Manga: Perbedaan antara revisi
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* [[La nouvelle manga]]
* [[Manga orisinal berbahasa Inggris|Manga OEL]]
}}{{Comics navbar}}{{Nihongo|'''Manga'''|漫画||lead=yes}} adalah [[komik]] atau [[novel grafik]] yang dibuat di [[Jepang]] atau menggunakan [[bahasa Jepang]], sesuai dengan gaya yang dikembangkan di sana pada akhir abad ke-19.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lent|2001|pp=3–4}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}</ref> Manga memiliki sejarah awal yang panjang dan kompleks dalam [[seni Jepang]] terdahulu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kern|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Ito|2005}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref>▼
▲{{Nihongo|'''Manga'''|漫画||lead=yes}} adalah [[komik]] atau [[novel grafik]] yang dibuat di [[Jepang]] atau menggunakan [[bahasa Jepang]], sesuai dengan gaya yang dikembangkan di sana pada akhir abad ke-19.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lent|2001|pp=3–4}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}</ref> Manga memiliki sejarah awal yang panjang dan kompleks dalam [[seni Jepang]] terdahulu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kern|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Ito|2005}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref>
Istilah ''manga'' ([[kanji]]: {{lang|ja|漫画}}; [[hiragana]]: {{lang|ja|まんが}}; [[katakana]]: {{lang|ja|マンガ}}; {{Audio|Ja-Manga.oga|dengarkan}}; {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|m|æ|ŋ|ɡ|ə}} atau {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɑː|ŋ|ɡ|ə}}) di Jepang adalah kata yang digunakan untuk merujuk kepada komik dan [[kartun]]. Di luar Jepang, kata "manga" digunakan untuk merujuk pada komik yang aslinya diterbitkan di Jepang.<ref name="Merriam-Webster">{{Harvnb|Merriam-Webster|2009}}</ref>
Di Jepang, orang-orang dari segala kelompok usia membaca manga. Manga mencakup karya-karya dalam berbagai genre:
Cerita dalam sebuah manga biasanya dicetak dalam warna [[hitam dan putih]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Katzenstein|Shiraishi|1997}}</ref> meskipun ada beberapa manga yang sepenuhnya berwarna (seperti ''[[Colorful (manga)|Colorful]]''). Di Jepang, manga biasanya dimuat berseri dalam majalah manga populer—sering kali berisi banyak cerita, dan masing-masing manga dimuat dalam satu bab dan bersambung ke edisi berikutnya. Bab-bab yang dibundel biasanya diterbitkan ulang dalam bentuk volume ''[[tankōbon]]'', dan terkadang dalam bentuk [[trade paperback (komik)|buku bersampul tipis]].<ref name="GravettSchodt">{{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref> Seorang ilustrator manga (''[[mangaka]]'' dalam bahasa Jepang) biasanya bekerja dibantu beberapa asisten di sebuah studio kecil dan berhubungan dengan editor kreatif dari perusahaan penerbit komersial.<ref name="Kinsella">{{Harvnb|Kinsella|2000}}</ref> Jika sebuah seri manga cukup populer, manga itu bisa dijadikan [[anime]] setelah ceritanya tamat atau selama masih berlanjut.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kittelson|1998}}</ref> Terkadang, sebuah manga dibuat berdasarkan dari film [[laga hidup]] (''live–action'') atau film animasi lain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnston-O'Neill|2007}}</ref>
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== Etimologi ==
Kata "manga" berasal dari kata bahasa Jepang 漫画,<ref>{{Harvnb|Rousmaniere|2001|p=54}}, {{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|p=xiii}}, {{Harvnb|Prohl|Nelson|2012|p=596}},{{Harvnb|Fukushima|2013|p=19}}</ref> yang terdiri dari dua huruf [[kanji]]. Huruf pertama adalah 漫 (man) yang berarti "aneh atau dadakan" dan 画 (ga) yang berarti "gambar".<ref>{{Harvnb|Webb|2006}},{{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|p=xvi}},{{Harvnb|Onoda|2009|p=10}},{{Harvnb|Petersen|2011|p=120}}</ref> Kata ini juga menjadi akar untuk kata bahasa Korea (''manhwa'') dan kata bahasa Mandarin (''manhua'') untuk komik.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|p=xiii}}, {{Harvnb|Onoda|2009|p=10}}, {{Harvnb|Prohl|Nelson|2012|p=596}}, {{Harvnb|Fukushima|2013|p=19}}</ref>
