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| type = [[Kristen Timur]]
| main_classification =
| orientation = [[Kekristenan Suriah|Kristen Suryani]]<ref name="Wilken 2013">{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert Louis |year=2013 |title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity |chapter=Syriac-Speaking Christians: The Church of the East |journal=Choice Reviews Online |volume=50 |issue=10 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA222 |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] dan [[London]] |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=222–228 |doi=10.5860/choice.50-5552 |isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 |jstor=j.ctt32bd7m.28 |lccn=2012021755 |s2cid=160590164 |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2023-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803001351/https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA222 |dead-url=no }}</ref>
| scripture =
| theology = [[Diofisitisme]],{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=287-289}}
Baris 49:
| founder = [[Yesus Kristus]] (menurut Tradisi Suci)<br> [[Tomas|Rasul Tomas]]
| founded_date = Zaman Apostolik (menurut tradisi Gereja di Timur)
| founded_place = [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani]]<ref name="Wilken 2013"/>{{refn|group=keterangan|Historiografi tradisional Dunia Barat mengenai Gereja ini menetapkan tahun 431 sebagai tahun pendiriannya, yakni tahun penyelenggaraan [[Konsili Efesus]] sekaligus tahun terjadinya "[[Skisma Nestorian]]". Meskipun demikian, Gereja di Timur sudah eksis sebagai sebuah organisasi tersendiri pada tahun 431, dan nama Nestorius tidak tercantum di dalam semua surat keputusan sinode Gereja ini sampai abad ke-7.{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=8}} Paguyuban-paguyuban umat Kristen yang terisolasi dari Gereja di Kekaisaran Romawi agaknya sudah eksis di Persia sejak abad ke-2.{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=11}} Gereja ini mengembangkan suatu hierarki gerejawi yang mandiri sepanjang abad ke-4,{{sfn|Lange|2012|pp=477–9}} dan mencapai identitas kelembagaan yang paripurna ketika diakui sebagai Gereja yang resmi di negara Persia oleh [[Syah (gelar)|Syahansyah]] [[Yazdegerd I]] pada tahun 410.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=13}}}}
| separated_from =
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Baris 83:
Gereja di Timur menata diri menjadi [[Gereja nasional]] [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani]] dalam [[Konsili Seleukia-Ktesifon]] tahun 410. Pada tahun 424, Gereja di Timur mengumumkan kemandiriannya dari [[Gereja negara Kekaisaran Romawi|tatanan Gereja]] di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]]. Kepala Gereja di Timur adalah [[Batrik Gereja di Timur|Batrik di Timur]] yang bertakhta di [[Provinsi Kebatrikan Seleukia-Ktesifon|Seleukia-Ktesifon]] selaku penerus suksesi kepemimpinan yang (menurut tradisi Gereja di Timur) bermula pada [[Zaman Apostolik]]. Menurut tradisinya sendiri, Gereja di Timur didirikan [[Tomas|Rasul Tomas]] pada abad pertama. Ritus liturgisnya adalah ritus Suryani Timur yang menggunakan [[Liturgi Adai dan Mari|Liturgi Suci Santo Adai dan Santo Mari]].
 
Sebagai bagian dari [[Gereja Raya]], Gereja di Timur menjalin [[koinonia|persekutuan]] dengan Gereja-Gereja di Kekaisaran Romawi sampai [[Konsili Efesus]] [[Skisma Nestorian|menganatema]] [[Nestorius]] pada tahun 431.<ref name="Wilken 2013"/> Para pendukung Nestorius berbondong-bondong mengungsi ke Persia. Karena menolak ikut-ikutan menganatema Nestorius, Gereja di Timur dituding menganut paham [[Nestorianisme]], bidat yang konon diajarkan Nestorius. Inilah sebabnya Gereja Barat dan semua Gereja Timur lainnya, baik dari golongan Kalsedon maupun dari golongan non-Kalsedon, melabeli Gereja di Timur dengan sebutan "Gereja Nestorian". Dari segi politik, Persia dan Roma ketika itu sedang berperang, sehingga Gereja di Timur terpaksa menjaga jarak dengan Gereja-Gereja di wilayah Romawi.<ref>Procopius, ''Wars'', I.7.1–2<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62</ref><ref>Joshua the Stylite, ''Chronicle'', [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm XLIII] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214033122/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm |date=2021-02-14 }}<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62</ref><ref>Procopius, ''Wars'', I.9.24<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77</ref> Belakangan ini, para sarjana menyifatkan sebutan "Nestorian" sebagai "sebutan keliru yang patut disesali",{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23–35}}{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=1-14}} dan tidak tepat secara teologis.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=4}} Gereja di Timur sendiri pun menyebut diri "Nestorian", menganatema Konsili Efesus, dan menggelari Nestorius sebagai [[santo]] di dalam liturginya.{{sfn|Joseph|2000|p=42}}{{sfn|Wood|2013|p=140}} Meskipun demikian, para ahli kristologi Gereja di Timur pada akhirnya bersidang dan meratifikasi keputusan [[Konsili Kalsedon]] dalam Sinode Mar [[Aba I]] tahun 544.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moffett|first=Samuel H.|title=A History of Christianity in Asia. Jilid I: Beginnings to 1500|page=219|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=287-289}}
 
Sebagai golongan ''[[dzimmi|zimi]]'' di bawah [[Penaklukan Persia oleh Muslim|daulat Islam di Persia]] (633-654), Gereja di Timur memainkan peran utama di dalam sejarah [[Kekristenan di Asia]]. Antara abad ke-9 sampai abad ke-14, Gereja di Timur merupakan [[denominasi Kristen]] terbesar di dunia dari segi luas geografis. Gereja di Timur mendirikan [[Keuskupan-keuskupan Gereja di Timur sampai tahun 1318|keuskupan-keuskupan]] dan paguyuban-paguyuban dari [[Laut Tengah]] serta [[Irak]] dan [[Iran]] sekarang ini, sampai ke [[India (provinsi gerejawi Suryani Timur)|India]] ([[Kristen Santo Tomas|umat Kristen Santo Tomas pengamal ritus Suryani]] di [[Kerala]]), [[Kekristenan di kalangan bangsa Mongol|kerajaan-kerajaan bangsa Mongol]] di Asia Tengah, dan [[dinasti Tang|kemaharajaan kulawangsa Tang]] di [[Gereja dari Timur di Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] (abad ke-7 sampai abad ke-9). Pada abad ke-13 dan ke-14, Gereja di Timur mengalami masa-masa ekspansi terakhirnya di bawah daulat [[kekaisaran Mongol|kemaharajaan bangsa Mongol]], yakni masa-masa ketika para rohaniwan Gereja di Timur duduk di dalam majelis istana Mongol.
 
Bahkan sebelum kehilangan sebagian besar wilayah pelayanannya pada abad ke-14, Gereja di Timur sudah kehilangan pijakan di kandang sendiri. Kemerosotan ini tampak pada penurunan jumlah keuskupan yang masih aktif. Sekitar tahun 1000, ada lebih dari enam puluh keuskupan di kawasan Timur Dekat, tetapi pada pertengahan abad ke-13 sudah tinggal sepertiganya saja, kemudian turun lagi menjadi tujuh keuskupan sesudah [[Timur Leng]] berkuasa.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=84-89}} Sesudah kemaharajaan bangsa Mongol terpecah belah, para penguasa Tionghoa dan Mongol Islam mengusir bahkan nyaris memusnahkan Gereja di Timur maupun umatnya. Sesudah itu, hanya di daerah Mesopotamia Hulu dan [[Pesisir Malabar]] (sekarang [[Kerala]], India) sajalah keuskupan-keuskupan Gereja di Timur dapat ditemukan.
 
Skisma memecah belah Gereja ini, tetapi pada akhirnya tersisa dua kebatrikan pada tahun 1830, yakni [[Gereja Asiria Timur|Gereja Asyur di Timur]] dan [[Gereja Katolik Kaldea]] (salah satu [[Gereja Katolik Timur]] yang bersatu dengan [[Takhta Suci]]). [[Gereja Purba di Timur]] pecah dari Gereja Asyur di Timur pada tahun 1968. Pada tahun 2017, umat Gereja Katolik Kaldea diperkirakan berjumlah 628.405 jiwa,<ref>[http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024215818/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf |date=2018-10-24 }}
{{cite web | url = http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf | author = Ronald Roberson | title = The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017 | publisher = Catholic Near East Welfare Association | access-date = 10 Agustus 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181024215818/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf | archive-date = 24 Oktober 2018 | url-status = dead }} temu balik bulan Desember 2010. Informasi bersumber dari ''Annuario Pontificio'' edisi 2017.</ref> sementara umat Gereja Asyur di Timur berjumlah 323.300 jiwa,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/holy-apostolic-catholic-assyrian-church-of-the-east|title=Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East — World Council of Churches|website=www.oikoumene.org|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2019-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507053301/https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/holy-apostolic-catholic-assyrian-church-of-the-east/|dead-url=no}}</ref> dan umat Gereja Purba di Timur berjumlah 100.000 jiwa. Angka-angka tersebut tidak mencakup jumlah umat [[Kristen Santo Tomas]] pengamal ritus Suryani, yang juga terpecah belah menjadi beberapa denominasi, antara lain dua [[Gereja Katolik Timur|Gereja Katolik Suryani]] dan beberapa cabang [[Gereja-Gereja Ortodoks Oriental di India|Gereja Ortodoks]] Suryani.
 
