientist organized STURP in 1976 (after being surprised to find depth-dimensional information encoded within the shroud image); no mention of the Holy Shroud Guild was made.
====Solar masking, or "shadow theory"====
In March 2005, [[N. D. Wilson]], a literature instructor at [[New Saint Andrews College]] and amateur sindonologist, announced in an informal article in ''Books and Culture'' magazine that, inspired by an idea from [[G. K. Chesterton]]'s [[Father Brown]] stories, he had made a near duplicate of the shroud image by exposing dark linen to the sun for ten days under a sheet of glass on which a positive face mask had been painted. The sun bleached white all of the dark linen except for the areas under the painted glass image, which remained dark. The dark image that remained on the linen was notable for its three dimensional rendering - similar to what is seen on the Shroud of Turin. This 3-D image was created by the composite of shadows cast by the painted glass face: as the sun moved from sunrise to sunset, the changing angle of light striking the painted glass produced a three dimensional image of the face on the cloth. His method, though admittedly crude and preliminary, has nonetheless attracted the attention of several sindonologists, notably the late [[Raymond Rogers]]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} of the original STURP team, and [[Antonio Lombatti]],{{Fact|date=October 2007}} founder of the skeptical shroud journal ''Approfondimento Sindone''. Wilson's method is notable because it does not require any conjectures about unknown medieval technologies and is compatible with claims that there is no pigment on the cloth. However, the experiment has not been repeated and the images have yet to face microscopic and chemical analysis. In addition, concerns have been raised about the availability or affordability of medieval glass large enough to produce the image and the method's compatibility with Fanti's claim that the original image is doubly superficial.
====Using a bas-relief====
Another hypothesis suggests that the Shroud may have been formed using a [[bas-relief]] sculpture. Researcher Jacques di Costanzo, noting that the Shroud image seems to have a three-dimensional quality, suggested that perhaps the image was formed using an actual three-dimensional object, like a sculpture. While wrapping a cloth around a life-sized statue would result in a distorted image, placing a cloth over a bas-relief would result in an image like the one seen on the shroud. To demonstrate the plausibility of his hypothesis, Costanzo constructed a bas-relief of a Jesus-like face and draped wet linen over the bas-relief. After the linen dried, he dabbed it with ferric oxide and gelatine mixture. The result was an image similar to that of the Shroud. The imprinted image turned out to be wash-resistant, impervious to temperatures of 250 C (482 F) and was undamaged by exposure to a range of harsh chemicals, including bisulphite which, without the help of the gelatine, would normally have degraded ferric oxide to the compound ferrous oxide.<ref name='Ingham'>{{cite news | first=Richard | last=Ingham | coauthors= | title=Turin Shroud Confirmed as Fake | date=2005-06-21 | publisher=[[Agence France-Presse]] | url =http://www.physorg.com/news4652.html | work =Physorg.com | pages = | accessdate = 2008-02-17 | language = }}</ref> Similar results have been obtained by author [[Joe Nickell]]. Instead of painting, the bas-relief could also be heated and used to burn an image into the cloth.
====Miraculous formation====
Many people, including secular author [[Robin Cook]]<ref name="Seizure">{{cite book |title=Seizure |authorlink=[[Robin Cook]] |year=2003 |publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons |location=[[New York, New York]] |isbn=0399148760 |pages=pp 129-130}}</ref>, have put forth the suggestion that the image on the shroud was produced by a side effect of the [[Resurrection of Jesus]], purposely left intact as a rare physical aid to understanding and believing in Jesus' dual nature as man and God.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Some have asserted that the shroud collapsed through the [[glory (religion)|glorified]] body of Jesus, pointing to certain [[X-ray]]-like impressions of the teeth and the finger bones. Others assert that [[radiation]] streaming from every point of the revivifying body struck and discolored every opposite point of the cloth, forming the complete image through a kind of supernatural [[pointillism]] using inverted shades of blue-gray rather than primary colors.
===Second Image on back of cloth===
During restoration in 2002, the back of the cloth was photographed and scanned for the first time. The journal of the [[Institute of Physics]] in London published a peer-reviewed {{PDFlink|[http://www.dim.unipd.it/fanti/corona.pdf article]|1.52 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}} on this subject on [[April 14]], [[2004]]. [http://www.dim.unipd.it/fanti Giulio Fanti] and [[Roberto Maggiolo]] of the [http://www.unipd.it University of Padua - Italy], are the authors. They describe an image on the reverse side, much fainter than that on the front, consisting primarily of the face and perhaps hands. Like the front image, it is entirely superficial, with coloration limited to the carbohydrate layer. The images correspond to, and are in registration with, those on the other side of the cloth. No image is detectable in the dorsal view of the shroud.
