Gereja di Timur: Perbedaan antara revisi
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| type = [[Kristen Timur]]
| main_classification =
| orientation = [[Kekristenan Suriah|Kristen Suryani]]<ref name="Wilken 2013">{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert Louis |year=2013 |title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity |chapter=Syriac-Speaking Christians: The Church of the East |journal=Choice Reviews Online |volume=50 |issue=10 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA222 |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] dan [[London]] |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=222–228 |doi=10.5860/choice.50-5552 |isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 |jstor=j.ctt32bd7m.28 |lccn=2012021755 |s2cid=160590164 |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2023-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803001351/https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA222 |dead-url=no }}</ref>
| scripture =
| theology = [[Diofisitisme]],{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=287-289}}
Baris 83:
Gereja di Timur menata diri menjadi [[Gereja nasional]] [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani]] dalam [[Konsili Seleukia-Ktesifon]] tahun 410. Pada tahun 424, Gereja di Timur mengumumkan kemandiriannya dari [[Gereja negara Kekaisaran Romawi|tatanan Gereja]] di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]]. Kepala Gereja di Timur adalah [[Batrik Gereja di Timur|Batrik di Timur]] yang bertakhta di [[Provinsi Kebatrikan Seleukia-Ktesifon|Seleukia-Ktesifon]] selaku penerus suksesi kepemimpinan yang (menurut tradisi Gereja di Timur) bermula pada [[Zaman Apostolik]]. Menurut tradisinya sendiri, Gereja di Timur didirikan [[Tomas|Rasul Tomas]] pada abad pertama. Ritus liturgisnya adalah ritus Suryani Timur yang menggunakan [[Liturgi Adai dan Mari|Liturgi Suci Santo Adai dan Santo Mari]].
Sebagai bagian dari [[Gereja Raya]], Gereja di Timur menjalin [[koinonia|persekutuan]] dengan Gereja-Gereja di Kekaisaran Romawi sampai [[Konsili Efesus]] [[Skisma Nestorian|menganatema]] [[Nestorius]] pada tahun 431.<ref name="Wilken 2013"/> Para pendukung Nestorius berbondong-bondong mengungsi ke Persia. Karena menolak ikut-ikutan menganatema Nestorius, Gereja di Timur dituding menganut paham [[Nestorianisme]], bidat yang konon diajarkan Nestorius. Inilah sebabnya Gereja Barat dan semua Gereja Timur lainnya, baik dari golongan Kalsedon maupun dari golongan non-Kalsedon, melabeli Gereja di Timur dengan sebutan "Gereja Nestorian". Dari segi politik, Persia dan Roma ketika itu sedang berperang, sehingga Gereja di Timur terpaksa menjaga jarak dengan Gereja-Gereja di wilayah Romawi.<ref>Procopius, ''Wars'', I.7.1–2<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62</ref><ref>Joshua the Stylite, ''Chronicle'', [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm XLIII] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214033122/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm |date=2021-02-14 }}<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62</ref><ref>Procopius, ''Wars'', I.9.24<br />* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77</ref> Belakangan ini, para sarjana menyifatkan sebutan "Nestorian" sebagai "sebutan keliru yang patut disesali",{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23–35}}{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=1-14}} dan tidak tepat secara teologis.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=4}} Gereja di Timur sendiri pun menyebut diri "Nestorian", menganatema Konsili Efesus, dan menggelari Nestorius sebagai [[santo]] di dalam liturginya.{{sfn|Joseph|2000|p=42}}{{sfn|Wood|2013|p=140}} Meskipun demikian, para ahli kristologi Gereja di Timur pada akhirnya bersidang dan meratifikasi keputusan [[Konsili Kalsedon]] dalam Sinode Mar [[Aba I]] tahun 544.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moffett|first=Samuel H.|title=A History of Christianity in Asia. Jilid I: Beginnings to 1500|page=219|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=287-289}}