== Latar belakang ==
{{Box|{{Denominasi Kristen}}|align=right}}
Kemandirian Kepala Gereja di Timur sudah dimaklumkan pada tahun 424, 9 tahun sebelum penyelenggaraan [[Konsili Efesus]], konsili yang menganatema [[Nestorius]] dan memaklumkan bahwa [[Maria|Maria, ibunda Yesus]], dapat disifatkan sebagai [[Theotokos|Bunda AllahTuhan]]. Sebelum itu, dua [[konsili oikumenis|konsili ekumenis]] sudah terselenggara, dan keputusan-keputusan berterima umum, yaitu [[Konsili Nikea I]] tahun 325 yang juga dihadiri seorang uskup Persia, dan [[Konsili Konstantinopel I]] tahun 381. Gereja di Timur menerima ajaran-ajaran kedua konsili ini, tetapi mengabaikan Konsili Efesus tahun 431 maupun konsili-konsili sesudahnya, karena berpandangan bahwa konsili-konsili tersebut hanya berkenaan dengan kebatrikan-kebatrikan di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]] ([[Takhta Suci|Roma]], [[Patriarkat Oikumenis Konstantinopel|Konstantinopel]], [[Patriark Aleksandria|Aleksandria]], [[Gereja Antiokhia|Antiokhia]], [[Gereja Ortodoks Yunani Yerusalem|Yerusalem]]). Di mata Gereja di Timur, semua kebatrikan tersebut adalah "Gereja-Gereja di Barat".{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=3, 30}}
 
Dari segi teologi, Gereja di Timur mengadopsi [[diofisitisme|doktrin diofisit]] yang menitikberatkan perbedaan [[persatuan hipostatik|kodrat ilahi dan kodrat insani]] [[Pandangan Kristen tentang Yesus|Yesus]].
Baris 107:
[[File:Christological spectrum-o2p.svg|thumb|300px|Pandangan-pandangan Gereja di Timur pada spektrum kristologis abad ke-5 sampai abad ke-7 (biru muda)]]
{{Utama|Nestorianisme|Skisma Nestorian}}
[[Nestorianisme]] adalah doktrin [[kristologi]]s yang menitikberatkan perbedaan antara kodrat insani dan kodrat ilahi [[Yesus]]. Doktrin ini dinisbatkan kepada [[Nestorius]], [[Patriark Oikumenis Konstantinopel|Batrik Konstantinopel]] dari tahun 428 sampai tahun 431. Doktrin Nestorius merupakan puncak pencapaian mazhab filsafati yang dikembangkan para sarjana [[Perguruan Katekese Antiokhia]], teristimewa [[Teodorus dari Mopsuestia]], guru Nestorius. Kontroversi timbul ketika Nestorius secara terbuka menggugat pemberian gelar ''[[Theotokos|Teotokos]]'' (arti harfiahnya "Sang Pelahir Allah[[Tuhan]]") kepada [[Maria|Maria, ibunda Yesus]].{{sfn|Foltz|1999|p=63}} Menurut Nestorius, menyebut Maria sebagai ''Teotokos'' sama saja dengan memungkiri kesejatian kodrat insani Kristus. Nestorius mengemukakan bahwa Yesus memiliki dua kodrat yang tidak benar-benar menyatu, yakni kodrat ilahi selaku [[Logos]] dan kodrat insani selaku Yesus, dan oleh karena itu mengusulkan gelar ''[[Kristotokos]]'' (arti harfiahnya "Sang Pelahir Kristus") yang ia anggap lebih pantas. Pernyataan-pernyataan nestorius menuai kritik dari rohaniwan-rohaniwan terkemuka lainnya, terutama [[Sirilus dari Aleksandria|Sirilus]], [[Patriark Aleksandria|Batrik Aleksandria]], salah seorang pemimpin sidang [[Konsili Efesus]] tahun 431 yang [[ajaran sesat|membidatkan]] Nestorius dan memecatnya dari jabatan batrik.{{sfn|Seleznyov|2010|p=165–190}}
 
Selepas tahun 431, pemerintah Kekaisaran Romawi berusaha melenyapkan paham Nestorianisme. Inilah alasan umat Kristen di Persia menyukai Nestorianisme. Menganut paham yang ditentang pemerintah Romawi adalah cara untuk menghapus kecurigaan pemerintah Persia bahwa umat Kristen di Persia adalah antek-antek Kekaisaran Romawi.<ref name=Britannica/><ref name=BritannicaNestorius>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius "Nestorius"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317060817/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius |date=2015-03-17 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Temu balik tanggal 11 November 2018.</ref>
 
Tidak lama sesudah [[Konsili Kalsedon]] tahun 451, barulah Gereja di Timur merumuskan teologi yang berbeda dari Nestorianisme. Rumusan teologi ini pertama kali diadopsi di dalam [[Sinode Bet Lapat]] tahun 484, dan dikembangkan lebih lanjut pada permulaan abad ke-7, ketika Kekaisaran Persia Sasani berhasil mendaulat daerah luas yang didiami umat Suryani Barat dari Kekaisaran Romawi. Banyak di antara umat Suryani Barat tersebut mengusung teologi [[miafisitisme|miafisit]], yang disebut "Monofisitisme" ([[Eutikianisme]]) oleh lawan-lawan mereka, yakni pandangan teologi yang sangat bertolak belakang dengan Nestorianisme. Kebijakan Gereja di Timur ini mendapatkan dukungan dari SyahSyahansyah [[Khosrau II]] dan Syahbanu [[Syirin]]. Ketokohan [[Teodorus dari Mopsuestia]] menginspirasi [[Babai Agung]] (551−628) untuk menjabarkan doktrin-doktrin Gereja di Timur secara tertulis. Doktrin-doktrin di dalam ''Kitab Persatuan'' yang ditulis Babai Agung menjadi [[kristologi]] normatif Gereja di Timur. Babai Agung menegaskan bahwa kedua ''qnome'' (istilah [[bahasa Suryani|Suryani]], bentuk jamak dari ''qnoma'', tidak benar-benar berpadanan dengan istilah Yunani φύσις, ''fisis'', οὐσία, ''usia'', maupun ὑπόστασις, ''hipostasis''){{sfn|Kuhn|2019|p=130}} Kristus tidak bercampur tetapi kekal manunggal di dalam ''parsopa'' ({{lang-el|πρόσωπον}}, ''[[prosopon]]'', "persona") Kristus yang satu. Seperti yang juga terjadi pada istilah Yunani φύσις (''[[fisis]]'') dan ὐπόστασις (''[[hipostasis]]''), istilah-istilah Suryani tersebut kadang-kadang dimaknai menyimpang dari maksud sebenarnya, terutama istilah "dua ''qnome''" yang ditafsirkan secara keliru sebagai "dua individu".{{sfn|Brock|1999|p=286−287}}{{sfn|Wood|2013|p=136}}<ref>[{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5hPODAAAQBAJ&pg=PT18&dq=qnome+babai&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwia-771hoHeAhXMFsAKHRzVA3wQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=qnome%20babai&f=false |title=Hilarion Alfeyev, ''The Spiritual World Of Isaac The Syrian'' (Liturgical Press 2016)] |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2023-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803001358/https://books.google.com/books?id=5hPODAAAQBAJ&pg=PT18&dq=qnome+babai&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwia-771hoHeAhXMFsAKHRzVA3wQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=qnome%20babai&f=false |dead-url=no }}</ref>{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=174}} Sebelum itu, Gereja di Timur masih menerima ungkapan-ungkapan yang cukup luwes, kendati masih di dalam batas-batas teologi [[diofisit]], tetapi sesudah sinode Babai Agung tahun 612 mengundangkan rumusan "dua ''qnome'' di dalam Kristus", terbentuklah perbedaan kristologis yang paripurna di antara Gereja di Timur dan Gereja-Gereja [[Kristen Kalsedon|Kalsedon]] "di Barat".{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989}}{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=28-29}}{{sfn|Payne|2009|p=398-399}}
 
Keabsahan penisbatan Nestorianisme kepada [[Nestorius]], tokoh yang dihormati Gereja di Timur sebagai [[santo]], dipertanyakan.{{sfn|Bethune-Baker|1908|p=82-100}}{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23–35}} David Wilmshurst berpendapat bahwa berabad-abad lamanya "kata 'Nestorian' digunakan baik sebagai istilah yang melecehkan oleh pihak-pihak yang tidak sejalan dengan teologi Suryani Timur maupun sebagai istilah kebanggaan oleh banyak pihak yang membela teologi Suryani Timur [...] dan sebagai istilah deskriptif yang netral dan dirasa tepat oleh pihak-pihak lain. Sekarang ini istilah tersebut secarapada umumumumnya dirasakan mengandung stigma tertentu".{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=4}} Sebastian P. Brock mengemukakan bahwa "keterkaitan Gereja di Timur dengan Nestorius sesungguhnya renggang, dan tindakan terus-menerus menyebut Gereja itu sebagai Gereja 'Nestorian', dari kaca mata sejarah, benar-benar menyesatkan dan tidak tepat, selain merupakan sebutan yang sangat menistakan dan tindakan yang menyalahi adab ekumene".{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=14}}
 