Supporters of the Maillard reaction theory point out that the gases would have been less likely to penetrate the entire cloth on the dorsal side, since the body would have been laid on a stone shelf. At the same time, the second image makes the electrostatic hypothesis [http://www.shroud.com/danin.htm] probable because a double superficiality is typical of coronal discharge and the photographic hypothesis is somewhat less probable.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}-->
<!-- BS indeed. [http://www.dim.unipd.it/fanti/bs.jpg Digitally enhanced face on the back with contours enlightened.]-->
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Perception.jpg|thumb|left|Digitaly enhanced - second face on the Shroud''.]] -->
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===Analysis of the Shroud===
====Radiocarbon dating====
{{main|Radiocarbon 14 dating of the Turin Shroud }}
In 1988, the [[Holy See]] agreed to permit six centers to independently perform [[radiocarbon dating]] on portions of a swatch taken from a corner of the shroud, but at the last minute they changed their minds and permitted only three research centers to undertake such analysis. The chosen laboratories at the [[University of Oxford]], the [[University of Arizona]], and the [[Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]], produced consistent results indicating that the analysed portion of the shroud dated from the 13th to 14th centuries (1260–1390).<ref name='Turin Nature'> {{cite journal|title=Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin|journal=Nature|date=1989-02|first=P. E.|last=Damon|coauthors=D. J. Donahue, B. H. Gore, A. L. Hatheway, A. J. T. Jull, T. W. Linick, P. J. Sercel, L. J. Toolin, C. R. Bronk, E. T. Hall, R. E. M. Hedges, R. Housley, I. A. Law, C. Perry, G. Bonani, S. Trumbore, W. Woelfli, J. C. Ambers, S. G. E. Bowman, M. N. Leese, M. S. Tite|volume=337|issue=6208|pages=611–615|doi= 10.1038/337611a0|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v337/n6208/abs/337611a0.html|format=|accessdate=2007-11-18 }}</ref> Some members of scientific community had asked the Holy See to authorize more samples, including from the image-bearing part of the shroud, but this request was refused. One possible account for the reluctance is that if the image is genuine, the destruction of parts of it for purposes of dating could be considered [[sacrilege]]. The 13th and 14th century dating matched the the first appearance of the shroud in church history.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13762a.htm]
=====Chemical properties of the sample site=====
One argument against the results of the radiocarbon tests was made in a study by [[Anna Arnoldi]] of the [[University of Milan]] and [[Raymond Rogers]], retired Fellow of the [[University of California]] [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]. In an interview with Harry Gove, Gove acknowledges that bacterial contamination, which was unknown during the 1988 testing, would render the tests inaccurate.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} By ultraviolet photography and spectral analysis they determined that the area of the shroud chosen for the test samples differs chemically from the rest of the cloth. They cite the presence of Madder-root dye and aluminum-oxide mordant (a dye-fixing agent) specifically in that corner of the shroud and conclude that this part of the cloth was mended at some point in its history. Plainly, repairs would have utilized materials produced at or slightly before the time of repair, carrying a higher concentration of carbon-14 than the original artifact.
A 2000 study by Joseph Marino and Sue Benford, based on x-ray analysis of the sample sites, shows a probable seam from a repair attempt running diagonally through the area from which the sample was taken. These researchers conclude that the samples tested by the three labs were more or less contaminated by this repair attempt. They further note that the results of the three labs show an angular skewing corresponding to the diagonal seam: the first sample in Arizona dated to 1238, the second to 1430, with the Oxford and Swiss results falling in between. They add that the variance of the C-14 results of the three labs falls outside the bounds of the [[Pearson's chi-square test]], so that some additional explanation should be sought for the discrepancy. To the contrary J.A.Christen applied a strong statistical test to the radiocarbon data and concludes that the given age for the shroud is form statistcal point of view correct<ref>J.A.Christen, ''Summarizing a Set of Radiocarbon Determinations: a Robust Approach.'' Appl. Statist. 43, No. 3, 489-503 (1994)</ref>
Microchemical tests also find traces of [[vanillin]] in the same area, unlike the rest of the cloth. Vanillin is produced by the thermal decomposition of [[lignin]], a complex polymer and constituent of flax. This chemical is routinely found in medieval materials but not in older cloths, as it diminishes with time. The wrappings of the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], for instance, do not test positive for vanillin.
These conclusions suggest that other samples, from a part of the shroud not mended or tampered with, would need to be tested in order to ascertain an accurate date for the shroud. Since the Vatican has refused to allow such testing, the age of the shroud remains uncertain.
Raymond Rogers' [[20 January]], [[2005]] paper<ref name="rogers">Rogers, Raymond N.: "[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6THV-4DTBVHC-1&_user=10&_handle=B-WA-A-W-WE-MsSAYWA-UUA-AAUYYDZUYC-AAUZVCZYYC-YZEWAVVVC-WE-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=01%2F20%2F2005&_rdoc=26&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%235292%232005%23995749998%23553672!&_cdi=5292&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3d89246a5d4144616be7657f0d83b6cf Studies on the radiocarbon sample from the shroud of turin]." ''Thermochimica Acta'', Volume 425, Issue 1–2 ([[January 20]] [[2005]]), pages 189–194</ref> in the scientific journal ''Thermochimica Acta'' argues that the sample cut from the shroud in 1988 was not valid. Rogers concludes, based upon the vanillin loss, that the shroud is between 1,300 and 3,000 years old.