Sebagai golongan ''[[dzimmi|zimi]]'' di bawah [[Penaklukan Persia oleh Muslim|daulat Islam di Persia]] (633-654), Gereja di Timur memainkan peran utama di dalam sejarah [[Kekristenan di Asia]]. Antara abad ke-9 sampai abad ke-14, Gereja di Timur merupakan [[denominasi Kristen]] terbesar di dunia dari segi luas geografis. Gereja di Timur mendirikan [[Keuskupan-keuskupan Gereja di Timur sampai tahun 1318|keuskupan-keuskupan]] dan paguyuban-paguyuban dari [[Laut Tengah]] serta [[Irak]] dan [[Iran]] sekarang ini, sampai ke [[India (provinsi gerejawi Suryani Timur)|India]] ([[Kristen Santo Tomas|umat Kristen Santo Tomas pengamal ritus Suryani]] di [[Kerala]]), [[Kekristenan di kalangan bangsa Mongol|kerajaan-kerajaan bangsa Mongol]] di Asia Tengah, dan [[dinasti Tang|kemaharajaan kulawangsa Tang]] di [[Gereja dari Timur di Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] (abad ke-7 sampai abad ke-9). Pada abad ke-13 dan ke-14, Gereja di Timur mengalami masa-masa ekspansi terakhirnya di bawah daulat [[kekaisaran Mongol|kemaharajaan bangsa Mongol]], yakni masa-masa ketika para rohaniwan Gereja di Timur duduk di dalam majelis istana Mongol.
Bahkan sebelum kehilangan sebagian besar wilayah pelayanannya pada abad ke-14, Gereja di Timur sudah kehilangan pijakan di kandang sendiri. Kemerosotan ini tampak pada penurunan jumlah keuskupan yang masih aktif. Sekitar tahun 1000, ada lebih dari enam puluh keuskupan di kawasan Timur Dekat, tetapi pada pertengahan abad ke-13 sudah tinggal sepertiganya saja, kemudian turun lagi menjadi tujuh keuskupan sesudah [[Timur Leng]] berkuasa.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=84-89}} Sesudah kemaharajaan bangsa Mongol terpecah belah, para penguasa Tionghoa dan Mongol Islam mengusir bahkan nyaris memusnahkan Gereja di Timur maupun umatnya. Sesudah itu, hanya di daerah Mesopotamia Hulu dan [[Pesisir Malabar]] (sekarang [[Kerala]], India) sajalah keuskupan-keuskupan Gereja di Timur dapat ditemukan.
Skisma memecah belah Gereja ini, tetapi pada akhirnya tersisa dua kebatrikan pada tahun 1830, yakni [[Gereja Asiria Timur|Gereja Asyur di Timur]] dan [[Gereja Katolik Kaldea]] (salah satu [[Gereja Katolik Timur]] yang bersatu dengan [[Takhta Suci]]). [[Gereja Purba di Timur]] pecah dari Gereja Asyur di Timur pada tahun 1968. Pada tahun 2017, umat Gereja Katolik Kaldea diperkirakan berjumlah 628.405 jiwa,<ref>[http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024215818/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf |date=2018-10-24 }}
{{cite web | url = http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf | author = Ronald Roberson | title = The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017 | publisher = Catholic Near East Welfare Association | access-date = 10 Agustus 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181024215818/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat17.pdf | archive-date = 24 Oktober 2018 | url-status = dead }} temu balik bulan Desember 2010. Informasi bersumber dari ''Annuario Pontificio'' edisi 2017.</ref> sementara umat Gereja Asyur di Timur berjumlah 323.300 jiwa,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/holy-apostolic-catholic-assyrian-church-of-the-east|title=Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East — World Council of Churches|website=www.oikoumene.org|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2019-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507053301/https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/holy-apostolic-catholic-assyrian-church-of-the-east/|dead-url=no}}</ref> dan umat Gereja Purba di Timur berjumlah 100.000 jiwa. Angka-angka tersebut tidak mencakup jumlah umat [[Kristen Santo Tomas]] pengamal ritus Suryani, yang juga terpecah belah menjadi beberapa denominasi, antara lain dua [[Gereja Katolik Timur|Gereja Katolik Suryani]] dan beberapa cabang [[Gereja-Gereja Ortodoks Oriental di India|Gereja Ortodoks]] Suryani.