Di luar dari makna religiusnya, kata "Nestorian" dipakai pula dengan makna etnis, sebagaimana tampak pada frasa "umat Nestorian Katolik".<ref>[{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_LmnA75Dt8C&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=%22Catholic+Nestorians%22&source=bl&ots=wHD8qRk3DV&sig=4mycIIUlD9xwz67UeQl1HNkZrrU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9_IPd85reAhWLD8AKHQFXD_AQ6AEwC3oECAMQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Catholic%20Nestorians%22&f=false |title=Joost Jongerden, Jelle Verheij, ''Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1915'' (BRILL 2012), hlm. 21] |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2023-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803001350/https://books.google.com/books?id=X_LmnA75Dt8C&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=%22Catholic+Nestorians%22&source=bl&ots=wHD8qRk3DV&sig=4mycIIUlD9xwz67UeQl1HNkZrrU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9_IPd85reAhWLD8AKHQFXD_AQ6AEwC3oECAMQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Catholic%20Nestorians%22&f=false |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>[[Gertrude Lowthian Bell]], [https[iarchive://archive.org/details/amurathtoamurath00bell/page/280 |''Amurath to Amurath'' (Heinemann 1911), hlm. 281]]</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/592420?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Gabriel Oussani, "The Modern Chaldeans and Nestorians, and the Study of Syriac among them" in ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', jld. 22 (1901), hlm. 81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308104140/https://www.jstor.org/stable/592420?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents |date=2021-03-08 }}; bdk. [https://books.google.com/books?id=snPnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA704&lpg=PA704&dq=%22Catholic+Nestorians%22&source=bl&ots=3lJOtixT8I&sig=bNMKBeWFeasDing2xuwhfa_IDd4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9_IPd85reAhWLD8AKHQFXD_AQ6AEwCXoECAUQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Catholic%20Nestorians%22&f=false Albrecht Classen (penyunting), ''East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times'' (Walter de Gruyter 2013), hlm. 704] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803001351/https://books.google.com/books?id=snPnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA704&lpg=PA704&dq=%22Catholic+Nestorians%22&source=bl&ots=3lJOtixT8I&sig=bNMKBeWFeasDing2xuwhfa_IDd4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi9_IPd85reAhWLD8AKHQFXD_AQ6AEwCXoECAUQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Catholic%20Nestorians%22&f=false |date=2023-08-03 }}</ref>
 
Dalam artikel ''"The 'Nestorian' Church: a lamentable misnomer"'', yang dimuat dalam jurnal ''[[Bulletin of the John Rylands Library]]'' tahun 1996, [[Sebastian Brock]], salah seorang ''[[Fellow of the British Academy]]'', meratapi kenyataan bahwa "istilah 'Gereja Nestorian' sudah menjadi sebutan standar bagi Gereja timur purba yang pada masa lampau menyebut diri 'Gereja di Timur', tetapi yang sekarang ini lebih menyukai istilah 'Gereja Asyur di Timur' yang lebih lengkap. Sebutan semacam itu bukan hanya tidak sopan terhadapbagi para anggotaumat Gereja terhormat ini pada zaman modern, melainkan juga − sebagaimana yang ingin ditunjukkan makalah ini − tidak tepat dan menyesatkan".{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23-35}}
 
== Organisasi dan struktur ==
Baris 124:
Sama seperti Gereja-Gereja lain, Gereja di Timur memiliki rohaniwan-rohaniwan [[penahbisan|tertahbis]] dalam tiga jenjang jabatan tradisional, yakni [[uskup]], [[imam]] (atau [[presbiter]]), dan [[diakon]]. Sama seperti Gereja-Gereja lain, Gereja di Timur menerapkan [[episkopal|tatanan keuskupan]], yakni pengelompokan umat menjadi [[keuskupan]]-keuskupan yang masing-masing dikepalai seorang uskup. Umat di tiap keuskupan masih dikelompokkan lagi menjadi [[paroki]]-paroki yang masing-masing dipimpin seorang imam. Keuskupan-keuskupan yang berdekatan dikelompokkan menjadi satu [[provinsi gerejawi|provinsi]] di bawah kepemimpinan seorang [[uskup metropolit|uskup metropolitan]]. Uskup metropolitan adalah jabatan yang penting, karena mengemban tugas-tugas maupun wewenang tambahan. Berdasarkan hukum kanon, hanya uskup-uskup metropolitan yang berhak [[konsekrasi|mengonsekrasi]] batrik.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=21-22}} Selain menjadi kepala Gereja, batrik juga mengepalai [[kebatrikan|provinsi kebatrikan]].
 
Hampir sepanjang sejarahnya, Gereja di Timur memiliki kurang lebih 6 provinsi di dalam daerah basis. Pada tahun 410, provinsi-provinsi tersebut adalah (diurut berdasarkan hierarki) [[provinsi Batrik Seleukia-Ktesifon|Seleukia-Ktesifon]] (Irak Tengah), [[Bet Huzaye (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Bet Lapat]] (Iran Barat), [[Nisibis (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Nisibis]] (perbatasan Turki-Irak), [[Maisyan (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Prat de Maishan]] (Basra, Irak Selatan), [[Adiabene (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Arbela]] (Erbil, daerah Turkestan di Irak), dan [[Bet Garmaï (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Karka de Bet Slokh]] (Kirkuk, Irak Timur Laut). Selain itu, Gereja Timur juga membawahi provinsi-provinsi di luar daerah basis yang jumlahnya terus bertambah. Provinsi-provinsi di luar daerah basis Gereja di Timur mula-mula terbentuk di wilayah Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani, tetapi tidak lama kemudian terbentuk pula di luar batas-batas wilayah negara itu. Pada abad ke-10, Gereja di Timur membawahi 20<ref name=Britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorians "Nestorian"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615200116/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorians |date=2010-06-15 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved January 28, 2010.</ref> sampai 30 provinsi gerejawi.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=4}} Menurut John Foster, ada 25 provinsi yang dibawahi Gereja di Timur pada abad ke-9,{{sfn|Foster|1939|p=34}} termasuk di Tiongkok dan India. Provinsi gerejawi di Tiongkok bubar pada abad ke-11, provinsi-provinsi lain menyusul pada abad-abad selanjutnya. Meskipun demikian, pada abad ke-13, Gereja di Timur membentuk dua provinsi gerejawi baru di [[Tiongkok Utara]], yakni Provinsi Tanggut dan Provinsi 'Katai dan Ong'.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=4}}
 
== Kitab Suci ==
{{main|Pesyita}}
[[Pesyita]], yang sudah sedikit direvisi dan ditambahi kitab-kitab yang semula tidak termasuk di dalamnya, adalah [[Syriac versions of the Bible|Alkitab Suryani]] standar bagi Gereja-Gereja bertradisi Suryani, yaitu [[Gereja Ortodoks Suriah|Gereja Ortodoks Suryani]], [[Gereja Katolik Suriah|Gereja Katolik Suryani]], [[Gereja Asiria Timur|Gereja Asyur di Timur]], [[Gereja Purba di Timur]], [[Gereja Katolik Kaldea]], [[Gereja Maronit]], [[Gereja Suryani Ortodoks Malangkara]], [[Gereja Katolik Siro-Malabar|Gereja Katolik Suryani Malabar]], dan [[Gereja Katolik Siro-Malankara|Gereja Katolik Suryani Malangkara]].<!--
 
[[Perjanjian Lama]] Pesyita diterjemahkan dari [[bahasa Ibrani]], kendati tarikh maupun tempat penerjemahannya tidak betul-betul jelas. Para penerjemahnya mungkin adalah orang-orang Yahudi penutur bahasa Suryani atau orang-orang Yahudi pertama yang memeluk agama Kristen. Mungkin teks demi teks diterjemahkan terpisah-pisah, dan kemungkinan besar penerjemahkan dituntaskan sepenuhnya pada abad ke-2. Rata-rata [[Biblical apocrypha|kitab deuterokanonika Perjanjian Lama]] memiliki terjemahan Suryaninya, dan kitab [[Kebijaksanaan Sirakh]] diyakini diterjemahkan dari [[bahasa Ibrani]], bukan dari [[Septuaginta]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/syriac-isbe.html |title=''Syriac Versions of the Bible'', Thomas Nicol |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2020-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307080247/http://bible-researcher.com/syriac-isbe.html |dead-url=no }}</ref>
The [[Old Testament]] of the Peshitta was translated from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], although the date and circumstances of this are not entirely clear. The translators may have been Syriac-speaking Jews or early Jewish converts to Christianity. The translation may have been done separately for different texts, and the whole work was probably done by the second century. Most of the [[Biblical apocrypha|deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament]] are found in the Syriac, and the [[Wisdom of Sirach]] is held to have been translated from the [[Hebrew]] and not from the [[Septuagint]].<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/syriac-isbe.html Syriac Versions of the Bible by Thomas Nicol]</ref>
 
[[Perjanjian Baru]] Pesyita, yang mula-mula tidak mencakup kitab-kitab yang diragukan keasliannya ([[2 Petrus]], [[2 Yohanes]], [[3 Yohanes]], [[Surat Yudas]], [[Kitab Wahyu|Wahyu]]), sudah menjadi bentuk Pesyita standar pada awal abad ke-5.
The [[New Testament]] of the Peshitta, which originally excluded certain disputed books ([[Second Epistle of Peter]], [[Second Epistle of John]], [[Third Epistle of John]], [[Epistle of Jude]], [[Book of Revelation]]), had become the standard by the early 5th century.
 