Kata ini pertama kali digunakan secara umum pada akhir abad ke-18<ref name="Prohl 2012 596">{{Harvnb|Prohl|Nelson|2012|p=596}},{{Harvnb|McCarthy|2014|p=6}}</ref> dengan diterbitkannya karya terkait seperti buku gambar ''Shiji no yukikai'' (1798) karya [[Santō Kyōden]],<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=Santō Kyōden's picturebooks|url=http://heartland.geocities.jp/hamasakaba/44kyoden/}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/2534277/5?contentNo=5&itemId=info%3Andljp%2Fpid%2F2534277&__lang=en|title=Shiji no yukikai|website=Japanese National Diet Library|access-date=23 Mei 2019}}</ref> dan pada abad ke-19 dengan munculnya ''Manga hyakujo'' (1814) karya Aikawa Minwa dan kumpulan buku terkenal bertajuk ''[[Hokusai Manga]]'' (1814–1834)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dh-jac.net/db1/books-e/results.php?f39[]=%2A%2F000&f40[]=SB4738&-sortField1=f39&skip=0&enter=portal|title=Hokusai Manga (15 Vols complete)|access-date=23 Mei 2019}}</ref> yang berisi berbagai macam gambar dari buku sketsa milik [[Hokusai]]—seniman [[ukiyo-e]] terkenal.<ref name="Hokusai">{{Harvnb|Bouquillard|Marquet|2007}}</ref> [[Rakuten Kitazawa]] (1876–1955) adalah orang pertama yang menggunakan kata "manga" dalam arti modern.<ref name="Manga no Jiten">{{Harvnb|Shimizu|1985|pp=53–54, 102–103}}</ref>
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Para pengarang yang menulis tentang sejarah manga telah mendeskripsikan dua proses bercakupan luas dan saling melengkapi yang membentuk manga modern. Pandangan pertama yang diwakili oleh para pengarang seperti [[Frederik L. Schodt]], Kinko Ito, dan Adam L. Kern, menekankan kesinambungan tradisi budaya dan estetika Jepang, termasuk zaman pra-perang, [[zaman Meiji|Meiji]], dan [[Budaya Jepang|budaya]] dan [[Seni Jepang|seni]] [[Restorasi Meiji|pra-Meiji]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Ito|2004}}, {{Harvnb|Kern|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Kern|2007}}</ref> Pandangan lain menekankan peristiwa yang terjadi selama dan setelah [[Pendudukan Sekutu atas Jepang|pendudukan Sekutu di Jepang]] (1945–1952), dan menekankan pengaruh budaya AS, termasuk komik-komik AS (dibawa ke Jepang oleh para [[G.I. (militer)|GI]]) serta gambar dan tema dari televisi, film, dan kartun AS (terutama [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Kinsella|2000}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref>
Terlepas dari sumbernya, ledakan kreativitas artistik terjadi pada periode pasca-perang,<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1996}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|2007}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004}}</ref> dan melibatkan para mangaka seperti [[Osamu Tezuka]] (''[[Astro Boy]]'') dan [[Machiko Hasegawa]] (''[[Sazae-san]]''). ''Astro Boy'' dengan cepat menjadi (dan masih) sangat populer di Jepang dan di wilayah lain,<ref>{{Harvnb|Kodansha|1999|pp=692–715}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|2007}}</ref> dan adaptasi [[anime]] dari ''Sazae-san'' menarik lebih banyak penonton daripada anime lain di televisi Jepang pada tahun 2011.<ref name="A SHORT HISTORY OF JAPANESE MANGA"/> Tezuka dan Hasegawa sama-sama membuat inovasi gaya. Dalam teknik "sinematografi" ala Tezuka, panel-panelnya digambar seperti film yang mengungkapkan detail peristiwa yang dibuat dengan gerakan lambat, begitu pula ''zoom'' cepat dari jarak jauh ke bidikan dekat. Dinamisme visual semacam ini diadopsi secara luas oleh para mangaka di kemudian hari.<ref name="Schodt 1986">{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}</ref> Fokus Hasegawa pada kehidupan sehari-hari dan pada pengalaman wanita juga menjadi ciri khas manga ''[[shōjo]]'' nantinya.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|p=8}}, {{Harvnb|Lee|2000}}, {{Harvnb|Sanchez|1997–2003}}</ref> Antara tahun 1950 dan 1969, jumlah pembaca manga yang semakin besar muncul di Jepang dengan pemantapan dua genre pemasaran utamanya, manga ''[[shōnen]]'' yang ditujukan pada anak laki-laki dan manga ''shōjo'' yang ditujukan untuk anak perempuan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Toku|2006}}</ref>
[[Berkas:Figure in Manga style.png|jmpl|kiri|Sosok yang digambar dengan gaya manga—biasanya dikurangi menjadi hitam dan putih dengan pola berbeda untuk mengimbangi kurangnya warna.]]