Rogers said: "The fact that vanillin cannot be detected in the lignin on shroud fibers, Dead Sea scrolls linen, and other very old linens indicate that the shroud is quite old. A determination of the kinetics of vanillin loss suggest the shroud is between 1300- and 3000-years old. Even allowing for errors in the measurements and assumptions about storage conditions, the cloth is unlikely to be as young as 840 years"<ref>Raymond N. Rogers, 2004, Studies on the radiocarbon sample from the shroud of turin Thermochimica Acta 425 (2005) 189–194</ref>
Skeptics contend that the carbon dating was accurate and that Rogers' study was flawed.<ref name='C14_CSI'> {{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/shroud.html |title=Claims of Invalid “Shroud” Radiocarbon Date Cut from Whole Cloth |accessdate=2007-12-01 |last=Nickell |first=Joe |publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry }} "Science has proved the Shroud of Turin a medieval fake, but defenders of authenticity turn the scientific method on its head by starting with the desired conclusion and working backward to the evidence—picking and choosing and reinterpreting as necessary." </ref>
=====Bacterial residue=====
A team led by Leoncio A. Garza-Valdes, MD, adjunct professor of microbiology, and Stephen J. Mattingly, PhD, professor of microbiology at the [[University of Texas]] at [[San Antonio]] have expounded an argument involving bacterial residue on the shroud<ref> [http://www.uthscsa.edu/mission/spring96/shroud.htm Microbiology meets archaeology in a renewed quest for answers]</ref>. There are examples of ancient [[textile]]s that have been grossly misdated, especially in the earliest days of radiocarbon testing. Most notable of these is [[mummy]] 1770 of the [[British Museum]], whose bones were dated some 800 to 1000 years earlier than its cloth wrappings. The skewed results were thought to be caused by organic contaminants on the wrappings similar to those proposed for the shroud. Pictorial evidence dating from c. 1690 and 1842<ref>Ian Wilson, ''The Blood and the Shroud''. New York: Free Press, 1998. ISBN 0684853590</ref> indicates that the corner used for the dating and several similar evenly-spaced areas along one edge of the cloth were handled each time the cloth was displayed, the traditional method being for it to be held suspended by a row of five bishops. Wilson and others contend that repeated handling of this kind greatly increased the likelihood of contamination by bacteria and bacterial residue compared to the newly discovered archaeological specimens for which carbon-14 dating was developed. Bacteria and associated residue (bacteria by-products and dead bacteria) carry additional carbon-14 that would skew the radiocarbon date toward the present.
[[Harry E. Gove]] of the [[University of Rochester]], the nuclear physicist who designed the particular radiocarbon tests used on the shroud in 1988, stated, "There is a bioplastic coating on some threads, maybe most." If this coating is thick enough, according to Gove, it "would make the fabric sample seem younger than it should be." Skeptics, including Rodger Sparks, a radiocarbon expert from [[New Zealand]], have countered that an error of thirteen centuries stemming from bacterial contamination in the Middle Ages would have required a layer approximately doubling the sample weight.<ref>[http://www.shroud.com/c14debat.htm Debate of Roger Sparks and William Meacham on alt.turin-shroud]</ref> Because such material could be easily detected, fibers from the shroud were examined at the National Science Foundation Mass Spectrometry Center of Excellence at the University of Nebraska. Pyrolysis-mass-spectrometry examination failed to detect any form of bioplastic polymer on fibers from either non-image or image areas of the shroud. Additionally, laser-microprobe [[Raman spectroscopy|Raman]] analysis at Instruments SA, Inc. in Metuchen, NJ, also failed to detect any bioplastic polymer on shroud fibers.
=====Detailed discussion of the carbon-dating=====
There are two books with detailed treatment of the Shroud's carbon dating, including not only the scientific issues but also the events, personalities and struggles leading up to the sample taking. The books offer opposite views on how the dating should have been conducted, and both are critical of the methodology finally employed. These books have been reviewed on amazon.com
In ''Relic, Icon or Hoax? Carbon Dating the Turin Shroud'' (1996; ISBN 0750303980), Harry Gove provides an account with large doses of light humor and heavy vitriol. Particular scorn is poured on STURP (the US scientific team studying the Shroud) and Luigi Gonella, then scientific adviser to the Archbishop of Turin, Cardinal Ballestrero. Gove describes in great detail the mammoth struggle between Prof Carlos Chagas, chairman of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and Cardinal Ballestrero, with Gove and Gonella as the main combatants from each side. He provides a detailed record of meetings, telephone conversations, faxes, letters and maneuvers. Gove initially accepted the dating as accurate, but in the epilogue notes that the bioplastic contamination theory seemed to have some evidence to support it.
''The Rape of the Turin Shroud'' by William Meacham (2005; ISBN 1411657691) devotes 100 pages to the carbon dating. Meacham is also highly critical of STURP and Gonella, and also of Gove. He describes the planning process from a very different perspective (both he and Gove were invited along with 20 other scholars to a conference in Turin in 1986 to plan the C-14 protocol) and focuses on what he claims was the major flaw in the dating: taking only one sample from the corner of the cloth. Meacham reviews the main scenarios that have been proposed for a possibly incorrect dating, and claims that the result is a "rogue date" because of the sample location and anomalies. He points out that this situation could easily be resolved if the Church authorities would simply allow another sample to be dated, with appropriate laboratory testing for possible embedded contaminants.
====Material historical analysis====
Much recent research has centered on the burn holes and water marks. The largest burns certainly date from the 1532 fire (another series of small, round burns in an "L" shape seems to date from an undetermined earlier time), and it was assumed that the water marks were also from this event. However, in 2002, [[Aldo Guerreschi]] and [[Michele Salcito]] presented a paper {{PDFlink|[http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/aldo3.pdf]|526 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} at the ''IV Symposium Scientifique International'' in Paris stating that many of these marks stem from a much earlier time because the symmetries correspond more to the folding that would have been necessary to store the cloth in a clay jar (like cloth samples at [[Qumran]]) than to that necessary to store it in the reliquary that housed it in 1532.
According to textile expert Mechthild Flury-Lemberg of Hamburg, a seam in the cloth corresponds to a fabric found only at the fortress of [[Masada]] near the [[Dead Sea]], which dated to the first century. The weaving pattern, 3:1 twill, is consistent with first-century Syrian design, according to the appraisal of Gilbert Raes of the Ghent Institute of Textile Technology in Belgium. Flury-Lemberg stated, "The linen cloth of the Shroud of Turin does not display any weaving or sewing techniques which would speak against its origin as a high-quality product of the textile workers of the first century." However, [[Joe Nickell]] notes that no examples of herringbone weave are known from the time of Jesus. The few samples of burial cloths that are known from the era are made using plain weave.<ref name=Nickell>Nickell, Joe: ''Inquest on the Shroud of Turin: Latest Scientific Findings''. Prometheus Books, 1998. ISBN 1-57392-272-2</ref>
====Biological and medical forensics====
=====Details of crucifixion technique=====
The piercing of the wrists rather than the palms goes against traditional Christian iconography, especially that of the Middle Ages. Many modern scholars suggest that crucifixion victims were generally nailed through the wrists, due to the fact that the bones and tissues in the hand are unable to support the weight of the body. A skeleton discovered recently in Israel shows that at least some were nailed between the [[radius (bone)|radius]] and [[ulna]]. This was not common knowledge in the Middle Ages. Proponents of the shroud's authenticity contend that a medieval forger would have been unlikely to know this operational detail of an execution method almost completely discontinued centuries earlier.
