Bashar al-Assad: Perbedaan antara revisi
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Baris 2:
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Nama Arab|al-Assad}}
{{Current related|date=December 2024|2=Kejatuhan Bashar al-Assad}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =
| office = [[Presiden Suriah|Presiden Suriah ke-19]]
| native_name = بشار الأسد
| native_name_lang = ar
| image = Bashar al-Assad in
| caption
| predecessor = [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] {{small|(Penjabat)}}
| primeminister = [[Muhammad Mushthafa Miru]]<br>[[Muhammad Naji al-Otari|Muhammad Naji al-Uthari]]<br>[[Adel Safar|Adil Safar]]<br>[[Riyad Farid Hijab|Riyadh Farid Hijab]]<br>[[Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji|Umar Ibrahim Ghalawanji]]<br>[[Wa'il Nadir al-Halqi]]<br>[[Imad Khamis]]<br>[[Hussein Arnous]]<br>[[Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali]]
| successor = Kosong
| vicepresident = [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]]<br>[[Zuhair Masyarqah]]<br>[[Faruq asy-Syara']]<br>[[Najah al-Aththar]]<br>[[Faisal Mekdad]]
| party = [[Partai Ba'ats|Partai Ba'ats Suriah]]
| lieutenant1 = Sulaiman Qaddah<br>[[Muhammad Sa'id Bukhaitan]]<br>[[Hilal Hilal]]
| leader1 = [[Abdullah al-Ahmar]]
| office1 = Sekretaris
| predecessor1 = [[
| successor1 = Kosong
| birth_name = Basyar Hafizh al-Assad
| birth_date = {{nowrap|{{birth date and age|df=yes|1965|9|11}}}}
| birth_place = {{negara|Suriah}} [[Damaskus]], [[Suriah Ba'athis|Republik Arab Suriah]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| otherparty = [[Front Progressif Nasional (Suriah)|Front Progressif Nasional]]
| spouse = [[Asma al-Assad]] {{marriage||2000}}
| children = 3
| alma_mater = [[Universitas Damaskus]]
| religion = [[Syiah]] {{small|([[Nushairiah]])}}
| allegiance = {{
| branch = [[Angkatan Bersenjata Suriah]]
| serviceyears =
| rank = [[Berkas:Syria-Army-Mushir.svg|30px]] [[Mushir|Marsekal]]
| unit = [[Pengawal Republikan (Suriah)|Pengawal Republikan]] {{small|(Sebelum 2000)}}
| commands = [[Angkatan Bersenjata Suriah]]
| battles = [[Perang
| term_start = 17 Juli 2000
| term_end = 8 Desember 2024
| term_start1 = 24 Juni 2000
| term_end1 = 8 Desember 2024
| blank1 = Agama
| data1 = [[Islam]] [[Alawi]]
| parents = [[Hafez al-Assad]] (Ayah)<br>
[[Anisa Makhlouf]] (Ibu)
}}
'''
Lahir dan besar di [[Damaskus]], Assad lulus dari sekolah kedokteran di [[Universitas Damaskus]] pada tahun 1988 dan memulai bekerja sebagai dokter di [[Angkatan Darat Suriah]]. Empat tahun kemudian, ia mengikuti studi pascasarjana di [[Rumah Sakit Mata Barat]] di London, yang mengkhususkan diri dalam [[oftalmologi]]. Pada tahun 1994, setelah kakak tertuanya [[Basil al-Assad|Basil]] meninggal dalam kecelakaan mobil, Basyar dipanggil kembali ke Suriah untuk mengambil alih peran Bassil sebagai [[pewaris tahta]]. Ia masuk akademi militer, mengambil bagian dalam [[pendudukan Suriah atas Lebanon]] pada tahun 1998. Pada tanggal
Para akademisi dan analis mencirikan kepresidenan Assad sebagai [[Diktatur|kediktatoran]] yang sangat personalis,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/politics-authoritarian-rule|title=The Politics of Authoritarian Rule|last=Svolik|first=Milan|website=Cambridge University Press|language=en|access-date=21 October 2019|archive-date=15 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915144932/https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/politics-authoritarian-rule|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictators at War and Peace|last=Weeks|first=Jessica|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2014|page=18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo41676402.html|title=Authoritarian Apprehensions|last=Wedeen|first=Lisa|series=Chicago Studies in Practices of Meaning|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2018|access-date=21 October 2019|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021203359/https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo41676402.