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Manga ''shōjo'' modern bergenre romantis menonjolkan cinta sebagai tema utama yang diatur dalam narasi [[Pencerahan (spiritual)|realisasi diri]] yang intens secara emosional.<ref name="Drazen">{{Harvnb|Drazen|2003}}</ref> Beberapa manga ''shōjo'' dengan tema pahlawan super wanita termasuk ''[[Mermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch]]'' karya [[Pink Hanamori]], ''[[Tokyo Mew Mew]]'' karya [[Reiko Yoshida]], dan ''[[Sailor Moon|Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon]]'' karya [[Naoko Takeuchi]], yang menjadi populer secara internasional dalam format manga dan anime.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allison|2000|pp=259–278}}, {{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|p=92}}</ref> Kelompok (atau ''[[sentai]]'') perempuan yang bekerja bersama dalam genre ini juga ikut populer. Contohnya seperti Lucia, Hanon, dan Rina yang bernyanyi bersama, dan Sailor Moon, Sailor Mercury, Sailor Mars, Sailor Jupiter, dan Sailor Venus yang bekerja bersama.<ref name="Poitras">{{Harvnb|Poitras|2001}}</ref>
Manga untuk pembaca pria dibagi lagi menurut usia pembaca yang dituju: anak laki-laki hingga 18 tahun (manga ''shōnen'') dan remaja putra berusia 18 hingga 30 tahun (manga ''[[seinen]]'');<ref>{{Harvnb|Thompson|2007|pp=xxiii–xxiv}}</ref> serta menurut kontennya, termasuk manga laga-petualangan yang sering melibatkan pahlawan pria, humor dagelan, tema kehormatan, dan terkadang menampilkan adegan seks secara eksplisit.<ref name="Brenner">{{Harvnb|Brenner|2007|pp=31–34}}</ref> Orang Jepang menggunakan kanji yang berbeda untuk dua makna yang terkait erat, yaitu "''seinen''" {{lang|ja|青年}} untuk "pemuda, anak muda" dan {{lang|ja|成年}} untuk "orang dewasa, mayoritas". Kanji yang kedua mengacu pada manga pornografi yang ditujukan untuk pria dewasa dan juga disebut manga ''seijin'' ("dewasa" {{lang|ja|成人}}).<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|p=95}}, {{Harvnb|Perper|Cornog|2002}}</ref> Manga ''shōnen'', ''seinen'', dan ''seijin'' memiliki sejumlah fitur yang sama.
Anak laki-laki dan remaja putra menjadi pembaca manga paling awal setelah Perang Dunia II. Sejak tahun 1950-an, manga ''shōnen'' memfokuskan pada topik yang dianggap menarik bagi anak lelaki, termasuk subjek seperti robot, perjalanan ruang angkasa, dan cerita laga-petualangan yang heroik.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–87}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|pp=52–73}}</ref> Tema populer lain termasuk cerita berlatar [[fiksi ilmiah]], teknologi, olahraga, dan supernatural. Manga dengan pahlawan super soliter yang mirip [[Superman]], [[Batman]], dan [[Spider-Man]] pada umumnya tidak menjadi sepopuler itu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–87}}</ref>
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Peran gadis dan wanita dalam manga yang dibuat untuk pembaca pria telah berkembang dari waktu ke waktu, seperti menampilkan gadis cantik lajang (''[[bishōjo]]'')<ref>{{Harvnb|Perper|Cornog|2002|pp=60–63}}</ref> layaknya [[Belldandy]] dari ''[[Oh My Goddess! (manga)|Oh My Goddess!]]''. Kemudian ada cerita yang membuat para gadis dan wanita semacam itu mengelilingi sang pahlawan, seperti dalam ''[[Negima!: Magister Negi Magi|Negima]]'' dan ''[[Hanaukyo Maid Team]]'', atau kelompok prajurit wanita yang bersenjata lengkap (''sentō bishōjo'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardner|2003}}</ref>
Dengan berkurangnya penyensoran di Jepang pada tahun 1990-an, bermacam-macam materi seksual eksplisit muncul dalam manga yang ditujukan untuk pembaca pria, dan dengan demikian berlanjut ke terjemahan bahasa Inggrisnya.<ref name="PCmono">{{Harvnb|Perper|Cornog|2002}}</ref> Namun pada tahun 2010, [[Pemerintah Metropolitan Tokyo]] mengeluarkan undang-undang untuk membatasi konten seperti itu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T101213003771.htm|title=Tokyo moves a step closer to manga porn crackdown|website=The Yomiuri Shimbun|date=14 Desember 2010|access-date=14 Agustus 2019|archive-url=https://archive.