A controversial technicality could be settled by a first century date of the shroud. Blood stains running down the arms indicate the crucifix had a cross piece <ref>Ian Wilson, 1978 The Turin Shroud, Penguin Books, p</ref>diagrammed in the middle, photographic, section of the book. In contrast, the Jehovah's Witnesses maintain Jesus was crucified on a single pole<ref>New World Bible Translation Committee (1984) 'New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, New York, New York p1578</ref>
=====Blood stains=====
There are several reddish stains on the shroud suggesting blood. McCrone (see [[#Painting|above]]) identified these as containing iron oxide, theorizing that its presence was likely due to simple pigment materials used in medieval times. Other researchers, including Alan Adler, a chemist specializing in analysis of [[porphyrin]]s, identified the reddish stains as [[blood type|type AB]] blood and interpreted the iron oxide as a natural residue of that chemical always found in red blood cells.
Drs. Heller and Adler further studied the dark red stains. Applying pleochroism, birefringence, and chemical analysis, they determined that, unlike the medieval artist’s pigment which contains iron oxide contaminated with manganese, nickel, and cobalt, the iron oxide on the shroud was relatively pure but later proven to be iron oxide resulting from [[blood]] stains (Heller, J.H., Adler, A.D. 1980). Dr. Adler then applied microspectrophotometric analysis of a "blood particle" from one of the fibrils of the shroud and identified hemoglobin (in the acid methemoglobin, which formed due to great age and denaturation). Further tests by Heller and Adler established, within claimed scientific certainty, the presence of porphyrin, bilirubin, albumin, and protein. Interestingly, when proteases (enzymes which break up protein within cells) were applied to the fibril containing the "blood," the blood dissolved from the fibril leaving an imageless fibril (Heller, J.H., and Adler, A.D. 1981). {{PDFlink|[http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/ford1.pdf]|117 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}. It is uncertain whether the blood stains were produced at the same time as the image, which Adler and Heller attributed to premature aging of the linen.<ref>Heller, J.H. and Adler, A.D.: "Blood on the Shroud of Turin." ''Applied Optics'' 19:2742–4 (1980)</ref> Working independently with a larger sample of blood-containing fibrils, pathologist Pier Baima Bollone, after using immunochemistry, concurred with Heller and Adler's findings and identifies the blood as being from the AB blood group (Baima Bollone, P., La Sindone-Scienza e Fide 1981).
Joe Nickell notes that, unlike McCrone, Heller and Adler are neither forensic serologists nor pigment experts, nor are they experienced in detecting art forgeries. Nickell makes reference to the 1983 conference of the [[International Association for Identification]] where forensic analyst [[John E. Fischer]] demonstrated how results similar to Heller and Adler's could be obtained from tempera paint.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_5_25/ai_77757762/pg_3 Scandals and Follies of the 'Holy Shroud' | Skeptical Inquirer | Find Articles at BNET.com]</ref> Skeptics also cite other forensic blood tests whose results dispute the authenticity of the Shroud. "Forensic tests on the red stuff have identified it as red ocher and vermilion tempera paint."<ref name="skepdic" /> Even if blood is found, "it could be the blood of some 14th century person. It could be the blood of someone wrapped in the shroud, or the blood of the creator of the shroud, or of anyone who has ever handled the shroud, or of anyone who handled the sticky tape. But even if there were blood on the shroud, that would have no bearing on the age of the shroud or on its authenticity."<ref name="skepdic">[http://www.skepdic.com/shroud.html shroud of Turin]</ref> Skeptics also note that the apparent blood flows on the shroud are unrealistically neat. Leading forensic pathologist [[Michael Baden]] observes that real blood never oozes in nice neat rivulets, it gets clotted in the hair. He concludes that "[h]uman beings don't produce this kind of pattern."<ref>Baden, Michael. 1980. Quoted in Reginald W. Rhein, Jr., The Shroud of Turin: Medical examiners disagree. Medical World News, Dec. 22, p. 50.</ref>
=====Pollen grains=====
Researchers of the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] reported the presence of [[pollen]] grains in the cloth samples, showing species appropriate to the spring in Israel. However, these researchers, [[Avinoam Danin]] and [[Uri Baruch]], were working with samples provided by [[Max Frei (criminologist)|Max Frei]], a Swiss police [[criminologist]] who had previously been censured for faking evidence. Independent review of the strands showed that one strand out of the 26 provided contained significantly more pollen than the others, perhaps pointing to deliberate contamination.<ref>Nickell, Joe: "Pollens on the 'shroud': A study in deception". ''Skeptical Inquirer'', Summer 1994., pp 379–385</ref>
Another item of note is that the [[olive|olive trees]] surrounding [[Jerusalem]] would have been in full bloom at the time, meaning that there should have been a significant amount of olive tree pollen on the Shroud. However, there does not seem to be any at all. Others note that the Gospels themselves actually indicate, indirectly, that Passover that year occurred before the flowering of the fig trees (Mark 11.13).