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hinnebusch|first=Raymond|date=2012|title=Syria: from 'authoritarian upgrading' to revolution?|journal=International Affairs|language=en|volume=88|issue=1|pages=95–113|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Michalik|first=Susanne|chapter=Measuring Authoritarian Regimes with Multiparty Elections|date=2015|title=Multiparty Elections in Authoritarian Regimes: Explaining their Introduction and Effects|pages=33–45|editor-last=Michalik|editor-first=Susanne|series=Studien zur Neuen Politischen Ökonomie|publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-658-09511-6_3|isbn=978-3658095116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Geddes|first1=Barbara|title=How Dictatorships Work|last2=Wright|first2=Joseph|last3=Frantz|first3=Erica|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-33618-2|pages=233|doi=10.1017/9781316336182|s2cid=226899229}}</ref> yang memerintah Suriah sebagai [[negara polisi]] [[Totaliterisme|totaliter]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Khamis |last2=Gold |last3=Vaughn |first1=Sahar |first2=Paul B. |first3=Katherine |title=The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-976441-9 |editor1=Auerbach, Castronovo |editor2=Jonathan, Russ |location=New York |pages=422 |chapter=22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wieland |first=Carsten |title=Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-7556-4138-3 |location= London |pages=68 |chapter=6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Saladdin |title=Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura |publisher=Suny Press |year=2019 |isbn=9781438472911 |location=State University of New York Press, Albany |pages=144, 149}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hensman |first=Rohini |title=Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism |publisher=Haymarket Books |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-60846-912-3 |location=Chicago |chapter=7: The Syrian Uprising}}</ref> dan ditandai oleh banyak [[pelanggaran hak asasi manusia]] dan [[Represi politik|penindasan]] yang parah. Sementara pemerintah Assad menggambarkan dirinya sebagai [[Negara sekuler|sekuler]], berbagai ilmuwan politik dan pengamat mencatat bahwa rezimnya mengeksploitasi [[Sektarianisme|ketegangan sektarian]] di negara itu. Meskipun Assad mewarisi struktur kekuasaan dan [[kultus individu|kultus kepribadian]] yang dipupuk oleh ayahnya, ia tidak memiliki kesetiaan yang diterima oleh ayahnya dan menghadapi ketidakpuasan yang meningkat terhadap pemerintahannya. Akibatnya, banyak anggota Garda Lama mengundurkan diri atau dibersihkan dan lingkaran dalam politik digantikan oleh loyalis setia dari klan [[Alawi]]. Program [[liberalisasi ekonomi]] awal Assad memperburuk ketidaksetaraan dan memusatkan kekuatan sosial-politik elit Damaskus loyalis dari [[keluarga Assad]], mengasingkan penduduk pedesaan Suriah, kelas pekerja perkotaan, pengusaha, industrialis dan orang-orang dari benteng Ba'ath yang dulunya tradisional. [[Revolusi Aras]] di Lebanon pada bulan Februari 2005, yang dipicu oleh pembunuhan Perdana Menteri Lebanon [[Rafik Hariri]], memaksa Assad untuk mengakhiri [[pendudukan Suriah di Lebanon]].