== IconographyIkonografi ==
ItPada wasabad oftenke-19, saidkerap inmuncul thewacana 19thbahwa centuryGereja thatdi theTimur Churchmenentang ofsegala themacam Eastcitra was opposed to religious images of any kindreligius. ThePenghormatan cultterhadap ofcitra thereligius imagedi was[[Kekristenan neverSuriah|Gereja-Gereja asSuryani]] strongmemang intidak thepernah [[Syriacsampai Churches]]pada astaraf itsetinggi wasyang in thedicapai [[EasternGereja OrthodoxOrtodoks ChurchTimur|ByzantineGereja Romawi ChurchTimur]], buttetapi theytetap weremerupakan indeedbagian presentdari intradisi theGereja traditiondi of the Church of the EastTimur.<ref name=ICE>{{cite journal |last=Parry |first=Ken |date=1996 |title=Images in the Church of the East: The Evidence from Central Asia and China |url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2404&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF |journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands Library |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=143–162 |access-date=23 JulyJuli 2018 |doi=10.7227/BJRL.78.3.11 |archive-date=2018-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703103950/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2404&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF |dead-url=no }}</ref> {{cnPenolakan citra-span|Oppositioncitra toreligius religiouspada imagesakhirnya eventuallymenjadi becamenorma the norm due to theakibat [[risepenyebaran ofIslam|penyebaran agam Islam]] inyang themengharamkan region,segala whichmacam forbade{{dubious|date=Marchgambar 2021}}orang-orang anykudus type of depictions of Saints anddan [[biblicalpara prophetsnabi dalam Kekristenan|nabi-nabi]].|date=March 2021}}{{dubious|date=MarchOleh 2021}} Askarena suchitu, theGereja Churchdi wasTimur forcedterpaksa tomenyingkirkan get rid of iconsikon-ikon.<ref name="Nestorian">{{cite web|url=http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=21-05-027-f|title=The Shadow of Nestorius}}</ref>{{better source|access-date=March 2021-06-19|archive-date=2021-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224210038/http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=21-05-027-f|dead-url=no}}</ref>
 
Ada bukti sastrawi maupun arkeologi mengenai keberadaan citra-citra religius di dalam gereja. Pada tahun 1248, seorang pejabat [[Armenia]] di [[Samarkand]] menulis laporan kunjungannya ke sebuah gereja di kota itu dan melihat sendiri sebuah gambar Kristus dan orang-orang Majus. Dalam laporannya mengenai 1330 jiwa umat Suryani Timur di [[Khanbaliq]], Yohanes dari Kora ({{lang|it|Giovanni di Cori|italic=no}}), Uskup [[Sultaniyah]] Ritus latin di Persia, menyebutkan bahwa mereka memiliki ‘gereja-gereja yang sangat indah dan apik, lengkap dengan salib-salib dan gambar-gambar untuk memuliakan Tuhan dan orang-orang kudus’.<ref name=ICE /> Selain keterangan-keterangan tersebut, ada pula [[lukisan seorang tokoh Kristen Nestorian]] (kemungkinan besar gambar Kristus) yang ditemukan [[Aurel Stein]] pada tahun 1908 di Gua Perpustakaan, salah satu dari gua-[[gua Mogao]].
There is both literary and archaeological evidence for the presence of images in the church. Writing in 1248 from [[Samarkand]], an [[Armenia|Armenian]] official records visiting a local church and seeing an image of Christ and the Magi. John of Cora ({{lang|it|Giovanni di Cori|italic=no}}), Latin bishop of [[Sultaniya]] in Persia, writing about 1330 of the East Syrians in [[Khanbaliq]] says that they had ‘very beautiful and orderly churches with crosses and images in honour of God and of the saints’.<ref name=ICE /> Apart from the references, there is a [[painting of a Nestorian Christian figure]] which was discovered by [[Aurel Stein]] at the Library Cave of the [[Mo-kao Caves]] in 1908, which is probably an image of Christ.
 
AnIlustrasi-ilustrasi illustrateddalam 13th-centurysebuah Nestorian[[Kitab Injil]] [[PeshittaPesyita]] GospelNestorian bookbuatan abad ke-13 dalam writtenragam inaksara [[Estrangelaabjad Suryani|Estranggela]], fromyang northernberasal dari kawasan utara Mesopotamia oratau [[Tur Abdin]], currentlydan inkini thetersimpan di [[StatePerpustakaan Library ofNegeri Berlin]], provesmembuktikan thatbahwa inGereja thedi 13thTimur century the Church of the East was not yetbelum [[aniconicanikonisme|anikonis]] pada abad ke-13.{{sfn|Baumer|2006|p=75, 94}} AnotherNaskah NestorianKitab GospelInjil manuscriptNestorian preservedlain inyang thetersimpan di [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] containsmemuat ansebuah illustrationilustrasi that depictssosok [[JesusYesus ChristKristus]] inpada the circle of asebuah [[ringedsalib crossbercincin]] surroundedyang diapit byempat foursosok angelsmalaikat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Drège |first=Jean-Pierre |translator-last=López Carmona |translator-first=Mari Pepa |year=1992 |orig-year=1989 |title=Marco Polo y la Ruta de la Seda |language=es |series=Collection "[[Découvertes Gallimard#Appendix|Aguilar Universal]]" |volume=31 |location=Madrid |publisher=Aguilar, S. A. de Ediciones |pages=43 & 187 |isbn=978-84-0360-187-1 |oclc=1024004171 |quote=Doctrinas persas}}</ref> ThreeTiga naskah [[Syriacbahasa languageSuryani|SyriacSuryani]] manuscriptsdari fromawal earlyabad 19thke-19 centuryatau orsebelumnya, earlier—theyyang weredipublikasikan publisheddalam inbentuk akompilasi compilationdengan titledjudul ''[[The Book of Protection]]'' byoleh [[Hermann Gollancz]] inpada 1912—containtahun some1912, illustrationsmemuat ofsejumlah noilustrasi greatkurang artisticberseni worthyang thatmenunjukkan showbahwa thatpemanfaatan use ofcitra imagesmasih continuedberlanjut.
 
Arca pria berbahan lepa seukuran manusia asli ditemukan di sebuah gereja dari akhir abad ke-6 di [[Almada'in|Seleukia-Ktesifon]], yang di bawah fondasinya ditemukan bekas-bekas bangunan gereja lain yang lebih tua, juga menunjukkan bahwa Gereja di Timur menggunakan representasi-representasi figuratif.{{sfn|Baumer|2006|p=75, 94}}
A life-size male stucco figure discovered in a late-6th-century church in [[Seleucia-Ctesiphon]], beneath which were found the remains of an earlier church, also shows that the Church of the East used figurative representations.{{sfn|Baumer|2006|p=75, 94}}
 