The Israeli researchers also detected the outlines of various flowering plants on the cloth, which they say would point to March or April and the environs of Jerusalem, based on the species identified. In the forehead area, corresponding to the crown of thorns if the image is genuine, they found traces of [[Gundelia tournefortii]], which is limited to this period of the year in the Jerusalem area. This analysis depends on interpretation of various patterns on the shroud as representing particular plants. Skeptics point out that the available [http://www.shroud.com/danin.htm images] cannot be seen as unequivocal support for any particular plant species due to the generally indistinct "blobiness," even under powerful microscopes, of these tiny, spotty impressions.
Again, these pollen grains could have been lost when the Shroud was restored in June/July 2002, following an exhibition in 2000.
Another problem is that the Catholic veneration of the Shroud by the faithful probably involved touching it. Public display of the Shroud in the past may have contributed to its contamination not only by bacteria, as described above, but also by pollen and other air-borne plant material
=====Sudarium of Oviedo=====
In the northern Spanish city of [[Oviedo]], there is a small bloodstained piece of linen that is also revered as one of the burial cloths of Jesus mentioned in {{bibleverse||John|20:7}} as being found in the [[empty tomb|'empty' tomb]]. John refers to a "Sudarium" (σουδαριον) that covered the head and the "linen cloth" or "bandages" (οθονιον—othonion) that covered the body. The [[Sudarium of Oviedo]] is traditionally held to be this cloth that covered the head of Jesus.
The Sudarium's existence and presence in Oviedo is well attested to since the eighth century and in Spain since the seventh century. Before these dates the location of the Sudarium is less certain, but some scholars trace it to Jerusalem in the first century.
[[Forensic]] analysis of the bloodstains on the shroud and the Sudarium suggest that both cloths could have covered the same head at nearly the same time. Based on the bloodstain patterns, the Sudarium would have been placed on the man's head while he was in a vertical position, presumably while still hanging on the cross. This cloth was then presumably removed before the shroud was applied.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
[http://www.shroud.com/guscin.htm A 1999 study] by [[Mark Guscin]], a member of the multidisciplinary investigation team of the Spanish Center for Sindonology, investigated the relationship between the two cloths. Based on history, forensic pathology, blood chemistry (the Sudarium also is reported to have type AB blood stains), and stain patterns, he concluded that the two cloths covered the same head at two distinct, but close moments of time. Avinoam Danin (see [[#Pollen grains|above]]) concurred with this analysis, adding that the pollen grains in the Sudarium match those of the shroud.
Skeptics point out that the match with the Shroud is based on a polarized image overlay technique which they contend is subjective and unreliable. Further, they claim the argument about the pollen types is greatly weakened by the debunking of Danin's work on the shroud due to the possibly tampered-with sample he worked from. Pollen from Jerusalem could have followed any number of paths to find its way to the sudarium, and only indicates location, not the dating of the cloth.<ref>[http://www.skepdic.com/shroud.html shroud of Turin]</ref>
Before 1998 the Sudarium was carbon dated at the seventh century by Professor Baima Bollone<ref>Guillermo Heras Moreno, José-Delfín Villalaín Blanco, Jorge-Manuel Rodríguez Almenar COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SUDARIUM OF OVIEDO AND THE SHROUD OF TURIN III CONGRESSO INTERNAZIONALE DI STUDI SULLA SINDONE
TURIN, 5TH TO 7TH JUNE 1998 p3 http://www.shroud.com/heraseng.pdf as at 13-07-08</ref> and more recently at around 700 AD <ref>The Second International Conference on the Sudarium of Oviedo Oviedo, Spain, 13-15 April 2007 http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/n65part6.pdf as at 13-07-08</ref> (although the date is qualified by cautions about carbon dating processes).
==== Burial posture ====
The burial posture of the shroud, with hands crossed over the pelvis, was used by Essenes, but also is found in a burial site under a medieval church. The skeletons were dated pre-1390 and post Roman<ref>http://209.85.141.104/search?q=cache:rPJZZ21xUzwJ:doncasterarchaeology.co.uk/Documents/The%2520Corn%2520Exchange.doc+under+floor+pre-1390&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=au as of 25 July 2008</ref><ref>http://www.postroman.info/postroman.htm as of 25 Jul 2008 - showing Roman rule ended before then</ref>.
====Digital image processing====
Using techniques of digital image processing, several additional details have been reported by scholars.
NASA researchers Jackson, Jumper, and Stephenson report detecting the impressions of coins placed on both eyes after a digital study in <ref>Jackson, John P., Eric J. Jumper, Bill Mottern, and Kenneth E. Stevenson. 1977. "The three-dimensional image of Jesus' burial cloth." Proceedings of the 1977 U.S. Conference of Research on the Shroud of Turin. Edit by Kenneth Stevenson, pp. 74-94. Bronx: Holy Shroud Guild. </ref>1978{{Fact|date=May 2008}}. The coin on the right eye was claimed to correspond to a Roman copper coin produced in AD 29 and 30 in Jerusalem, while that on the left was claimed to resemble a lituus coin from the reign of [[Tiberius]].<ref>[http://www.forumancientcoins.com/forvm/Articles/Pontius%20Pilate/Pilates_Coins_and_Turin_Shroud.htm Jean-Philippe Fontanille The coins of Pontius Pilate]</ref>Greek and Latin letters were discovered written near the face (Piero Ugolotti, 1979). These were further studied by André Marion, professor at the École supérieure d'optique and his student Anne Laure Courage, graduate engineer of the École supérieure d'optique, in the [[Institut d'optique théorique et appliquée]] in Orsay (1997).