Pada 16 Juli 2014, Assad dilantik untuk jangka waktu tujuh tahun lagi setelah mendapat 88,7% hasil suara dalam [[Pemilihan Presiden Suriah 2014|pemilihan presiden pertama yang diperebutkan dalam sejarah Ba'ats Suriah]].<ref name=reuterscontested>{{cite news|title= Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717|agency=Reuters|date=16 Juli 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/04/28/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSBREA3R0LH20140428?irpc=932 |title=Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages |agency=Reuters |first1=Dominic |last1=Evans |date=28 April 2014 |accessdate=13 Maret 2015 |archive-date=2015-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/04/28/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSBREA3R0LH20140428?irpc=932 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |title=UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan |publisher=BBC News|date=15 Mei 2014 |accessdate=13 Maret 2015}}</ref> Pemilihan itu dikritik oleh media sebagai "dikontrol ketat" dan tanpa [[pemantau independen|pemantau pemilu independen]], sementara delegasi internasional yang terdiri dari para pejabat lebih dari 30 negara (termasuk [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Kuba]], [[Ekuador]], [[India]], [[Iran]], [[Irak]], [[Nikaragua]], [[Rusia]], [[Afrika Selatan]] dan [[Venezuela]]) mengeluarkan pernyataan yang menyatakan bahwa pemilihan itu "bebas, adil dan transparan".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/ap/article-2648552/Syrias-Assad-wins-presidential-vote-landslide.html|title=Syria's Assad wins presidential vote in landslide|website=Daily Mail |date=4 Juni 2014 |accessdate=17 Desember 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/middle-east/Foreign-delegation-in-Syria-slams-West-endorses-elections/articleshow/36069541.cms |title=Foreign delegation in Syria slams West, endorses elections |work=The Times of India |date=4 Juni 2014|accessdate=8 Juni 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html|title=Bashar al-Assad sworn in for a third term as Syrian president|website=The Daily Telegraph|date=16 Juli 2014|accessdate=17 Desember 2016}}</ref> Pemerintah Assad menggambarkan dirinya sebagai sekuler,{{sfn|Bronner|2007|p=63}} sementara beberapa ahli menyatakan bahwa pemerintah memanfaatkan ketegangan aliran agama di negara itu dan bergantung pada minoritas [[Alawiyah]] untuk tetap berkuasa.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |title= Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |publisher=International Crisis Group|date=8 Mei 2014|accessdate=4 Oktober 2014 |format=PDF|page= 23 |quote=Rezim ini bertujuan untuk memaksa orang untuk berlindung di identitas sektarian dan komunitarian mereka; untuk membagi masing-masing komunitas menjadi cabang-cabang yang bersaing, membagi mereka yang mendukungnya dari mereka yang menentangnya.}}</ref><ref name="NPR_APRIL_2015">{{cite web |url= http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |title= Syria's Minorities: Caught Between Sword Of ISIS And Wrath of Assad |publisher= NPR |last= Meuse |first= Alison |date= 18 April 2015 |accessdate= 19 April 2015 |quote= Karim Bitar, seorang analis Timur Tengah di Paris berpikir tank IRIS [...] mengatakan [...] "Minoritas sering digunakan sebagai perisai oleh rezim otoriter, yang mencoba untuk menggambarkan diri mereka sebagai pelindung dan sebagai benteng melawan Islam radikal."}}</ref>▼
Pada 2011, Amerika Serikat, Uni Eropa, dan mayoritas Liga Arab menyerukan Assad untuk mengundurkan diri setelah tindakan keras terhadap demonstran [[Musim Semi Arab]] selama peristiwa [[revolusi Suriah]], yang menyebabkan [[Perang Saudara Suriah]]. Perang saudara tersebut telah menewaskan sekitar 580.000 orang, yang sedikitnya 306.000 di antaranya adalah korban non-kombatan; menurut [[Jaringan Hak Asasi Manusia Suriah]], pasukan pro-Assad menyebabkan lebih dari 90% kematian warga sipil tersebut.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR}}</ref> Pemerintah Assad melakukan banyak [[kejahatan perang]] selama perang saudara Suriah,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robertson QC |first=Geoffrey |title=Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice |publisher=The New Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-59558-860-9 |edition=4th |location=New York |pages=560–562, 573, 595–607 |chapter=11: Justice in Demand}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdxEAQAAMAAJ&dq=Assad+crimes+against+humanity&pg=PA229 |title=Syria Freedom Support Act; Holocaust Insurance Accountability Act of 2011 |publisher=Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives |year=2012 |location=Washington DC |pages=221–229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Vohra |first=Anchal |date=16 October 2020 |title=Assad's Horrible War Crimes Are Finally Coming to Light Under Oath |work=Foreign