Gaya penceritaan ''[[gekiga]]''—yang muram secara tematis, berorientasi pada orang dewasa, dan kadang-kadang sangat kejam—berfokus pada realitas kehidupan sehari-hari yang suram, sering kali digambar dengan cara kasar dan tanpa sentuhan bagus.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rosenbaum|first=Roman|url=http://imrc.jp/images/upload/lecture/data/06ROSENBAUM_Cologne.pdf|title=Gekiga as a site of Intercultural Exchange|website=Kyoto Seika University|access–date=14 Agustus 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–73}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2006}}</ref> Cerita ''Gekiga'' seperti ''Kronik Pencapaian Militer Ninja'' atau ''Ninja Bugeichō'' (1959–1962) karya [[Sampei Shirato]] muncul pada akhir tahun 1950-an dan 1960-an, sebagian berasal dari mahasiswa sayap kiri dan aktivisme politik kelas pekerja<ref name="SchodtG">{{Harvnb|Schodt|1986|pp=68–73}}, {{Harvnb|Gravett|2004|pp=38–42}}, {{Harvnb|Isao|2001}}</ref> dan sebagian lainnya berasal dari ketidakpuasan estetika para mangaka muda seperti [[Yoshihiro Tatsumi]] dengan manga yang ada.<ref>{{Harvnb|Isao|2001|pp=147–149}}, {{Harvnb|Nunez|2006}}</ref>
== Publikasi dan pameran ==
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Beberapa penerbit Jepang mulai menargetkan pasar AS pada pertengahan tahun 1990-an karena pasar domestik untuk manga sedang stagnan.<ref name=Brienza2009>{{cite journal|last=Brienza|first=Casey E.|title=Books, Not Comics: Publishing Fields, Globalization, and Japanese Manga in the United States|journal=Publishing Research Quarterly|year=2009|volume=25|issue=2|pages=101–117|doi=10.1007/s12109-009-9114-2}}</ref> Pada pertengahan tahun 1990-an, pasar manga AS mengalami peningkatan dengan munculnya versi anime dan manga dari ''[[Ghost in the Shell (manga)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' karya Masamune Shirow (diterjemahkan oleh [[Frederik L. Schodt]] and [[Toren Smith]]) yang sangat populer di kalangan penggemar.<ref>{{cite book|ref=gho|last=Kwok Wah Lau|first=Jenny|year=2003|chapter=4|title=Multiple modernities: cinemas and popular media in transcultural East Asia|page=78|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Temple University Press}}</ref> Salah satu manga dan anime yang sangat sukses yang kemudian diterjemahkan dan disulih suarakan dalam bahasa Inggris pada pertengahan 1990-an adalah ''[[Sailor Moon]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Patten|2004|pp=50, 110, 124, 128, 135}}, {{Harvnb|Arnold|2000}}</ref> Pada periode tahun 1995 hingga 1998, manga ''[[Sailor Moon (manga)|Sailor Moon]]'' telah diekspor ke lebih dari 23 negara, termasuk Tiongkok, Brasil, Meksiko, Australia, Amerika Utara, dan sebagian besar negara Eropa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|p=95}}</ref> Pada tahun 1997, Mixx Entertainment mulai menerbitkan ''Sailor Moon'' bersama dengan ''[[Magic Knight Rayearth]]'' karya [[Clamp (mangaka)|CLAMP]], ''[[Parasyte]]'' karya [[Hitoshi Iwaaki]], dan ''[[Ice Blade]]'' karya [[Tsutomu Takahashi]] dalam majalah manga bulanan bertajuk ''[[MixxZine]]''. Dua tahun kemudian, ''MixxZine'' berganti nama menjadi ''Tokyopop'' sebelum tidak dilanjutkan lagi pada tahun 2011. Mixx Entertainment yang kemudian berganti nama menjadi [[Tokyopop]], juga menerbitkan manga dengan format ''[[trade paperback (komik)|trade paperback]]''. Tokyopop—sama seperti Viz, memulai strategi pemasaran manga secara agresif untuk demografi anak laki-laki dan anak perempuan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Arnold|2000}}, {{Harvnb|Farago|2007}}, {{Harvnb|Bacon|2005}}</ref>
Manga menjadi semakin populer pada tahun-tahun berikutnya, dan sejumlah penerbit baru memasuki pasar penerbitan manga sementara penerbit yang sudah mapan semakin meningkatkan katalog mereka.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schodt|1996|pp=308–319}}</ref> Edisi pertama manga ''[[Daftar manga Pokémon manga|Pokémon]]'' ''[[Electric Tale of Pikachu]]'' terjual lebih dari 1{{nbsp}}juta kopi di Amerika Serikat, menjadikannya [[buku komik]] tunggal terlaris di Amerika Serikat sejak tahun 1993.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/batman-vs-pokemon-last-million-selling.html|title=The last million-selling comic book in North America? It's Batman vs. Pokémon for the title|website=Comichron|date=8 Mei 2014|access-date=20 Agustus 2019|archive-date=2021-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509012448/https://blog.comichron.com/2014/05/batman-vs-pokemon-last-million-selling.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Pada tahun 2008, pasar manga AS dan Kanada menghasilkan $175 juta pada penjualan tahunan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reid|2009}}</ref> Bersamaan dengan itu, media arus utama AS mulai membahas manga, dengan munculnya berbagai artikel di ''[[The New York Times]]'', majalah ''[[Time (majalah)|Time]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', dan majalah ''[[Wired (majalah)|Wired]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Glazer|2005}}, {{Harvnb|Masters|2006}}, {{Harvnb|Bosker|2007}}, {{Harvnb|Pink|2007}}</ref> Pada tahun 2017, distributor manga [[Viz Media]] adalah penerbit [[novel grafik]] dan buku komik terbesar di Amerika Serikat, dengan pangsa pasar mencapai 23%.<ref>{{cite news|last=Magulick|first=Aaron|url=http://goboiano.com/viz-manga-sales-are-destroying-dc-marvel-in-comic-market/|title=Viz Manga Sales are Destroying DC, Marvel in Comic Market|website=GoBoiano|date=8 Oktober 2017|access-date=20 Agustus 2019|archive-date=2017-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010022449/http://goboiano.com/viz-manga-sales-are-destroying-dc-marvel-in-comic-market/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
== Lokalisasi manga ==
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== Pendidikan di universitas ==
