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←Membuat halaman berisi '{{short description|Pulpit in a mosque}} {{about|minbar, a pulpit in the mosque}} thumb|200px|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman-era ''minbar'' of the Molla Çelebi Mosque in Istanbul.]]A '''minbar''' ({{Lang-ar|منبر}}; sometimes romanized as '''''mimber''''') is a pulpit in a mosque where the imam (leader of prayers) stands to deliver sermons ({{lang|ar|خطبة}}, ''khutbah''). It is also used in...'
 
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{{short description|Pulpit in a mosque}}
{{about|minbar, a pulpit in the [[mosque]]}}
[[Image:İstanbul 5437.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-era ''minbar'' of the [[Molla Çelebi Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]].]]A '''minbar''' ({{Lang-ar|منبر}}; sometimes [[romanized]] as '''''mimber''''') is a [[pulpit]] in a [[mosque]] where the [[imam]] (leader of [[Salah|prayers]]) stands to deliver sermons ({{lang|ar|خطبة}}, ''[[khutbah]]''). It is also used in other similar contexts, such as in a [[Hussainiya]] where the speaker sits and lectures the congregation.
 
== Etymology ==
The word is a derivative of the [[Semitic root|Arabic root]] {{lang|ar|ن ب ر}} ''n-b-r'' ("to raise, elevate"); the Arabic plural is '''''manābir''''' ({{lang-ar|مَنابِر}}).<ref name=":052">{{cite book |last1=Pedersen |first1=J. |last2=Golmohammadi |first2=J. |last3=Burton-Page |first3=J.|last4=Freeman-Grenville |first4=G.S.P. |chapter=Minbar |editor-last1=Bearman |editor-first1=P. |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=Brill |edition=second |year=2012}}</ref>
 
== Function and form ==
The minbar is symbolically the seat of the [[imam]] who leads prayers in the mosque and delivers [[sermon]]s. In the early years of [[History of Islam|Islam]] this seat was reserved for the [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] and later for the [[Caliphate|caliphs]] who followed him, each of whom was officially the imam of the whole [[Ummah|Muslim community]], but it eventually became standard for all [[Jama masjid|Friday mosques]] and was used by the local imam. Nonetheless, the minbar retained its significance as a symbol of authority.<ref name=":242" /><ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Petersen |first=Andrew |chapter=minbar |title=Dictionary of Islamic architecture |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |pages=191–192}}</ref>
 
While minbars are roughly similar to [[Church (building)|church]] pulpits, they have a function and position more similar to that of a church [[lectern]], being used instead by the imam for a wide range of readings and prayers. The minbar is located to the right of the ''[[mihrab]]'', a niche in the far wall of the mosque which symbolizes the [[direction of prayer]] (i.e. towards [[Mecca]]). It is usually shaped like a small tower with a seat or [[kiosk]]-like structure at its top and a staircase leading up to it. The bottom of the staircase often had a doorway or [[Portal (architecture)|portal]]. In contrast to many Christian pulpits, the steps up to the minbar are usually in a straight line on the same axis as the seat.<ref name=":242" /><ref name=":1" />
 
In some mosques there is a platform (''müezzin mahfili'' in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]) opposite the minbar where the assistant of the Imam, the [[muezzin]], stands during prayer. The muezzin recites the answers to the prayers of the imam where applicable.
 