On the right side they cite the letters ΨΣ ΚΙΑ. They interpret this as ΟΨ—ops "face" + ΣΚΙΑ—skia "shadow," though the initial letter is missing. This interpretation has the problem that it is grammatically incorrect in [[Greek language|Greek]], because "face" would have to appear in the [[genitive case]]. On the left side they report the Latin letters IN NECE, which they suggest is the beginning of IN NECEM IBIS, "you will go to death," and ΝΝΑΖΑΡΕΝΝΟΣ—NNAZARENNOS (a grossly misspelled "the [[Nazarene]]" in Greek). Several other "inscriptions" were detected by the researchers, but Mark Guscin {{PDFlink|[http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/guscin2.pdf]|14.4 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}} (himself a shroud proponent) reports that only one is at all probable in Greek or Latin: ΗΣΟΥ. This is the genitive of "Jesus," but missing the first letter.
These claims are rejected by skeptics, because there is no recorded Jewish tradition of placing coins over the eyes of the dead and because of the spelling errors in the reported text. (Cf. Antonio Lombatti [http://www.shroud.com/lombatti.htm]) Guscin concurs with the skeptics who hold that these details are based on highly subjective impressions, much like the results of a [[Rorschach test]].
Apparently the photograph used in 1978 was from an earlier date and subsequent photos have not revealed coins: "The tentative identification of the coins is limited to one particular photograph of the Shroud taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. No one has been able to identify coin images on the highly technical and detailed photographs taken in 1978 using lighting carefully placed to minimize {{sic|miniscule}} shadows in between the cloth's fibers." <ref>http://www.shroudstory.com/faq/Shroud-Turin-Images-Coins.htm as at 10-08-08</ref>
===Textual criticism===
[[Image:JesusinShroud.jpg|thumb|left|This image of the deposition from the cross, by [[Giulio Clovio]], shows Jesus wrapped in a shroud like the Shroud of Turin.]]
The Gospel of John is sometimes cited as evidence that the shroud is a hoax (or at least not the burial cloth of Jesus) because English translations typically use the plural word "cloths" or "clothes" for the covering of the body: "Then cometh Simon Peter following him, and went into the sepulchre, and seeth the linen clothes [othonia] lie, and the napkin [Sudarium], that was about his head, not lying with the linen clothes, but wrapped together in a place by itself" (John 20:6–7, [[King James Bible|KJV]]). Shroud proponents hold that "linen clothes" refers to the Shroud of Turin, while the "napkin" refers to the [[Sudarium of Oviedo]].
The Gospel of John also states, "Nicodemus . . . brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred pound weight. They took the body of Jesus, and wound it in linen clothes with the spices, as the manner of the Jews is to bury" (John 19:39–40, KJV). No traces of spices have been found on the cloth. [[Frederick Zugibe]], [http://www.shroud.com/zugibe2.htm a medical examiner, reports] that the body of the man wrapped in the shroud appears to have been washed before wrapping. It would be odd for this to occur after the anointing, so some proponents have suggested that the shroud was a preliminary cloth that was then replaced before the anointing, because there was not enough time for the anointing due to the Sabbath. However, there is no empirical, or historical evidence to support these ideas. Some supporters suggest that the [[#Pollen grains|plant bloom images]] detected by Danin may be from herbs that were simply strewn over the body due to the lack of preparation time mentioned in the New Testament, with the visit of the women on Sunday thus presumed to be for the purpose of completing the anointing of the body. Since neither the gospels nor historical records mention this there is no way to confirm the hypothesis.
===Analysis of the image as the work of an artist===
====Correspondence with Christian iconography====
[[Image:Christ pantocrator daphne1090-1100.jpg|thumb|There are similarities between traditional icons of Jesus and the image on the shroud. This image shows the mosaic "[[Christ Pantocrator]]" from the church of Daphne in Athens.]]
As a depiction of Jesus, the image on the shroud corresponds to that found throughout the history of Christian iconography. For instance, the [[wiktionary:Pantocrator|Pantocrator]] mosaic at Daphne in Athens is strikingly similar. This suggests that the icons were made while the Image of Edessa was available, with this appearance of Jesus being copied in later artwork, and in particular, on the Shroud. Art historian W.S.A. Dale proposed (before the radiocarbon dating of the Shroud) that the Shroud itself was an icon created in the 11th century for liturgical use. <ref name="dale">W.S.A. Dale, "The Shroud of Turin: Relic or Icon?" Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B29 (1987) 187-192 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-583X(87)90233-3</ref> In opposition to this viewpoint, the locations of the piercing wounds in the wrists on the Shroud do not correspond to artistic representations of the crucifixion before close to the present time. In fact, the Shroud was widely dismissed as a forgery in the 14th century for the very reason that the Latin [[Vulgate Bible]] stated that the nails had been driven into Jesus' hands and [[Medieval]] art invariably depicts the wounds in Jesus' hands.
====Analysis of proportion====
The man on the image is taller than the average first-century resident of Judaea and the right hand has longer fingers than the left, along with a significant increase of length in the right forearm compared to the left.<ref>Angier, Natalie. 1982. ''Unraveling the Shroud of Turin''. [[Discover Magazine]], October, pp. 54-60.</ref>
====Analysis of optical perspective====
Further evidence for the Shroud as an art object comes from what might be called the "[[Mercator projection]]" argument. The shroud in two dimensions presents a three-dimensional image projected onto a planar (two-dimensional) surface, just as in a photograph or painting. This perspective is consistent with both painting and image formation using a bas relief.<ref name="dale" /> A true burial shroud would have rested nearly cylindrically across the three-dimensional facial surface, if not more irregularly. The result would be an unnatural lateral distortion, a strong widening to the sides, in contrast to the kind of normal photographic image a beholder would expect, let alone the strongly vertically elongated image on the Shroud fabric.