<gallery class="center" widths="225px" heights="249px">
File:Museum für Indische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 061.jpg|Rohaniwan Nestorian melaksanakan prosesi [[PalmMinggu SundayPalma]] procession of Nestorian clergy, in a 7th- or 8th-century [[MuralsMural fromdari therumah ibadat Nestorian temple atdi Qocho|walllukisan paintingpada fromdinding asebuah gereja Nestorian churchdi inTiongkok]] (abad ke-7 atau abad ke-8) dari zaman [[Dinasti Tang|Kulawangsa ChinaTang]]
File:T'angMogao dynastyChristian Nestorian image of Jesus Christpainting (Originaloriginal version).jpg|Sisa-sisa [[Paintinglukisan ofseorang atokoh Nestorian Christian figure|Fragment of aKristen Nestorian Christian figure]], asebuah late-9th-centurylukisan silksutra paintingdari preservedabad inke-9, thetersimpan di [[British Museum|Museum Inggris]].
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Feast of the Discovery of the Cross.jpg|FeastPerayaan of the Discovery of thePenemuan [[TrueSalib Cross|CrossSejati]], fromgambar adi 13th-centurydalam Nestoriansebuah PeshittaKitab GospelInjil bookPesyita writtenNestorian indalam ragam aksara [[Syriacabjad alphabetSuryani|EstrangelaEstranggela]] dari abad ke-13, preservedtersimpan in thedi [[BerlinPerpustakaan StateNegeri Library|SBBBerlin]].
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Announcement of Jesus’ Resurrection.jpg|AnMalaikat angel announces themewartakan [[Resurrection ofkebangkitan JesusYesus|resurrectionkebangkitan of ChristKristus]] tokepada [[Mary, mother of Jesus|MaryMaria]] anddan [[MaryMaria MagdaleneMagdalena]], fromgambar thedi Nestoriandalam PeshittaKitab Gospel.Injil Pesyita Nestorian
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Pentecost.jpg|TheDua twelveBelas apostlesRasul areberhimpun gathereddi aroundbawah Peterpimpinan atPetrus pada Hari [[PentecostPentakosta]], fromgambar thedi Nestoriandalam PeshittaKitab Gospel.Injil Pesyita Nestorian
File:Cruz de la Iglesia del Oriente («nestoriana»).jpg|IllustrationIlustrasi from thedari [[NestorianEvangeliarium EvangelionNestorian]], asebuah naskah Kitab Injil dalam [[Syriacbahasa language|SyriacSuryani]], gospel manuscripttersimpan preserved in thedi [[Bibliothèque nationale de France|BnFPerpustakaan Nasional Prancis]].
File:Four Evangelists, Church of the East.jpg|PortraitsPotret ofEmpat thePenulis Four EvangelistsInjil, fromgambar adi gospeldalam lectionarysebuah accordingleksionari toInjil themenurut Nestoriantata use.cara Nestorian, [[Mosul]], IraqIrak, 1499.
File:Entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem, with a Female Figure in T'ang Costume, Chotscho, Sinkiang.jpg|DrawingGambar ofseorang apenunggang riderkuda ([[TriumphalYesus entrydielu-elukan intodi JerusalemYerusalem|EntryLawatan intoAgung Jerusalemke Yerusalem]]), alukisan lost(sekarang wallsudah paintingmusnah) frompada thedinding gereja Nestorian church atdi [[Gaochang|Khocho]], 9thabad century.ke-9
File:Nestorian Christian Statuette.jpg|NestorianRelikui ChristianKristen relicNestorian (statuettearca mini) fromdari zaman kemaharajaan Imperialdi ChinaTiongkok
File:Piatto con decorazione di castello assediato, arg, samirechye, da bolshoe-anikovskaya, IX-X sec su orig del l'VIII sec.JPG|AnikovaLempeng PlateAnikova, showingbergambar theperistiwa [[BattlePertempuran of JerichoYerikho|SiegePengepungan of JerichoYerikho]]., Itkemungkinan wasbesar probablydibuat made in and for adi [[SogdiaZhetisu]]n Nestorianbagi Christianjemaat communityKristen locatedNestorian inberkebangsaan [[Zhetysu|SemirechyeSogdia]] di Zhetisu
</gallery><gallery class="center" widths="250px" heights="125px">
File:Sutras on the Origin of Origins of Ta-ch‘in Luminous Religion (detail).jpg|Detail ofjiplakan thegosok rubbingdari oftugu aprasasti Nestorian scripturalyang pillar,ditemukan discovered indi [[Luoyang]]., dari 9thabad century.ke-9
File:Sutras on the Origin of Origins of Ta-ch‘in Luminous Religion (detail-L).jpg|Detail ofjiplakan thegosok rubbingdari oftugu aprasasti Nestorian scripturalyang pillar,ditemukan discovered indi [[Luoyang.]], dari 9thabad century.ke-9
</gallery>
 
==Early historyAwal sejarah ==
{{Seealso|NestorianSkisma SchismNestorian|NestorianismNestorianisme}}
 
Meskipun umat Kristen Nestorian mengaku sebagai kelanjutan dari jemaat Kristen Perdana yang terbentuk pada abad pertama Masehi, Gereja di Timur pertama kali mendapatkan pengakuan resmi dari pemerintah Kemaharajaan Sasani pada abad ke-4, tatkala [[Yazdegerd I]] (menjabat 399–420) naik takhta. [[Sinode Seleukia-Ktesifon]] yang diselenggarakan di ibu kota Kemaharajaan Sasani pada tahun 410 membenarkan uskup-uskup Gereja di Timur untuk memilih seorang [[Katolikos di Timur|katolikos]] (pemimpin) resmi. [[Katolikos]] [[Ishak dari Seleukia-Ktesifon|Ishak]] diwajibkan memimpin jemaat Kristen Asyur sekaligus menjadi penyambung lidah mereka di hadapan [[Daftar kepala monarki Kekaisaran Sasani|para syahansyah Sasani]].{{sfn|Fiey|1970}}{{sfn|Chaumont|1988}}
Although the Nestorian community traced their history to the 1st century AD, the Church of the East first achieved official state recognition from the Sasanian Empire in the 4th century with the accession of [[Yazdegerd I]] (reigned 399–420) to the throne of the [[Sasanian Empire]]. In 410 the [[Synod of Seleucia-Ctesiphon]], held at the Sasanian capital, allowed the church's leading bishops to elect a formal [[Catholicose of the East|Catholicos]] (leader). Catholicos [[Isaac (patriarch)|Isaac]] was required both to lead the Assyrian Christian community and to answer on its behalf to the [[List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire|Sasanian emperor]].{{sfn|Fiey|1970}}{{sfn|Chaumont|1988}}
 
Di bawah tekanan syahansyah Sasani, Gereja di Timur kian lama kian menjarak dari [[Pentarki]] (saat itu dikenal sebagai Gereja [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]]). Oleh karena itu, pada tahun 424, uskup-uskup di Kemaharajaan Sasani bersidang di bawah pimpinan Katolikos [[Dadisyo]] (421–456) dan sepakat untuk seterusnya tidak merujuk kepada pihak berwenang mana pun di luar negeri dalam urusan-urusan tata tertib maupun teologi, khususnya kepada uskup atau konsili Gereja di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]].{{sfn|Hill|1988|p=105}}
Under pressure from the Sasanian Emperor, the Church of the East sought to increasingly distance itself from the [[Pentarchy]] (at the time being known as the church of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]). Therefore, in 424, the bishops of the Sasanian Empire met in council under the leadership of Catholicos [[Dadisho|Dadishoʿ]] (421–456) and determined that they would not, henceforth, refer disciplinary or theological problems to any external power, and especially not to any bishop or church council in the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Hill|1988|p=105}}
 
Thus,Inilah thesebabnya Mesopotamiangereja-gereja churchesdi didMesopotamia nottidak sendmengutus representativeswakil-wakilnya toke theberbagai variouskonsili churchyang councilsdihadiri attended by representatives of thewakil-wakil "[[WesternGereja ChurchBarat]]". Accordingly,Dengan thedemikian leaderspara ofpimpinan theGereja Churchdi ofTimur thetidak Eastmerasa didwajib notmenaati feelkeputusan boundapa bypun anyyang decisionsmereka ofanggap whatsebagai camekeputusan to be regarded as Romankonsili-konsili ImperialKekaisaran CouncilsRomawi. DespiteMeskipun thisdemikian, thesyahadat Creeddan and Canons of thekanon-kanon [[FirstKonsili CouncilNikea of NicaeaI]] oftahun 325, affirmingyang themembenarkan fullkeparipurnaan divinitykeilahian ofKristus Christ,secara wereresmi formallyditerima accepted at thedalam [[Council ofKonsili SeleuciaSeleukia-CtesiphonKtesifon]] intahun 410.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=354}} ThePemahaman church'sGereja understandingdi ofTimur thetentang termistilah "[[HypostasisHipostasis (philosophyfilsafat anddan religionagama)|hypostasishipostasis]]" differsberbeda fromdari thedefinisi definitionistilah oftersebut the term offered at themenurut [[CouncilKonsili of ChalcedonKalsedon]] oftahun 451. For this reason,Oleh thekarena Assyrianitu ChurchGereja hasAsyur nevertidak approvedpernah themenerima [[Chalcedoniansyahadat definitionKalsedon]].{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=354}}
 
Kontroversi teologis yang timbul seusai [[Konsili Efesus]] tahun 431 terbukti menjadi salah satu tonggak sejarah Gereja. Konsili Efesus membidatkan Kristologi [[Nestorius]], lantaran keengganannya memuliakan Perawan Maria dengan gelar ''[[Theotokos|Teotokos]]'' (Pelahir [[Tuhan]]) dijadikan bukti bahwa ia percaya ada dua pribadi terpisah (alih-alih dua kodrat manunggal) di dalam diri Kristus.
The theological controversy that followed the [[Council of Ephesus]] in 431 proved a turning point in the Christian Church's history. The Council condemned as heretical the Christology of [[Nestorius]], whose reluctance to accord the Virgin Mary the title ''[[Theotokos]]'' "God-bearer, Mother of God" was taken as evidence that he believed two separate persons (as opposed to two united natures) to be present within Christ. (For the theological issues at stake, see ''[[#Assyrian Church of the East and Nestorianism|Assyrian Church of the East and Nestorianism]]''.)
 