== History ==
[[File:GRAHAM(1887) p183 MIMBAR IN DJAMÄA EL-KEBIR (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.5|The minbar of the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]], the oldest minbar in existence, still in its original location in the prayer hall of the mosque. (Photograph from the 19th century, before a modern protective glass barrier was installed)]]
[[File:El Aksa (i.e., al-Aqsa) Mosque. Cedar pulpit & mihrab LOC matpc.03246 (cropped and retouched).jpg|thumb|The [[Minbar of the al-Aqsa Mosque|Minbar of Saladin]] in the [[al-Aqsa mosque]], [[Jerusalem]] (photograph from 1930s); the ''minbar'' was built on [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur al-Din]]'s orders in 1168-69 but installed here by Saladin in 1187]]
The first recorded minbar in the Islamic world was [[Muhammad]]'s minbar in [[Medina]], created in 629 [[Common Era|CE]]<ref name=":1" /> (or between 628 and 631 CE)<ref name=":242">{{cite book |chapter=Minbar |editor-last1=M. Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911}}</ref> and consisting simply of two steps and a seat, resembling a [[throne]].<ref name=":1" /> After Muhammad's death this minbar continued to be used as a symbol of authority by the [[Caliphate|caliphs]] who followed him. The [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiya I]] (ruled 661–680) heightened Muhammad's original minbar by increasing the number of steps from three to six, thus increasing its prominence. During the Umayyad period the minbar was used by the caliphs or their representative governors to make important public announcements and to deliver the Friday sermon (''khutba''). In the last years of the Umayyad Caliphate, before its fall in 750, the Umayyads ordered minbars to be constructed for all the [[Jama masjid|Friday mosques]] of [[Egypt]], and soon afterward this practice was extended to other Muslim territories. By the early [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] period (after 750) it had become standard in Friday mosques across all Muslim communities.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":242" />
 
Minbars thus quickly developed into a symbol of political and religious legitimacy for Muslim authorities. It was one of the only major formal furnishings of a mosque and was thus an important architectural feature in itself. More importantly, however, it was the setting for the weekly Friday sermon which, notably, usually mentioned the name of the current Muslim ruler over the community and included other public announcements of a religious or political nature.<ref name=":242" /><ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Bloom|first1=Jonathan|title=The Minbar from the Kutubiyya Mosque|last2=Toufiq|first2=Ahmed|last3=Carboni|first3=Stefano|last4=Soultanian|first4=Jack|last5=Wilmering|first5=Antoine M.|last6=Minor|first6=Mark D.|last7=Zawacki|first7=Andrew|last8=Hbibi|first8=El Mostafa|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Ediciones El Viso, S.A., Madrid; Ministère des Affaires Culturelles, Royaume du Maroc|year=1998}}</ref> As a result, later Muslim rulers sometimes invested considerable expense in commissioning richly-decorated minbars for the main mosques of their major cities.
 