== Latar belakang ==
{{Box|{{Denominasi Kristen}}|align=right}}
Kemandirian Kepala Gereja di Timur sudah dimaklumkan pada tahun 424, 9 tahun sebelum penyelenggaraan [[Konsili Efesus]], konsili yang menganatema [[Nestorius]] dan memaklumkan bahwa [[Maria|Maria, ibunda Yesus]], dapat disifatkan sebagai [[Theotokos|Bunda
Dari segi teologi, Gereja di Timur mengadopsi [[diofisitisme|doktrin diofisit]] yang menitikberatkan perbedaan [[persatuan hipostatik|kodrat ilahi dan kodrat insani]] [[Pandangan Kristen tentang Yesus|Yesus]].
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[[File:Christological spectrum-o2p.svg|thumb|300px|Pandangan-pandangan Gereja di Timur pada spektrum kristologis abad ke-5 sampai abad ke-7 (biru muda)]]
{{Utama|Nestorianisme|Skisma Nestorian}}
[[Nestorianisme]] adalah doktrin [[kristologi]]s yang menitikberatkan perbedaan antara kodrat insani dan kodrat ilahi [[Yesus]]. Doktrin ini dinisbatkan kepada [[Nestorius]], [[Patriark Oikumenis Konstantinopel|Batrik Konstantinopel]] dari tahun 428 sampai tahun 431. Doktrin Nestorius merupakan puncak pencapaian mazhab filsafati yang dikembangkan para sarjana [[Perguruan Katekese Antiokhia]], teristimewa [[Teodorus dari Mopsuestia]], guru Nestorius. Kontroversi timbul ketika Nestorius secara terbuka menggugat pemberian gelar ''[[Theotokos|Teotokos]]'' (arti harfiahnya "Sang Pelahir
Selepas tahun 431, pemerintah Kekaisaran Romawi berusaha melenyapkan paham Nestorianisme. Inilah alasan umat Kristen di Persia menyukai Nestorianisme. Menganut paham yang ditentang pemerintah Romawi adalah cara untuk menghapus kecurigaan pemerintah Persia bahwa umat Kristen di Persia adalah antek-antek Kekaisaran Romawi.<ref name=Britannica/><ref name=BritannicaNestorius>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius "Nestorius"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317060817/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius |date=2015-03-17 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Temu balik tanggal 11 November 2018.</ref>
Tidak lama sesudah [[Konsili Kalsedon]] tahun 451, barulah Gereja di Timur merumuskan teologi yang berbeda dari Nestorianisme. Rumusan teologi ini pertama kali diadopsi di dalam [[Sinode Bet Lapat]] tahun 484, dan dikembangkan lebih lanjut pada permulaan abad ke-7, ketika Kekaisaran Persia Sasani berhasil mendaulat daerah luas yang didiami umat Suryani Barat dari Kekaisaran Romawi. Banyak di antara umat Suryani Barat tersebut mengusung teologi [[miafisitisme|miafisit]], yang disebut "Monofisitisme" ([[Eutikianisme]]) oleh lawan-lawan mereka, yakni pandangan teologi yang sangat bertolak belakang dengan Nestorianisme. Kebijakan Gereja di Timur ini mendapatkan dukungan dari Syahansyah [[Khosrau II]] dan Syahbanu [[Syirin]]. Ketokohan [[Teodorus dari Mopsuestia]] menginspirasi [[Babai Agung]] (551−628) untuk menjabarkan doktrin-doktrin Gereja di Timur secara tertulis. Doktrin-doktrin di dalam ''Kitab Persatuan'' yang ditulis Babai Agung menjadi [[kristologi]] normatif Gereja di Timur. Babai Agung menegaskan bahwa kedua ''qnome'' (istilah [[bahasa Suryani|Suryani]], bentuk jamak dari ''qnoma'', tidak benar-benar berpadanan dengan istilah Yunani φύσις, ''fisis'', οὐσία, ''usia'', maupun ὑπόστασις, ''hipostasis''){{sfn|Kuhn|2019|p=130}} Kristus tidak bercampur tetapi kekal manunggal di dalam ''parsopa'' ({{lang-el|πρόσωπον}}, ''[[prosopon]]'', "persona") Kristus yang satu. Seperti yang juga terjadi pada istilah Yunani φύσις (''[[fisis]]'') dan ὐπόστασις (''[[hipostasis]]''), istilah-istilah Suryani tersebut kadang-kadang dimaknai menyimpang dari maksud sebenarnya, terutama istilah "dua ''qnome''" yang ditafsirkan secara keliru sebagai "dua individu".{{sfn|Brock|1999|p=286−287}}{{sfn|Wood|2013|p=136}}<ref>