This argument is disputed by the paper presented at {{PDFlink|[http://www.sindonology.org/papers/latendresse2005a.pdf]|385 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}. Essentially, distortions can be small if the Shroud was not lying tight against the body. It is not explained, however, how the shroud could have gotten the details of the face if it wasn't lying tight against the body. But it shows that it cannot have been lying tight since distortions would have occurred. Therefore, the mechanism of the formation of the image must assume that it was not lying tight. Yet the cloth does not have to lay completely flat. A natural cloth lying on a body would not create major distortions.
====Variegated Images====
Banding on the Shroud is [[background noise]], which causes us to see the gaunt face, long nose, deep eyes, and straight hair. These features are caused by dark vertical and horizontal bands that go across the eyes. Using enhancement software ([[Fourier transform filters]]), the effect of these bands can be minimized. The result is a more detailed version of the face{{Fact|date=May 2008}}.
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==Kain Kafan dari Turin di dalam Gereja Katolik Roma==
[[Image:OntstaanLijkwade GiovanniBattista.png|thumb|''Tubuh Yesus diturunkan dari Salib beserta Kain Kafan dari Turin''. Lukisan karya Giovanni Battista della Rovere, abad ke-16.]]
Walaupun surat kabar Vatikan [[L'Osservatore Romano]] memberitakan cerita fotografi Secondo Pia tanggal 28 Mei 1898 dalam edisinya tanggal 15 Juni 1898, media ini melakukannya tanpa komentar dan setelah itu para pejabat Gereja pada umumnya menahan diri dari berkomentar secara resmi atas fotografi selama hampir setengah abad.
Hubungan resmi pertama antara gambar pada kain kafan tersebut dan Gereja Katolik terjadi di tahun 1940 berdasarkan permintaan resmi Suster Marie Pierina De Micheli kepada kuria agama di kota Milan, Italia, untuk memperoleh ijin memproduksi sebuah medali dengan gambar tersebut. Ijin ini diberikan dan medali pertama dengan gambar tersebut dipersembahkan kepada [[Paus Pius XII]] yang menyetujui keberadaan medali tersebut. Gambar wajah itu kemudian digunakan untuk menjadi apa yang dikenal sebagai Medali Wajah Suci yang dikenakan oleh banyak umat Katolik, yang pada mulanya sebagai sarana perlindungan selama masa [[Perang Dunia II]]. Di tahun 1958 [[Paus Pius XII]] menyetujui gambar wajah tersebut dalam hubungannya dengan devosi Katolik pada Wajah Suci Yesus, dan menyatakan bahwa hari perayaannya adalah tiap tahun pada satu hari sebelum Hari Rabu Abu.<ref>Maria Rigamonti, ''Mother Maria Pierina'', Cenacle Publishing, 1999</ref><ref>*[[Joan Carroll Cruz]], [[OCDS]]. ''Saintly Men of Modern Times.'' (2003) ISBN 1931709777</ref>
Pada tahun 1983 kain kafan ini diberikan kepada [[Tahta Suci]] oleh Keluarga Savoy. Namun, seperti banyak relik semacamnya, Gereja Katolik Roma tidak memberikan pernyataan bahwa kain tersebut merupakan kain kafan makam Yesus ataupun merupakan hasil pemalsuan. Seperti halnya devosi-devosi Katolik resmi lainnya, masalah tersebut diserahkan pada keputusan pribadi masing-masing umat selama pihak Gereja tidak mengeluarkan pernyataan yang bertentangan dengannya di masa depan. Dalam pandangan Gereja, baik kain tersebut asli atau bukan tidak memiliki hubungan apapun dengan keabsahan ajaran Yesus.
Almarhum [[Paus Yohanes Paulus II]] menyatakan di tahun 1998, "Semenjak kita tidak berurusan dengan masalah keimanan, Gereja tidak bisa memberikan jawaban terhadap pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut. Gereja mempercayakan tugas penelitian ini pada kaum ilmuwan untuk menghasilkan jawaban-jawaban yang cukup terhadap pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan kain kafan ini". Ia memperlihatkan dirinya tergerak secara mendalam oleh gambar kain kafan tersebut dan menyelenggarakan pameran publik di tahun 1998 dan 2000. Dalam khotbahnya di Katedral Turin pada Hari Minggu tanggal 24 Mei 1998 (pada hari peringatan 100 tahun foto Secondo Pia tanggal 28 Mei 1898), [[Paus Yohanes Paulus II]] berkata: "... Kain Kafan ini merupakan sebuah gambaran cinta Tuhan dan dosa manusia" dan "... cetakan yang ditinggalkan oleh tubuh yang tersiksa dari Yang Disalib, yang memperlihatkan kemampuan manusia yang luar biasa untuk menyebabkan penderitaan dan kematian bagi sesama manusia, berdiri sebagai lambang pihak-pihak tak bersalah yang menderita di setiap jaman".<ref>Pope [[John Paul II]]'s Address of May 24 1998 in [[Turin]] http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html</ref>
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==The restoration of 2002==
In the winter of 2002, the Shroud was subjected to an aggressive restoration which shocked the worldwide community of Shroud researchers and was condemned by most.{{Fact|date=August 2008}} Authorized by the Archbishop of Turin as a beneficial conservation measure, this operation was based on the claim that the charred material around the burn holes was causing continuing oxidation which would eventually threaten the image. It has been labeled unnecessary surgery that destroyed scientific data, removed the repairs done in 1534 that were part of the Shroud's heritage, and squandered opportunities for sophisticated research.{{Fact|date=August 2008}}
Detailed comments on this operation were published by various Shroud researchers.<ref>[http://www.shroud.com/restored.htm shroud.com]</ref> In 2003, the principal restorer Mechthild Flury-Lemberg, a textile expert from Switzerland, published a book with the title ''Sindone 2002: L'intervento conservativo — Preservation — Konservierung'' (ISBN 88-88441-08-5). She describes the operation and the reasons it was believed necessary. In 2005, William Meacham, an archaeologist who has studied the Shroud since 1981, published the book ''The Rape of the Turin Shroud'' (ISBN 1-4116-5769-1) which is fiercely critical of the operation. He rejects the reasons provided by Flury-Lemberg and describes in detail what he calls "a disaster for the scientific study of the relic".