[[Universitas Kyoto Seika]] di Jepang memiliki jurusan manga yang sangat kompetitif sejak tahun 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://passnavi.evidus.com/search_univ/3940/bairitsu1.html#マンガ|script-title=ja:京都精華大学、入試結果 (倍率)、マンガ学科。|publisher=Obunsha Co., Ltd.|language=ja|date=18 Juli 2014|access-date=18 Juli 2014|archive-date=2014-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717165416/http://passnavi.evidus.com/search_univ/3940/bairitsu1.html#マンガ|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=17 Bahasa Jepang yang Populer|url=
[[Shūhō Satō|Shuho Sato]], mangaka yang menulis ''[[Umizaru]]'' dan ''Say Hello to Black Jack'', menimbulkan beberapa kontroversi di [[Twitter]]. Sato berkata, "Sekolah manga tidak ada artinya karena sekolah-sekolah tersebut memiliki tingkat keberhasilan yang sangat rendah. Di sisi lain, saya bisa mengajarkan keterampilan yang diperlukan pemula di tempat kerja hanya dalam tiga bulan, sementara para siswa di sekolah itu menghabiskan beberapa juta yen dan empat tahun. Namun demikian, mereka sama sekali tidak punya kemampuan". Dia juga menambahkan: "Pernyataan dari [[Keiko Takemiya]]—yang saat itu menjadi profesor di [[Universitas Kyoto Seika|Universitas Seika]], di Dewan Pemerintahan bahwa 'Seseorang yang benar-benar pemula baru akan dapat memahami di mana lokasi "Tachikiri" ([[Margin (tipografi)|bagian margin]]) selama empat tahun.' Di sisi lain—menurut saya—butuh sekitar tiga puluh menit bagi seseorang untuk dapat sepenuhnya memahami hal itu di tempat kerja".<ref>{{cite web|last=Sato|first=Shūhō|url=http://togetter.com/li/345327|script-title=ja:漫画を学校で学ぶ意義とは|website=Togetter|language=ja|date=26 Juli 2012|access-date=19 Juli 2014|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
== Lihat pula ==
{{Portal|Jepang|Anime dan manga
{{Wikipedia books|Anime dan manga}}
* [[Daftar manga terlaris]]
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=== Sumber ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Allison | first = Anne | authorlink = Anne Allison | year = 2000 | contribution = Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls | editor-last = Craig | editor-first = Timothy J. | title = Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture | url = https://archive.org/details/japanpopinsidew00crai | location = Armonk, New York | publisher = M.E. Sharpe | isbn = 978-0-7656-0561-0 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Arnold | first = Adam | year = 2000 | title = Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine | url = http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/00.06/feature/1/index.php3 | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Bacon | first = Michelle | date = 14 April 2005 | title = Tangerine Dreams: Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime | url = http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html | access-date = 1 April 2008 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080304062655/http://tangerine.astraldream.net/tokyopop.html | archivedate = 2008-03-04 | df = dmy-all }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Berger | first = Klaus | year = 1992 | title = Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse | url = https://archive.org/details/japonismeinweste0000berg | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-37321-0 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Boilet| first = Frédéric | year = 2001 | title = Yukiko's Spinach | location = Castalla-Alicante, Spain | publisher = Ponent Mon | isbn = 978-84-933093-4-3}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Boilet| first = Frédéric | last2 = Takahama | first2 = Kan | year = 2004 | title = Mariko Parade | location = Castalla-Alicante, Spain | publisher = Ponent Mon | isbn = 978-84-933409-1-9}}
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* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Bouquillard| first = Jocelyn | last2 = Marquet | first2 = Christophe | date = 1 June 2007 | title = Hokusai: First Manga Master | location = New York | publisher = Abrams | isbn = 978-0-8109-9341-9}}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Brenner | first = Robin E. | year = 2007 | title = Understanding Manga and Anime | url = https://archive.org/details/understandingman0000bren | location = Westport, Connecticut | publisher = Libraries Unlimited/Greenwood | isbn = 978-1-59158-332-5 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Clements| first = Jonathan | last2 = McCarthy | first2 = Helen | year = 2006 | title = The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Revised and Expanded Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/animeencyclopedi00clem_0| location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge Press | isbn = 978-1-933330-10-5}}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Crandol | first = Mike | date = 14 January 2002 | title = The Dirty Pair: Run from the Future | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/the-dirty-pair/run-from-the-future | work = Anime News Network | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Cube | date = 18 December 2007 | script-title = ja:2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円―メディアクリエイトが白書 | url = http://www.inside-games.jp/article/2007/12/18/25855.html | publisher = Inside for All Games | access-date = 18 December 2007 | language = Japanese }}
* {{cite press release | publisher = Dark Horse Comics | date = 6 February 2004 | title = Dark Horse buys Studio Proteus | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/press-release/2004-02-06/dark-horse-buys-studio-proteus | ref = {{SfnRef|Dark Horse Comics|2004}} }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Drazen| first = Patrick | year = 2003 | title = Anime Explosion! The What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation |url=https://archive.org/details/animeexplosionwh00draz| location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge | isbn = 978-1-880656-72-3}}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Farago | first = Andrew | date = 30 September 2007 | title = Interview: Jason Thompson | url = http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 | publisher = The Comics Journal | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Fishbein | first = Jennifer | date = 26 December 2007 | title = Europe's Manga Mania | url = http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2007/gb20071226_346610.htm | journal = BusinessWeek | access-date = 29 December 2007 }}