Keabsahan penisbatan Nestorianisme kepada [[Nestorius]], tokoh yang dihormati Gereja di Timur sebagai [[santo]], dipertanyakan.{{sfn|Bethune-Baker|1908|p=82-100}}{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23–35}} David Wilmshurst berpendapat bahwa berabad-abad lamanya "kata 'Nestorian' digunakan baik sebagai istilah yang melecehkan oleh pihak-pihak yang tidak sejalan dengan teologi Suryani Timur maupun sebagai istilah kebanggaan oleh banyak pihak yang membela teologi Suryani Timur [...] dan sebagai istilah deskriptif yang netral dan dirasa tepat oleh pihak-pihak lain. Sekarang ini istilah tersebut pada umumnya dirasakan mengandung stigma tertentu".{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=4}} Sebastian P. Brock mengemukakan bahwa "keterkaitan Gereja di Timur dengan Nestorius sesungguhnya renggang, dan tindakan terus-menerus menyebut Gereja itu sebagai Gereja 'Nestorian', dari kaca mata sejarah, benar-benar menyesatkan dan tidak tepat, selain merupakan sebutan yang sangat menistakan dan tindakan yang menyalahi adab ekumene".{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=14}}
Di luar dari makna religiusnya, kata "Nestorian" dipakai pula dengan makna etnis, sebagaimana tampak pada frasa "umat Nestorian Katolik".<ref>
Dalam artikel ''"The 'Nestorian' Church: a lamentable misnomer"'', yang dimuat dalam jurnal ''[[Bulletin of the John Rylands Library]]'' tahun 1996, [[Sebastian Brock]], salah seorang ''[[Fellow of the British Academy]]'', meratapi kenyataan bahwa "istilah 'Gereja Nestorian' sudah menjadi sebutan standar bagi Gereja timur purba yang pada masa lampau menyebut diri 'Gereja di Timur', tetapi yang sekarang ini lebih menyukai istilah 'Gereja Asyur di Timur' yang lebih lengkap. Sebutan semacam itu bukan hanya tidak sopan bagi umat Gereja terhormat ini pada zaman modern, melainkan juga − sebagaimana yang ingin ditunjukkan makalah ini − tidak tepat dan menyesatkan".{{sfn|Brock|1996|p=23-35}}
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Sama seperti Gereja-Gereja lain, Gereja di Timur memiliki rohaniwan-rohaniwan [[penahbisan|tertahbis]] dalam tiga jenjang jabatan tradisional, yakni [[uskup]], [[imam]] (atau [[presbiter]]), dan [[diakon]]. Sama seperti Gereja-Gereja lain, Gereja di Timur menerapkan [[episkopal|tatanan keuskupan]], yakni pengelompokan umat menjadi [[keuskupan]]-keuskupan yang masing-masing dikepalai seorang uskup. Umat di tiap keuskupan masih dikelompokkan lagi menjadi [[paroki]]-paroki yang masing-masing dipimpin seorang imam. Keuskupan-keuskupan yang berdekatan dikelompokkan menjadi satu [[provinsi gerejawi|provinsi]] di bawah kepemimpinan seorang [[uskup metropolit|uskup metropolitan]]. Uskup metropolitan adalah jabatan yang penting, karena mengemban tugas-tugas maupun wewenang tambahan. Berdasarkan hukum kanon, hanya uskup-uskup metropolitan yang berhak [[konsekrasi|mengonsekrasi]] batrik.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=21-22}} Selain menjadi kepala Gereja, batrik juga mengepalai [[kebatrikan|provinsi kebatrikan]].