Syahansyah Sasani yang memusuhi Romawi Timur memanfaatkan kontroversi ini sebagai kesempatan untuk membina umat Kristen Persia menjadi kawula yang setia kepada negara, sehingga memutuskan untuk mendukung [[skisma Nestorian]]. Syahansyah mengambil langkah-langkah untuk menjadikan para pengikut Nestorius sebagai golongan utama di dalam lingkup Gereja Asyur di Timur dengan memberi suaka kepada mereka,{{sfn|Outerbridge|1952}} menghukum mati Katolikos [[Babowai]] yang pro-Romawi pada tahun 484, dan menggantinya dengan [[Barsauma]], Uskup [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] yang berhaluan Nestorian. Katolikos-Batrik [[Babai (Batrik Nestorian)|Babai]] (497–503) mengukuhkan keterkaitan Gereja Asyur dengan Nestorianisme.
The Sasanian Emperor, hostile to the Byzantines, saw the opportunity to ensure the loyalty of his Christian subjects and lent support to the [[Nestorian Schism]]. The Emperor took steps to cement the primacy of the Nestorian party within the Assyrian Church of the East, granting its members his protection,{{sfn|Outerbridge|1952}} and executing the pro-Roman Catholicos [[Babowai]] in 484, replacing him with the Nestorian Bishop of [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]], [[Barsauma]]. The Catholicos-Patriarch [[Babai (Nestorian patriarch)|Babai]] (497–503) confirmed the association of the Assyrian Church with Nestorianism.
 
=== Zaman Partia dan Sasani ===
===Parthian and Sasanian periods===
ChristiansUmat wereKristen alreadysudah formingmembentuk communitiespaguyuban-paguyuban indi [[Mesopotamia]] asseawal-awalnya earlypada asabad thepertama 1stMasehi, century under thezaman [[ParthianKemaharajaan EmpirePartia]]. InPada tahun 266, the area wasMesopotamia annexed by thedianeksasi [[SasanianKekaisaran Sasaniyah|Kemaharajaan wangsa EmpireSasani]] (becomingdijadikan the province ofdaerah [[Asōristān]]),. andSaat thereitu weresudah significantada Christianpaguyuban-paguyuban communitiesKristen inyang cukup besar di daerah [[Upper Mesopotamia Hulu]], [[Elam]], anddan [[Provinsi Fars Province|Fars]].{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=1}} TheGereja Churchdi ofTimur themengaku Eastsebagai tracedhasil itspewartaan originsInjil ultimatelyyang to the evangelical activity ofdilakukan [[ThaddeusTadeus ofdari Edessa|Adai]], [[SaintSanto Mari|Mari]], anddan [[ThomasTomas|Rasul the ApostleTomas]]. LeadershipTatanan andmaupun structurekepemimpinannya remainedbaru disorganiseddisempurnakan untilpada tahun 315, whenketika [[Papa (bishopuskup)|Papa bar Aggai]] (310–329), bishop ofUskup [[SeleuciaSeleukia]]-[[CtesiphonKtesifon]], imposedmemaksa thesemua primacykeuskupan oflain hisdi seeMesopotamia overdan thePersia otheruntuk Mesopotamianmengakui andtakhta Persiankeuskupannya bishopricssebagai whichpusat werekepemimpinan groupedgerejawi. togetherKeuskupan-keuskupan undertersebut thedipersatukan Catholicatedi ofbawah kepemimpinan Katolikos SeleuciaSeleukia-Ctesiphon;Ktesifon. Papa tookbar theAggai titlemenggelari ofdirinya [[CatholicosKatolikos]], or(pemimpin universal leaderumum).<ref>[[Ilaria Ramelli]], “Papa bar Aggai”, indalam ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Christianity'', 2ndedisi edn.ke-2, 3 volsjld., ed.penyunting: Angelo Di Berardino (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014), 3:47.</ref> ThisPada positiontahun received410, angelar additionalini titlediperpanjang inlagi 410, becomingmenjadi "[[ListDaftar ofBatrik PatriarchsGereja of the Church of thedi EastTimur|CatholicosKatolikos anddan Patriarch ofBatrik thedi EastTimur]]".{{sfn|Fiey|1967|p=3–22}}{{sfn|Roberson|1999|p=15}}
 
TheseJumlah earlyumat ChristianKristen communities indi Mesopotamia, Elam, anddan Fars weremelonjak reinforcedpada inabad theke-4 4thdan andke-5 5thsaat centuriesterjadi bydeportasi largebesar-scalebesaran deportations ofumat ChristiansKristen fromdari thewilayah easterntimur [[RomanKekaisaran EmpireRomawi]].{{sfn|Daniel|Mahdi|2006|p=61}} HoweverMeskipun demikian, theGereja PersianPersia Churchdihadapkan facedkepada severalberbagai severe persecutionsaniaya, notablyterutama duringaniaya thepada reignmasa ofpemerintahan Syahansyah [[ShapurSyapur II]] (339–79), fromyang thedilakukan warga mayoritas [[ZoroastrianismZoroastrianisme|ZoroastrianMazdayasna]] majorityyang whomenuding accusedumat itKristen ofsebagai Romanantek-antek leaningsRomawi.{{sfn|Foster|1939|p=26-27}} ShapurSyapur II attemptedberusaha tomembubarkan dismantlestruktur theketatalaksanaan catholicate'sGereja structuredi andnegaranya, putbahkan tomenghukum deathmati somesejumlah ofrohaniwan, thetermasuk clergy including the catholicoiKatolikos [[Shemon Bar Sabbae|Simeon bar SabbaSaba'e]] (pada tahun 341),{{sfn|Burgess|Mercier|1999|p=9-66}} Katolikos [[ShahdostSyahdost]] (pada tahun 342), anddan Katolikos [[Barba'shminsymin]] (pada tahun 346).<ref>Donald Attwater & Catherine Rachel John, ''The Penguin Dictionary of Saints'', 3rdedisi ednke-3. (New York: Penguin Books, 1993), 116, 245.</ref> Afterward,Sesudah theKatolikos officeBarba'symin ofdihukum Catholicosmati, layjabatan vacantkatolikos nearlylowong hampir 20 yearstahun lamanya (346–363).{{sfn|Tajadod|1993|p=110–133}} InPada tahun 363, underberdasarkan the terms of asyarat-syarat peacekesepakatan treatydamai, Nisibis wasdiserahkan cededkepada tobangsa the Persians,Persia. causingAkibatnya [[EphremEfrem theorang SyrianSuriah]], accompaniedbersama bysejumlah apengajar number of teachers, to leave themeninggalkan [[School ofPerguruan Nisibis]] fordan hijrah ke [[EdessaEdesa]] stillyang masih termasuk wilayah inkedaulatan RomanKekaisaran territoryRomawi.{{sfn|Labourt|1909}} TheGereja churchdi grewTimur considerablycukup duringberkembang thepada Sasanianzaman periodkulawangsa Sasani,<ref name=Britannica/> buttetapi theaniaya pressureterhadap ofumat persecutionKristen ledmendorong theKatolikos Catholicos DadishoDadisyo I inuntuk 424menggelar toSinode conveneMarkabta thedi SynodSeleukia oftahun Markabta424 atdan Seleuciamemaklumkan andkemandirian declareGereja thedi CatholicateTimur independent fromdari "the westernBapa-Bapa FathersBarat".{{sfn|Jugie|1935|p=5–25}}
 