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* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Gardner | first = William O. | date = November 2003 | title = Attack of the Phallic Girls | url = http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/review_essays/gardner88.htm | journal = Science Fiction Studies | issue = 88 | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
* {{cite news | ref = harv | last = Glazer | first = Sarah | date = 18 September 2005 | title = Manga for Girls | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/18/books/review/18glazer.html | newspaper = The New York Times | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Gravett | first = Paul | year = 2004 | title = Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics | url = https://archive.org/details/mangasixtyyearso0000grav | location = New York | publisher = Harper Design | isbn = 978-1-85669-391-2 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Gravett | first = Paul | date = 15 October 2006 | title = Gekiga: The Flipside of Manga | url = http://www.paulgravett.com/index.php/articles/article/gekiga/ | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Griffiths | first = Owen | date = 22 September 2007 | title = Militarizing Japan: Patriotism, Profit, and Children's Print Media, 1894–1925 | url = http://www.japanfocus.org/-Owen-Griffiths/2528 | journal = Japan Focus | access-date = 16 December 2008 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Isao | first = Shimizu | year = 2001 | contribution = Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga | editor-last = Lent | editor-first = John A. | title = Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books | url = https://archive.org/details/illustratingasia0000unse | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | publisher = University of Hawai'i Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2471-6 }}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv| last =Ito| first = Kinko | year = 2004 | title = Growing up Japanese reading manga | journal = International Journal of Comic Art | pages = 392–401 | issue = 6}}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.0022-3840.2005.00123.x | ref = harv | last = Ito | first = Kinko | year = 2005 | title = A history of manga in the context of Japanese culture and society | url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/jpcu/2005/00000038/00000003/art00002 | journal = [[The Journal of Popular Culture]] | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 456–475 | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Johnston-O'Neill | first = Tom | date = 3 August 2007 | title = Finding the International in Comic Con International | url = http://parobs.org/index.php?module=article&view=279&lay_quiet=1&8dced886a4bd24eb30fc46843fb4287a=23679635f7832235dae9949749a76f35 | publisher = The San Diego Participant Observer | access-date = 5 April 2008 | archive-date = 2011-08-22 | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/617dUlIDW?url=http://parobs.org/index.php?module=article | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Katzenstein| first = Peter J. | last2 = Shiraishi | first2 = Takashi | year = 1997 | title = Network Power: Japan in Asia | location = Ithaca, New York | publisher = Cornell University Press | isbn = 978-0-8014-8373-8}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Kern| first = Adam | year = 2006 | title = Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyōshi of Edo Japan | location = Cambridge | publisher = Harvard University Press | isbn = 978-0-674-02266-9}}
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* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Kinsella | first = Sharon | year = 2000 | title = Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society | url = https://archive.org/details/adultmangacultur00kins | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | publisher = University of Hawai'i Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2318-4 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Kittelson | first = Mary Lynn | year = 1998 | title = The Soul of Popular Culture: Looking at Contemporary Heroes, Myths, and Monsters | url = https://archive.org/details/soulofpopularcul0000unse | location = Chicago | publisher = Open Court | isbn = 978-0-8126-9363-8 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lee | first = William | year = 2000 | contribution = From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan | editor-last = Craig | editor-first = Timothy J. | title = Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture | url = https://archive.org/details/japanpopinsidew00crai | location = Armonk, New York | publisher = M.E. Sharpe | isbn = 978-0-7656-0561-0 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lent | first = John A. | year = 2001 | title = Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books | url = https://archive.org/details/illustratingasia0000unse | location = Honolulu, Hawaii | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-2471-6 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Leonard | first = Sean | date = 12 September 2004 | title = Progress Against the Law: Fan Distribution, Copyright, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation | url = http://web.mit.edu/seantek/www/papers/progress-columns.pdf | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Lone | first = Stewart | year = 2007 | title = Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia: From the Taiping Rebellion to the Vietnam War | url = http://books.google.com/?id=qmSnTIAPnoUC&pg=PA75&lpg=PA75&dq=shonen+sekai | publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] | location = Westport, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-313-33684-3 }}
* {{cite web | ref = harv | author = Mahousu | date = January 2005 | title = Les editeurs des mangas | url = http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html | archive-url = https://archive.