-->
==Referensi==
{{reflist|2}}
==Pranala Pustaka ==
* Baima Bollone, P., La Sindone-Scienza e Fide 1981, 169–179.
* Baime Bollone, P., Jorio, M., Massaro, A.L., Sindon 23, 5, 1981.
* Damascene, John: ''On Holy Images'' [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/damascus/icons.html].
* Guscin, Mark: "The 'Inscriptions' on the Shroud." ''British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter'', November 1999.
* Kersten, H., Gruber, E.R., 1992. The Jesus Conspiracy: Turin Shroud and the Truth about the Resurrection (Paperback) ISBN 18523066611-85230-666-1.
* Lombatti, Antonio: "Doubts Concerning the Coins over the Eyes." ''British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter'', Issue 45, 1997.
* Marino, Joseph G. and Benford, M. Sue. ''Evidence for the Skewing of the C-14 Dating of the Shroud of Turin due to Repairs''. Sindone 2000 Conference, Orvieto, Italy. {{PDFlink|[http://www.shroud.com/pdfs/marben.pdf]|234 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 240590 bytes -->}}
* Mills, A.A.: "Image formation on the Shroud of Turin" ''Interdisciplinary Science Reviews'', Vol. 20, 1995.
* McCrone, W.C., The Microscope, 29, 1981, p. 19–38.
* McCrone, W.C., Skirius, C., The Microscope, 28, 1980, pp 1–13.
* Nickell, Joe: "Scandals and Follies of the 'Holy Shroud'." ''Skeptical Inquirer'', Sept. 2001. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_5_25/ai_77757762]
* Picknett, Lynn and Prince, Clive: ''The Turin Shroud: In Whose Image?'', Harper-Collins, 1994 ISBN 0-552-14782-6.
* Tribbe, Frank C.: ''Portrait of Jesus: The Shroud of Turin in Science and History'', Paragon House, 2006 ISBN 1-55778-854-5
* Wilson, N.D.: "Father Brown Fakes the Shroud", ''Books & Culture'', March-April 2005, pp. 22-29 22–29.
* Zugibe, Frederick: "The Man of the Shroud was Washed." ''Sindon N.S.'' Quad. 1, June 1989.
* ''Decoding the Past: The Shroud of Turin'', 2005 [[History Channel]] video documentary, produced by John Joseph, written by Julia Silverton.
== Pranala luar ==
* [http://www.sindone.org/ Official site of the custodians of the Shroud in Turin]
* [http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/03/21/shroud-of-turin.html The Shroud of Turin through History] - A photographic slideshow history of the shroud at [http://www.discovery.com Discovery.com]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0409_040409_TVJesusshroud.html Jesus' Shroud? Recent Findings Renew Authenticity Debate] by [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic Society]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/01/0127_050127_pin_shroud.html Photo in the News: Shroud of Turin] by [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic Society]
* [http://shroud.wikispaces.com/ Shroud Science Group's Shroud of Turin Wiki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731234821/http://shroud.wikispaces.com/ |date=2018-07-31 }}
* [http://www.sindonology.org/ Online Length Measurements on Shroud Photographs]
=== Situs Pro-Keaslian ===
* [http://www.shroud.com/ Shroud.com]
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html Speech by Pope John Paul about the shroud]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_shroudchrist/ "Shroud of Christ?" (A "Secrets of the Dead" episode on PBS)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101165058/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_shroudchrist/ |date=2006-01-01 }}
* [http://e-forensicmedicine.net/Washed.htm "Forensic Medicine and the Shroud of Turin"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051223020308/http://e-forensicmedicine.net/Washed.htm |date=2005-12-23 }}
* [http://shroudstory.com/ Shroud of Turin Story - Guide to the Facts]
* [http://www.volto-santo.com/ Relationship of Shroud of Turin to the Volto Santo]
* [http://www.shrouduniversity.com/ Shroud University - Explore the Mystery]
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1747387814066314027&q=turin+shroud+material&ei=08daSPrNJJOOiwLCvLTDCw&hl=en New BBC2 documentary: Material evidence]{{Pranala mati|date=Mei 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
=== Situs skeptik ===
* [http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/scams/shroud_of_turin/index.html?sect=27 Shroud of Turin, sacred relic or religious hoax?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050309071948/http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/scams/shroud_of_turin/index.html?sect=27 |date=2005-03-09 }}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13762a.htm 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.mcri.org/Shroud.html McCrone Research Institute presentation of its findings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417090342/http://www.mcri.org/Shroud.html |date=2010-04-17 }} Assertion that the shroud is a painting.
* [http://www.freeinquiry.com/skeptic/shroud/ The Skeptical Shroud of Turin Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006031751/http://www.freeinquiry.com/skeptic/shroud/ |date=2008-10-06 }}
* [http://www.vera-ikon-544.de News on the Shroud of Turin: Purpura-dye as a light sensitive layer?] German, with an English summary.
{{Commons|Kafan}}
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