Policy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/16/assads-horrible-war-crimes-are-finally-coming-to-light/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102212057/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/16/assads-horrible-war-crimes-are-finally-coming-to-light/ |archive-date=2 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2022 |title=German court finds Assad regime official guilty of crimes against humanity |work=Daily Sabah |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/german-court-finds-assad-regime-official-guilty-of-crimes-against-humanity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122082145/https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/german-court-finds-assad-regime-official-guilty-of-crimes-against-humanity |archive-date=22 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nosakhare |first=Whitney Martina |date=15 March 2022 |title=Some Hope in the Struggle for Justice in Syria: European Courts Offer Survivors a Path Toward Accountability |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/15/some-hope-struggle-justice-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405071705/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/15/some-hope-struggle-justice-syria |archive-date=5 April 2022 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> sementara [[Angkatan Bersenjata Suriah|tentaranya]] telah melakukan beberapa serangan dengan senjata kimia (terutama, [[Serangan kimia Ghouta|serangan gas sarin di Ghouta]] pada 21 Agustus 2013).<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 March 2023 |title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete |work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases |url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-date=14 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}</ref> [[Kantor Komisaris Tinggi Hak Asasi Manusia Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|Komisaris Tinggi PBB untuk Hak Asasi Manusia]] menyatakan bahwa temuan dari [[Komisi Penyelidikan Internasional Independen tentang Republik Arab Suriah|penyelidikan PBB]] melibatkan Assad dalam [[kejahatan perang]], dan ia menghadapi penyelidikan internasional dan kecaman atas tindakannya.
▲Pada 16 Juli 2014, Assad dilantik untuk jangka waktu tujuh tahun lagi setelah mendapat 88,7% hasil suara dalam [[Pemilihan Presiden Suriah 2014|pemilihan presiden pertama yang diperebutkan dalam sejarah Ba'
Pada bulan November 2024, koalisi pemberontak Suriah melancarkan [[Serangan oposisi Suriah (2024)|beberapa serangan]] terhadap negara tersebut dengan tujuan menggulingkan Assad.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/12/07/world/syria-war-damascus/syria-rebels-assad-al-jolani |title=The leader of Syria's rebels told The Times that their aim is to oust al-Assad. |date=7 December 2024 |last=Abdulrahim |first=Raja |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=7 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |title=Syrian army command tells officers that Assad's rule has ended, officer says|publisher=Reuters}}</ref> Pada bulan Desember 2024, sesaat sebelum pasukan pemberontak [[Kejatuhan Damaskus|merebut Damaskus]], Assad melarikan diri dari negara tersebut dengan pesawat, dan rezimnya [[kejatuhan dinasti Assad|runtuh]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels topple President Assad, prime minister calls for free elections |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |access-date=7 December 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-damascus-falls-to-rebels-1.7404700</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=8 December 2024|title=Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media|url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-175000548.html}}</ref> Ia tiba di [[Moskow]] dan diberikan [[Hak suaka|suaka politik]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Syria's Assad and his family are in Moscow after Russia granted them asylum, say Russian news agencies |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-his-family-are-moscow-after-russia-granted-them-asylum-say-russian-2024-12-08/|date=December 8, 2024 |access-date=December 8, 2024 |website=Reuters|first=Maya|last=Gebeily|first2=Timour|last2=Azhari}}</ref>
== Kehidupan pribadi ==
Assad yang mahir dalam [[bahasa Inggris]] dan [[bahasa Prancis]] menjalani studi di sekolah elit Franco-Arab al-Hurriyet di [[Damaskus]] (ibu kota Suriah) juga belajar ilmu kedokteran di [[Universitas Damaskus]] untuk Fakultas Kedokteran. Lulus menjadi seorang dokter, spesialisasi dalam [[oftalmologi]] (mata) di pendidikan rumah sakit [[London]]. Ia menikah dengan Asma' al-Akhras, seorang Suriah yang tinggal di [[Inggris]] sejak kelahirannya maupun masa dewasanya.
<!-- Keluarga al-Assad adalah anggota [[muslim]] group minoritas dan anggota group have been prominent in the governmental hierarchy and army since 1963 when Baath first seized power. Their origins are to be found in the [[Latakia]] region of north-west Syria. Bashar's family is originally from [[Qardaha]], just east of Latakia.