The oldest Islamic pulpit in the world to be preserved up to the present day is the minbar of the [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] in [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ixCyd2lByggC&pg=PA345&dq=oldest+minbar+kairouan&hl=fr&ei=abZfTZv-I4ntsgaT-PW1CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=oldest%20minbar%20kairouan&f=false Muḥammad ʻAdnān Bakhīt, ''History of humanity'', UNESCO, 2000, page 345]</ref><ref name=":242" /> It dates from around 860 or 862 CE, under the tenure of the [[Aghlabids|Aghlabid]] governor [[Abu Ibrahim Ahmad ibn Muhammad|Abu Ibrahim Ahmad]], and was imported in whole or in part from [[Baghdad]]. It is an eleven-step staircase made of over 300 sculpted pieces of [[teak]] wood (a material imported from [[India]]). Thanks to its age and the richness of its decoration, it is considered an important piece of historic [[Islamic art]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Qantara - Minbar of the Great Mosque of Kairouan|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=640&lang=en|access-date=2020-09-17|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref><ref name=":242" /> Other famous examples of medieval minbars include the [[Minbar of the Kutubiyya Mosque|Almoravid Minbar]] in [[Marrakesh]], commissioned in 1137 by [[Ali ibn Yusuf]], and the [[Minbar of the al-Aqsa Mosque]] (also commonly known as the Minbar of [[Saladin]]) in [[Jerusalem]], commissioned in 1168-69 by [[Nur ad-Din (died 1174)|Nur ad-Din]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":242" />[[File:Jami Masjid, Mandu - minbar 01.jpg|thumb|Stone minbar of the [[Jama Masjid, Mandu|Jama Masjid]] in [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]], [[India]] (15th century)]]
[[File:Barsbay complex minbar3.jpg|left|thumb|Details of [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric motifs]] and [[inlay]] work on the Minbar of al-Ghamri at the [[Khanqah-Mausoleum of Sultan Barsbay|Khanqah of Sultan Barsbay]], Cairo (15th century)]]
[[Woodworking|Woodwork]] was the primary medium for the construction of minbars in much of the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]] up until the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":242" /> These wooden minbars were in many cases very intricately decorated with [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric patterns]] and carved [[Arabesque|arabesques]] (vegetal and floral motifs), as well as with Arabic [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphic]] inscriptions (often recording the minbar's creation or including [[Quran|Qur'anic]] verses). In some cases they also featured delicate [[inlay]] work with [[ivory]] or [[Nacre|mother-of-pearl]]. Many workshops created minbars that were assembled from hundreds of pieces held together using an interlocking technique and wooden pegs, but without glue or metal nails.<ref name=":242" /><ref name=":0" /> In addition to the already-mentioned Almoravid Minbar and the Minbar of Saladin, other highly accomplished examples of this style are the [[Minbar of the Ibrahimi Mosque]] in [[Hebron]] (commissioned in 1091),<ref name=":3">{{cite web|last=al-Natsheh|first=Yusuf|title=Haram al-Ibrahimi|url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;isl;pa;mon01;13;en|access-date=October 18, 2020|website=Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers}}</ref><ref name=":242" /> the minbar of the [[University of al-Qarawiyyin|Qarawiyyin Mosque]] (completed in 1144),<ref>{{cite web|title=Qantara - the minbar of the al-Qarawīyīn Mosque|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=309&lang=en|access-date=2020-10-20|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref> and the Minbar of al-Ghamri (now housed at the [[Khanqah-Mausoleum of Sultan Barsbay|Khanqah of Sultan Barsbay]]) in [[Cairo]] (circa 1451),<ref name=":02">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |location=Cairo |edition=7th |year=2018 |pages=225–226}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{cite book |last=O'Kane |first=Bernard |title=The Mosques of Egypt |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |location=Cairo |year=2016 |pages=66–70}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |title=Craftsmen, upstarts and Sufis in the late Mamluk period |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=74 |pages=375–395 |date=2011|issue=3 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X11000796 }}</ref> among others.
 
Stone minbars were sometimes produced in this early period too, as with the example of the minbar of the [[Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan|Mosque of Sultan Hasan]] in [[Cairo]] (14th century). During the Ottoman period, however, stone and marble became increasingly favoured materials for new minbars, though often with simplified ornamentation compared to earlier wooden versions. An accomplished example of this genre, still featuring rich decoration, is the minbar of the [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]] in [[Edirne]] (late 16th century). Stone minbars in various styles were also favoured in the [[Indian subcontinent]]; earlier wooden minbars may have been common here but few have been preserved.<ref name=":242" /><ref name=":1" />
 
== References ==
<references/>
 
==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Minbars}}
 
* Pedersen, J.; Golmohammadi, J.; Burton-Page, J.; Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. (2012). "Minbar". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition''. Brill.
* Bloom, Jonathan; Toufiq, Ahmed; Carboni, Stefano; Soultanian, Jack; Wilmering, Antoine M.; Minor, Mark D.; Zawacki, Andrew; Hbibi, El Mostafa (1998). ''The Minbar from the Kutubiyya Mosque''. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Ediciones El Viso, S.A., Madrid; Ministère des Affaires Culturelles, Royaume du Maroc.
* Lynette Singer (2008). ''The Minbar of Saladin. Reconstructing a Jewel of Islamic Art''. (London: Thames & Hudson).
{{Islamic architecture}}
{{Islamic art}}
[[Category:Islamic architectural elements]]
[[Category:Mosque architecture]]
[[Category:Pulpits]]
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]
[[Category:Minbars]]
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