* {{cite journal |ref=harv| last =Masters| first = Coco | date = 10 August 2006 | title = America is Drawn to Manga | journal = Time Magazine}}
* {{cite press release | ref = {{SfnRef|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|2007}} | publisher = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan | date = 29 June 2007 | title = First International MANGA Award | url = http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html }}
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* {{cite journal |doi=10.1111/1540-5931.00045 |ref=harv| last =Ōgi| first = Fusami | year = 2004 | title = Female subjectivity and ''shōjo'' (girls) manga (Japanese comics): ''shōjo'' in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics | journal = The Journal of Popular Culture | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 780–803}}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Onoda | first = Natsu | year = 2009 | title = God of Comics: Osamu Tezuka and the Creation of Post-World War II Manga | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=dvaR1-9HE7YC&pg=PA10 | page = 10 | publisher = University Press of Mississippi | isbn = 9781604734782 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Patten| first = Fred |authorlink=Fred Patten | year = 2004 | title = Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews |url=https://archive.org/details/watchinganimerea0000patt| location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge Press | isbn = 978-1-880656-92-1}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s12119-002-1000-4 |ref=harv| last =Perper| first = Timothy | last2 = Cornog | first2 = Martha | year = 2002 | title = Eroticism for the masses: Japanese manga comics and their assimilation into the U.S. | journal = Sexuality & Culture | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–126}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Perper| first = Timothy | last2 = Cornog | first2 = Martha | year = 2003 | contribution = Sex, love, and women in Japanese comics | editor-last =Francoeur| editor-first = Robert T. | editor2-last =Noonan| editor2-first = Raymond J. |editor2-link=| title = The Comprehensive International Encyclopedia of Sexuality |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcomplet0000unse| location = New York | publisher = Continuum | isbn = 978-0-8264-1488-5}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Petersen |first=Robert S. |title=Comics, Manga, and Graphic Novels: A History of Graphic Narratives |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Hr7aZh6oonoC&pg=PA120 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313363306 }}
* {{cite book |ref = harv |last1 = Prohl |first1 = Inken |last2 = Nelson |first2 = John K |year = 2012 |title = Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=uiZi2mgC5a4C&pg=PA596 |page = 596 |publisher = BRILL |isbn = 9789004234352 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Pink | first = Daniel H. | date = 22 October 2007 | title = Japan, Ink: Inside the Manga Industrial Complex | url = http://www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-11/ff_manga | journal = Wired | volume = 15 | issue = 11 | access-date = 19 December 2007 }}
* {{cite book | last = Poitras | first = Gilles | authorlink = Gilles Poitras | year = 2001 | title = Anime Essentials: Every Thing a Fan Needs to Know | url = https://archive.org/details/animeessentialse0000poit | location = Berkeley, California | publisher = Stone Bridge | isbn = 978-1-880656-53-2 | ref = harv }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Reid | first = Calvin | date = 28 March 2006 | title = HarperCollins, Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal | url = http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/book-news/comics/article/17182-harpercollins-tokyopop-ink-manga-deal.html | journal = Publishers Weekly | access-date = 4 March 2008 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Reid | first = Calvin | date = 6 February 2009 | title = 2008 Graphic Novel Sales Up 5%; Manga Off 17% | url = http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/1-legacy/24-comic-book-reviews/article/9362-2008-graphic-novel-sales-up-5--manga-off-17-.html | journal = Publishers Weekly | access-date = 7 September 2009 }}
Baris 275:
* {{cite web | ref = harv | last = Tchiei | first = Go | year = 1998 | title = Characteristics of Japanese Manga | url = http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga2.html | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
* {{cite book | ref = harv | last = Thompson | first = Jason | year = 2007 | title = Manga: The Complete Guide | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GvEFDD4rdWMC&pg | location = New York | publisher = Ballantine Books | isbn = 978-0-345-48590-8 }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Thorn | first = Matt | authorlink = Matt Thorn | date = July–September 2001 | title = Shôjo Manga—Something for the Girls | url = http://matt-thorn.com/shoujo_manga/japan_quarterly/ | journal = The Japan Quarterly | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | access-date = 5 April 2008 | archive-date = 2011-06-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110606180532/http://www.matt-thorn.com/shoujo_manga/japan_quarterly/ | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Toku | first = Masami | date = Spring 2006 | title = Shojo Manga: Girl Power! | url = http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | publisher = California State University, Chico | journal = Chico Statements | isbn = 978-1-886226-10-4 | access-date = 5 April 2008 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080411053104/http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html | archivedate = 2008-04-11 | df = dmy-all }}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Vollmar | first = Rob | date = 1 March 2007 | title = Frederic Boilet and the Nouvelle Manga revolution | url = http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-6318937/Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html | journal = World Literature Today | access-date = 14 September 2007 | archive-date = 2011-06-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110615141406/http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-6318937/Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite news | ref = harv | last = Webb | first = Martin | date = 28 May 2006 | title = Manga by any other name is... | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20060528x1.html | newspaper = [[The Japan Times]] | access-date = 5 April 2008 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv| last =Wong| first = Wendy Siuyi | year = 2002 | title = Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua |url=https://archive.org/details/hongkongcomicshi0000wong| location = New York | publisher = Princeton Architectural Press | isbn = 978-1-56898-269-4}}
* {{cite news |ref=harv| last =Wong| first = Wendy Siuyi | year = 2006 | title = Globalizing manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond | work = [[Mechademia|Mechademia: an Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts]] | pages = 23–45}}
* {{cite journal | ref = harv | last = Wong | first = Wendy | date = September 2007 | title = The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America | url = http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html | journal = Media Digest | access-date = 19 December 2007 | archive-date = 2013-06-21 | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/6HXJ51BC8?url=http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20070913_76_121564.html | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite web | title = About Manga Museum: Current situation of manga culture | url = http://www.kyotomm.com/HP/international/english/about_genjo.html | publisher = Kyoto Manga Museum | access-date = 6 September 2009 | ref = CITEREFManga Museum2009 | archive-date = 2009-05-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090528115502/http://www.kyotomm.com/HP/international/english/about_genjo.html | dead-url = yes }}
* {{cite web | title = Correction: World Manga | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-10/correction-world-manga | work = Anime News Network | date = 10 May 2006 | access-date = 19 December 2007 | ref = CITEREFANN 10 May 2006 }}
Baris 295:
* {{cite web | title = The first Japanese manga magazine: Eshinbun Nipponchi | url = http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng&GRP_ID=G0000002&DB_ID=G0000002GALLERY&IS_DB=G0000002GALLERY&IS_TYPE=csv&IS_STYLE=eng&SUM_KIND=CsvSummary&SUM_NUMBER=10&IS_SCH=CSV&META_KIND=NOFRAME&IS_KIND=CsvDetail&IS_NUMBER=1&SUM_TYPE=normal&IS_START=1&IS_KEY_A1=%22GALLERY%22&IS_TAG_A1=Cul11&IS_ADDSCH_CNT=1&VIEW_FLG=0 | publisher = Kyoto International Manga Museum | access-date = 21 December 2008 | ref = Eshinbun Nipponchi | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/617dlBFZi?url=http://mmsearch.kyotomm.jp/infolib/search/CsvSearch.cgi?DEF_XSL=eng | archive-date = 2011-08-22 | dead-url = yes | df = dmy-all }}
* {{cite web | title = Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels | url = http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2006-05-05/tokyopop-to-move-away-from-oel-and-world-manga-labels | work = Anime News Network | date = 5 May 2006 | access-date = 19 December 2007 | ref = CITEREFANN 5 May 2006 }}
{{Refend}}
Baris 302 ⟶ 301:
* {{cite web | title = Un poil de culture – Une introduction à l'animation japonaise | url = http://www.metalchroniques.fr/guppy/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=437 | date = 11 July 2007 | language = French | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080108163613/http://www.metalchroniques.fr/guppy/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=437 | archivedate = 2008-01-08 | df = dmy-all | access-date = 2019-08-20 }}
* Hattie Jones, "Manga girls: Sex, love, comedy and crime in recent boy's manga and anime," in Brigitte Steger and Angelika Koch (2013 eds): Manga Girl Seeks Herbivore Boy. Studying Japanese Gender at Cambridge. Lit Publisher, pp. 24–81.
* {{it icon}} Marcella Zaccagnino and Sebastiano Contrari. "[http://limes.espresso.repubblica.it/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/manga-giapponeallaconquistadelmondo.pdf Manga: il Giappone alla conquista del mondo]" (
* {{Cite journal |last= Unser-Schutz|first=Giancarla |title=Influential or influenced? The relationship between genre, gender and language in manga |journal=[[Gender and Language]] |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=223–254 |doi=10.1558/genl.v9i2.17331 |year=2015 |ref=harv }}
Baris 328 ⟶ 327:
{{Japan topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Animation industry in Japan |state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Kategori:Manga| ]]
Baris 335:
[[Kategori:Ilustrasi]]
[[Kategori:Budaya Jepang]]
[[Kategori:Kata dan frasa Jepang]]
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