Initially Bashar had few political aspirations. Hafez al-Assad had been grooming Bashar's older brother, [[Basil al-Assad]] to be the future president. However, Basil's premature death in an automobile accident in 1994 suddenly made Bashar his father's new [[heir apparent]]. When the elder Assad died in 2000, Bashar was duly elected President unopposed with apparent massive popular support, after Syria's Majlis Al Shaa'b (Parliament) swiftly voted to lower the minimum age for candidates from 40 to 34.
Upon claiming the presidency, Bashar al-Assad promised economic and political reforms to Syria, but he has so far delivered little change in the status quo. The [[Baath Party]] remains in control of the parliament and is constitutionally the "leading party" of the state. Bashar al-Assad, however, was not strongly involved previously in the running of the party. Until he became President, Bashar's only formal political role was as the head of the Syrian Computer Society, which was mainly in charge of introducing the [[Internet]] to Syria.
Immediately after he took power, a reform movement made cautious advances during the so-called [[Damaskus Spring]], and Assad seemed to accept this, as he shut down the notorious [[Mezze prison]] and released hundreds of [[political prisoner]]s. The Damaskus Spring however ground to an abrupt halt as security crackdowns commenced again within a year, and although Bashar rules with a softer touch than the all-out [[totalitarianism]] of his father, political freedoms are still extremely curtailed. The security apparatus has eased its grip on society, but remains solidly in control, and while a small dissident movement has by now firmly established itself, it is still both powerless and pressured by the regime. Sporadic protests are occurring among the [[Kurds]] in north-eastern Syria, long discriminated against by the [[Arab nationalist]] Baathist government.
Economic liberalization has also been very limited, with industry still heavily state-controlled and [[political corruption|corruption]] rife throughout the state apparatus. Mild economic sanctions (the [[Syria Accountability Act]]) applied by the [[USA]] further complicate the situation. Of major importance are the negotiations for a [[free trade]] [[Association Agreement]] with the [[European Union]], but progress is slow.
Baris 115 ⟶ 123:
== Bacaan lanjut ==
* {{Cite book|last=Abboud|first=Samer |title=Syria (Hot Spots in Global Politics) |url=https://archive.org/details/syria0000abbo|publisher=Polity |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7456-9797-0}}
* {{cite book |last= Belhadj|first= Souhaïl |date= 2013|title= La Syrie de Bashar Al-Asad : Anatomie d'un régime autoritaire |trans-title= Bashar's Syria: Anatomy of an Authoritarian Regime |url= |language= French |location= |publisher= Belin |isbn= 978-2-7011-6467-0}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Hinnebusch |first1=Raymond |title=Syria: Revolution From Above |url=https://archive.org/details/syriarevolutionf0000hinn |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0415285681}}
* {{Cite book|last1= Perthes|first1=Volker |title=Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change |url= https://archive.org/details/syriaunderbashar0000pert|publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0198567509}}
* {{Cite book|last=Tabler|first=Andrew |title=In the Lion's Den: An Eyewitness Account of Washington's Battle with Syria |url=https://archive.org/details/inlionsdeneyewit00tabl|publisher=Zephyr Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1569768433 |ref=harv}}
; Laporan
* {{Cite report |author=Yossi Baidatz |date=August 2001 |title=Bashar's First Year: From Ophthalmology to a National Vision |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |docket= |asin=
* {{Cite report |author=Annette Büchs |date=March 2009 |title=The Resilience of Authoritarian Rule in Syria under Hafez and Bashar Al-Asad |url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |publisher=German Institute of Global and Area Studies |docket=
== Pranala luar ==
Baris 146 ⟶ 154:
* {{cite web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2007/07/200852518514154964.html|author=Staff writer(s)|title=Profile: Bashar al-Assad|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=25 Maret 2011}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg|first=Charlie|last=Rose|title=Interview with Bashar Hafez al-Assad|publisher=[[PBS]]|date=9 September 2013}}
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{{Presiden Suriah}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Assad, Bashar al-}}
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