MeanwhileSementara itu, indi theKekaisaran Roman EmpireRomawi, the [[NestorianSkisma SchismNestorian]] hadmendorong ledbanyak many ofpendukung Nestorius' supportersuntuk tohijrah relocateke towilayah thekedaulatan Sasaniankulawangsa EmpireSasani, mainlykhususnya aroundke thedaerah theologicalsekitar [[School ofPerguruan Nisibis]]. TheGereja Persiandi ChurchTimur increasinglykian alignedlama itselfkian withakrab thedengan Dyophisiteskaum Diofisit, abahkan measurekedekatan encouragedsemacam byini thedidukung Zoroastrianpara rulingpenguasa classyang beragama Mazdayasna. TheSepanjang churchbeberapa dasawarsa selanjutnya, becamedoktrin increasinglyGereja Dyophisitedi inTimur doctrinekian overcondong theke nextpaham decadesDiofisitisme, furtheringsehingga thejurang dividedi betweenantara RomanKekristenan anddi PersianKekaisaran Christianity.Romawi Indan 484Kekristenan thedi MetropolitanPersia ofkian melebar. Pada tahun 484, Metropolit Nisibis, [[Barsauma]], convened themenggelar [[Synod ofSinode BethBet Lapat]], wheredan hesecara publiclyterbuka acceptedmenerima Nestorius'guru mentorNestorius, [[TheodoreTeodorus ofdari Mopsuestia]], assebagai apemangku spiritualkewenangan authorityrohani.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=28-29}} InKetika 489, when theditutup [[SchoolZeno of(kaisar)|Kaisar EdessaZeno]] inpada [[Mesopotamiatahun (Roman489 province)|Mesopotamia]]lantaran wasmengajarkan closedNestorianisme, by[[Perguruan ByzantineEdesa]] Emperordi [[ZenoMesopotamia (emperorprovinsi Romawi)|ZenoMesopotamia]] forberpindah itslokasi Nestorianke teachingsNisibis, thetempat school relocated to its original home of Nisibiskelahirannya, becomingdan againkembali thedinamakan [[School ofPerguruan Nisibis]],. leadingSituasi tosemacam aini wavemendorong ofpenganut NestorianNestorianisme immigration intoberbondong-bondong thebermigrasi Sasanianke EmpirePersia.{{sfn|Reinink|1995|p=77-89}}{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=73}} TheBatrik Patriarchdi of the EastTimur, [[Mar Babai I]] (497–502), reiteratedkembali andmenandaskan expandedihwal uponbesarnya hisrasa predecessors'hormat esteempara forpendahulunya Theodoreterhadap Teodorus dari Mopsuestia, solidifyingsehingga kian mengukuhkan penerimaan Gereja thedi church'sTimur adoptionterhadap ofdoktrin DyophisitismDiofisitisme.<ref name=Britannica/>
[[File:Church of Saint John the Arab.jpg|thumb|225px|AGereja 6thSanto centuryYohanes NestorianOrang churchArab, St.gereja JohnNestorian thedari Arab,abad inke-6 thedi [[Assyrian peopleAndak|AssyrianGeramon]], villagesebuah ofdesa yang dihuni masyarakat [[Andacbangsa Asiria|GeramonAsyur]].]]
NowSesudah firmlykuat establishedberakar indi theKemaharajaan PersianPersia Empire,serta withmendirikan centrespusat-pusat indi Nisibis, [[CtesiphonKtesifon]], anddan [[GundeshapurGundesyapur]], andmaupun severalbeberapa [[metropolitantakhta seemetropolia]]s, theGereja Churchdi ofTimur themulai Eastmelebarkan begansayapnya toke branchluar outwilayah beyondPersia. theMeskipun Sasaniandemikian, Empire.pada Howeverabad ke-6, throughGereja thedi 6thTimur centuryberulang thekali churchdirongrong waspertikaian frequentlyinternal besetmaupun withaniaya internaldari strifeumat andMazdayasna. persecutionPertikaian frominternal themengakibatkan Zoroastrians.timbulnya Theskisma infightingpada ledtahun to521 ayang schism,baru whichberakhir lastedsesudah frommasalah-masalah 521diatasi untilsekitar aroundtahun 539, when the issues were resolved. HoweverMeskipun demikian, immediatelytidak afterwardseberapa Byzantine-Persianlama conflictsesudah ledskisma todiakhiri, aPersia renewedkembali persecutionberkonflik ofdengan theRomawi churchTimur bysehingga theGereja Sasaniandi emperorTimur ditindas Kaisar [[Khosrau I]];. Penindasan thisberakhir endedpada intahun 545. TheGereja churchdi survivedTimur thesebertahan trialsmelewati undercobaan-cobaan thetersebut guidancedi ofbawah Patriarchkepemimpinan Batrik [[Aba I]], who had convertedseorang tomantan Christianitypemeluk fromagama [[ZoroastrianismZoroastrianisme|Mazdayasna]].<ref name=Britannica/>
 
ByPada theakhir endabad ofke-5 thedan 5thpertengahan centuryabad and the middle of the 6thke-6, the area occupied by thewilayah Churchpengembalaan ofGereja thedi EastTimur includedmencakup "allsemua thenegeri countriesdi tosebelah thetimur eastdan andnegeri-negeri thosedi immediatelytepi tobarat theSungai west of the EuphratesEfrat", includingtermasuk thenegara Sasaniankemaharajaan Empirekulawangsa Sasani, the [[ArabianJazirah PeninsulaArab]], [[SocotraSokotra]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Medes|Media]], [[BactriaBaktria]], [[HyrcaniaHirkania]], anddan [[India]]; and, possiblybahkan alsomungkin topula placesmencakup callednegeri CallianaKaliana, Male, anddan Sielediva (CeylonSailan).{{sfn|Stewart|1928|p=13-14}} BeneathBatrik themembawahi Patriarchsembilan in the hierarchy were nineorang [[metropolitanuskup bishopmetropolit|metropolitansmetropolia]], andsementara clergypara wererohaniwannya recordedtercatat amongberkarya thedi tengah-tengah bangsa [[HunsHun]], indi [[Persarmenia]], di Media, anddan thedi island ofPulau [[DioscorisDioskoris]] innun jauh thedi [[IndianSamudra OceanHindia]].{{sfn|Stewart|1928|p=14}}
 
Gereja di Timur juga berkembang di kerajaan [[bani Lakhmid]] sampai zaman penaklukan Muslim, teristimewa sesudah pemimpin bani Lakhmid, [[Alnu'man III bin Almundir]], secara resmi memeluk agama Kristen sekitar tahun 592.
The Church of the East also flourished in the kingdom of the [[Lakhmids]] until the Islamic conquest, particularly after the ruler [[al-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir]] officially converted in c. 592.
 
=== Di bawah daulat Islam ===
===Islamic rule===
[[File:Church of the East provinces 10 c.svg|thumb|EcclesiasticalPembagian provincesadministratif ofGereja thedi ChurchTimur ofpada theabad East in 10th centuryke-10]]
[[File:Mural of a Cleric of the Church of the East.jpg|thumb|left|150px|ARohaniwan 9th-centuryGereja muraldi ofTimur, agambar clericdari ofabad theke-9 Churchyang ofditemukan thepada Eastdinding fromistana the palace of al-MukhtarAlmukhtar indi [[SamarraSamara]], Iraq.Irak]]
AfterSesudah therezim Sasaniankulawangsa Empire wasSasani [[MuslimPenaklukan conquestPersia ofoleh PersiaMuslim|conqueredditumbangkan bybangsa Arab Muslim Arabs]] inpada tahun 644, the newly establishedrezim [[Rashidunkekhalifahan Rasyidin|Khilafaur CaliphateRasyidin]] designatedyang thebaru Churchterbentuk ofsecara theresmi Eastmenetapkan asGereja andi officialTimur sebagai kelompok minoritas ''[[dhimmidzimmi|zimi]]'' minorityyang groupdikepalai headedBatrik bydi theTimur. PatriarchSeperti ofsemua thekelompok East.masyarakat AsYahudi withdan allKristen otheraliran Christianlain andyang Jewishdiberi groupsstatus givenzimi, theGereja samedi status,Timur thedibatasi churchberkiprah wasdi restricteddalam withinwilayah thekhilafah Caliphatesaja, buttetapi alsodiberi givenperlindungan asampai degreetaraf of protectiontertentu. NestoriansUmat wereNestorian nottidak permitted todiizinkan [[proselytiseproselitisme|berdakwah]] orkepada attemptwarga toMuslim convertmaupun Muslims,menerima butwarga theirMuslim missionariesyang werehendak otherwisememeluk givenagama aKristen, freetetapi handpara misionarisnya justru diberi keleluasaan untuk berkarya, andsehingga theyusaha-usaha increaseddakwah missionarymereka effortskian farthermaju afielddan meluas. MissionariesPara misionaris memprakarsai establishedberdirinya dioceseskeuskupan-keuskupan indi [[India]] (theumat [[SaintKristen ThomasSanto ChristiansTomas]]).<!-- They made some advances in [[Egypt]], despite the strong [[Monophysite]] presence there, and they entered [[Central Asia]], where they had significant success converting local [[Tartars]]. Nestorian missionaries were firmly established in China during the early part of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907); the Chinese source known as the [[Nestorian Stele]] describes a mission under a proselyte named [[Alopen]] as introducing Nestorian Christianity to China in 635. In the 7th century, the church had grown to have two Nestorian [[archbishops]], and over 20 bishops east of the Iranian border of the [[Amu Darya|Oxus River]].{{sfn|Foster|1939|p=33}}
 
Patriarch [[Timothy I (Nestorian Patriarch)|Timothy I]] (780–823), a contemporary of the Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]], took a particularly keen interest in the missionary expansion of the Church of the East. He is known to have consecrated metropolitans for Damascus, for [[Armenia (East Syrian Diocese)|Armenia]], for Dailam and Gilan in Azerbaijan, for [[Rai (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|Rai]] in Tabaristan, for Sarbaz in Segestan, for the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] of Central Asia, for China, and possibly also for [[Tibet]]. He also detached India from the metropolitan province of [[Fars (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|Fars]] and made it a separate metropolitan province, known as [[India (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|India]].{{sfn|Fiey|1993|p=47 (Armenia), 72 (Damascus), 74 (Dailam and Gilan), 94–6 (India), 105 (China), 124 (Rai), 128–9 (Sarbaz), 128 (Samarqand and Beth Turkaye), 139 (Tibet)}} By the 10th century the Church of the East had a number of dioceses stretching from across the Caliphate's territories to India and China.<ref name=Britannica/>
Baris 259:
In 1771, [[Eliya XI]] (XII) and his designated successor (the future [[Eliya XII]] (XIII) Isho{{transl|ar|DIN|ʿ}}yahb) made a profession of faith that was accepted by Rome, thus establishing communion. By then, acceptance of the Catholic position was general in the [[Mosul]] area. When [[Eliya XI]] (XII) died in 1778, [[Eliya XII]] (XIII) made a renewed profession of Catholic faith and was recognised by Rome as Patriarch of Mosul, but in May 1779 renounced that profession in favor of the traditional faith. His younger cousin [[Yohannan VIII Hormizd|Yohannan Hormizd]] was locally elected to replace him in 1780, but for various reasons was recognised by Rome only as Metropolitan of Mosul and Administrator of the Catholics of the Alqosh party, having the powers of a Patriarch but not the title or insignia. When [[Joseph IV (Chaldean Patriarch)|Joseph IV]] of the Amid Patriarchate resigned in 1780, Rome likewise made his nephew, [[Joseph V Augustine Hindi|Augustine Hindi]], whom he wished to be his successor, not Patriarch but Administrator. No one held the title of Chaldean Catholic patriarch for the next 47 years.
 
=== ConsolidationKonsolidasi ofrantai patriarchalsuksesi linesbatrik ===
{{main|Gereja Katolik Kaldea|Gereja Asyur di Timur}}
When [[Eliya XII]] (XIII) died in 1804, the Nestorian branch of the Eliya line died with him.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=263}}{{sfn|Hage|2007|p=473}} With most of his subjects won over to union with Rome by Hormizd, they did not elect a new traditionalist Patriarch. In 1830, Hormizd was finally recognized as the [[Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon|Chaldean Catholic Patriarch of Babylon]], marking the last remnant of the hereditary system within the Chaldean Catholic Church.
Baris 294:
'''Kepustakaan'''
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* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|chapter=The Christology of the Church of the East in the Synods of the Fifth to Early Seventh Centuries: Preliminary Considerations and Materials|title=Doctrinal Diversity: Varieties of Early Christianity|year=1999|location=New York and London|publisher=Garland Publishing|pages=281–298|isbn=9780815330714|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GC4vwTXJSaMC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803002406/https://books.google.com/books?id=GC4vwTXJSaMC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=Fire from Heaven: Studies in Syriac Theology and Liturgy|year=2006|location=Aldershot|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=9780754659082|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey_FW7acTycC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803002406/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey_FW7acTycC|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Burgess|first=Stanley M.|title=The Holy Spirit: Eastern Christian Traditions|year=1989|location=Peabody, Mass.|publisher=Hendrickson Publishers|isbn=9780913573815|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8bYAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803002907/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8bYAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Ding|first=Wang|chapter=Remnants of Christianity from Chinese Central Asia in Medieval Ages|editor-last1=Malek|editor-first1=Roman|editor-last2=Hofrichter|editor-first2=Peter L.|title=Jingjiao: The Church of the East in China and Central Asia|year=2006|publisher=Institut Monumenta Serica|pages=149–162|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ck0KAQAAMAAJ|isbn=9783805005340|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003427/https://books.google.com/books?id=ck0KAQAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite journal|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=Les étapes de la prise de conscience de son identité patriarcale par l'Église syrienne orientale|journal=L'Orient Syrien|year=1967|volume=12|pages=3–22|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usIWAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003412/https://books.google.com/books?id=usIWAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Hage|first=Wolfgang|title=Das orientalische Christentum|year=2007|location=Stuttgart|publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgz_NyvRFIUC|isbn=9783170176683|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802043723/https://books.google.com/books?id=jgz_NyvRFIUC|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite journal|last=Hunter|first=Erica|title=The church of the East in central Asia|journal=The Bulletin of the John Rylands Library|year=1996|volume=78|issue=3|pages=129–142|url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403|doi=10.7227/BJRL.78.3.10|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031352/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian)|title=The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410|year=2014|orig-year=2005|location=London-New York|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eI19AwAAQBAJ|isbn=9781317878995|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004922/https://books.google.com/books?id=eI19AwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jakob|first=Joachim|title=Ostsyrische Christen und Kurden im Osmanischen Reich des 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderts|year=2014|location=Münster|publisher=LIT Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNV8BAAAQBAJ|isbn=9783643506160|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115221203/https://books.google.com/books?id=vNV8BAAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jenkins|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Jenkins|title=The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia - and How It Died|year=2008|location=San Francisco|publisher=HarperOne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4HYAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780061472800|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004923/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4HYAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Michael F.|title=God is One: A Christian Defence of Divine Unity in the Muslim Golden Age|year=2019|location=Carlisle|publisher=Langham Publishing|isbn=9781783685776|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXPnDwAAQBAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005429/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXPnDwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite journal|last=Lemmens|first=Leonhard|title=Relationes nationem Chaldaeorum inter et Custodiam Terrae Sanctae (1551-1629)|journal=Archivum Franciscanum Historicum|year=1926|volume=19|page=17–28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bOzNAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005931/https://books.google.com/books?id=bOzNAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{cite book|chapter=Chaldean Catholic Church (Eastern Catholic)|editor-last=Marthaler|editor-first=Berard L.|title=The New Catholic Encyclopedia|volume=3|year=2003|publisher=Thompson-Gale|pages=366–369|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpAQAAMAAJ}}{{Pranala mati|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
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* {{Cite book|last=Moffett|first=Samuel Hugh|chapter=Alopen|title=Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions|year=1999|publisher=William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|pages=14–15|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ8BFk9K0ToC|isbn=9780802846808|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005932/https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ8BFk9K0ToC|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Morgan|first=David|title=The Mongols|year=1986|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbungEACAAJ|isbn=9780631135562|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005932/https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbungEACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Tisserant|first=Eugène|author-link=Eugène Tisserant|chapter=L'Église nestorienne|title=Dictionnaire de théologie catholique|year=1931|volume=11|location=Paris|publisher=Letouzey et Ané|pages=157–323|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxhAAQAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803011458/https://books.google.com/books?id=JxhAAQAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Vine|first=Aubrey R.|title=The Nestorian Churches|year=1937|location=London|publisher=Independent Press |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hhLcAAAAMAAJ |isbn=9780404161880|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803011454/https://books.google.com/books?id=hhLcAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Vosté|first=Jacques Marie |title=Missio duorum fratrum Melitensium O. P. in Orientem saec. XVI et relatio, nunc primum edita, eorum quae in istis regionibus gesserunt|journal=Analecta Ordinis Praedicatorum|year=1925|volume=33|issue=4|page=261–278 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HiLxoQEACAAJ |access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803011449/https://books.google.com/books?id=HiLxoQEACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Vosté|first=Jacques Marie|title=Catalogue de la bibliothèque syro-chaldéenne du couvent de Notre-Dame des Semences près d'Alqoš (Iraq)|journal=Angelicum|year=1928|volume=5|page=3-36, 161-194, 325-358, 481-498|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REIH_SPO_VQC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012454/https://books.google.com/books?id=REIH_SPO_VQC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Vosté|first=Jacques Marie|title=Les inscriptions de Rabban Hormizd et de N.-D. des Semences près d'Alqoš (Iraq)|journal=Le Muséon|year=1930|volume=43|page=263–316 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jaBFAQAAIAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012455/https://books.google.com/books?id=jaBFAQAAIAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Vosté|first=Jacques Marie|title=Mar Iohannan Soulaqa, premier Patriarche des Chaldéens, martyr de l'union avec Rome (†1555)|journal=Angelicum|year=1931|volume=8|page=187–234 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=20fCp25zx4wC |access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012515/https://books.google.com/books?id=20fCp25zx4wC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wigram|first=William Ainger|author-link=William Ainger Wigram|title=An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church or The Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire 100-640 A.D.|year=1910|location=London|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge |isbn=9780837080789|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zUYKAQAAMAAJ |access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012456/https://books.google.com/books?id=zUYKAQAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wigram|first=William Ainger|author-link=William Ainger Wigram|title=The Assyrians and Their Neighbours|year=1929|location=London|publisher=G. Bell & Sons |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FMa6AAAAIAAJ |access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012457/https://books.google.com/books?id=FMa6AAAAIAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Daniel H.|chapter=The Evolution of Pro-Nicene Theology in the Church of the East|title=From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia|year=2013|location=Münster|publisher=LIT Verlag|pages=387–395|isbn=9783643903297|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012958/https://books.google.com/books?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=Robert J.|title=Orientalism, Aramaic, and Kabbalah in the Catholic Reformation: The First Printing of the Syriac New Testament|year=2007|location=Leiden-Boston|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004162501|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zNWfY3yKroC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012958/https://books.google.com/books?id=-zNWfY3yKroC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilmshurst|first=David|title=The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318–1913|year=2000|location=Louvain|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=9789042908765|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jB8ir0ek8bgC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802075357/https://books.google.com/books?id=jB8ir0ek8bgC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilmshurst|first=David|title=The Martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East|year=2011|location=London|publisher=East & West Publishing Limited|isbn=9781907318047|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfxNtwAACAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803012959/https://books.google.com/books?id=zfxNtwAACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilmshurst|first=David|chapter=The Church of the East in the 'Abbasid Era|title=The Syriac World|year=2019a|location=London|publisher=Routledge|pages=189–201|isbn=9781138899018|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005932/https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilmshurst|first=David|chapter=The patriarchs of the Church of the East|title=The Syriac World|year=2019b|location=London|publisher=Routledge|pages=799–805|isbn=9781138899018|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005932/https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wood|first=Philip|title=The Chronicle of Seert: Christian Historical Imagination in Late Antique Iraq|year=2013|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199670673|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RBrAAAAQBAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803013000/https://books.google.com/books?id=_RBrAAAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
{{refend}}
 
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Gereja_di_Timur"