Hampir sepanjang sejarahnya, Gereja di Timur memiliki kurang lebih 6 provinsi di dalam daerah basis. Pada tahun 410, provinsi-provinsi tersebut adalah (diurut berdasarkan hierarki) [[provinsi Batrik Seleukia-Ktesifon|Seleukia-Ktesifon]] (Irak Tengah), [[Bet Huzaye (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Bet Lapat]] (Iran Barat), [[Nisibis (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Nisibis]] (perbatasan Turki-Irak), [[Maisyan (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Prat de Maishan]] (Basra, Irak Selatan), [[Adiabene (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Arbela]] (Erbil, daerah Turkestan di Irak), dan [[Bet Garmaï (Provinsi Gerejawi Suryani Timur)|Karka de Bet Slokh]] (Kirkuk, Irak Timur Laut). Selain itu, Gereja Timur juga membawahi provinsi-provinsi di luar daerah basis yang jumlahnya terus bertambah. Provinsi-provinsi di luar daerah basis Gereja di Timur mula-mula terbentuk di wilayah Kemaharajaan Persia Sasani, tetapi tidak lama kemudian terbentuk pula di luar batas-batas wilayah negara itu. Pada abad ke-10, Gereja di Timur membawahi 20<ref name=Britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorians "Nestorian"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615200116/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorians |date=2010-06-15 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved January 28, 2010.</ref> sampai 30 provinsi gerejawi.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=4}} Menurut John Foster, ada 25 provinsi yang dibawahi Gereja di Timur pada abad ke-9,{{sfn|Foster|1939|p=34}} termasuk di Tiongkok dan India. Provinsi gerejawi di Tiongkok bubar pada abad ke-11, provinsi-provinsi lain menyusul pada abad-abad selanjutnya. Meskipun demikian, pada abad ke-13, Gereja di Timur membentuk dua provinsi gerejawi baru di [[Tiongkok Utara]], yakni Provinsi Tanggut dan Provinsi 'Katai dan Ong'.{{sfn|Wilmshurst|2000|p=4}}
== Kitab Suci ==
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[[Pesyita]], yang sudah sedikit direvisi dan ditambahi kitab-kitab yang semula tidak termasuk di dalamnya, adalah [[Syriac versions of the Bible|Alkitab Suryani]] standar bagi Gereja-Gereja bertradisi Suryani, yaitu [[Gereja Ortodoks Suriah|Gereja Ortodoks Suryani]], [[Gereja Katolik Suriah|Gereja Katolik Suryani]], [[Gereja Asiria Timur|Gereja Asyur di Timur]], [[Gereja Purba di Timur]], [[Gereja Katolik Kaldea]], [[Gereja Maronit]], [[Gereja Suryani Ortodoks Malangkara]], [[Gereja Katolik Siro-Malabar|Gereja Katolik Suryani Malabar]], dan [[Gereja Katolik Siro-Malankara|Gereja Katolik Suryani Malangkara]].
[[Perjanjian Lama]] Pesyita diterjemahkan dari [[bahasa Ibrani]], kendati tarikh maupun tempat penerjemahannya tidak betul-betul jelas. Para penerjemahnya mungkin adalah orang-orang Yahudi penutur bahasa Suryani atau orang-orang Yahudi pertama yang memeluk agama Kristen. Mungkin teks demi teks diterjemahkan terpisah-pisah, dan kemungkinan besar penerjemahkan dituntaskan sepenuhnya pada abad ke-2. Rata-rata [[Biblical apocrypha|kitab deuterokanonika Perjanjian Lama]] memiliki terjemahan Suryaninya, dan kitab [[Kebijaksanaan Sirakh]] diyakini diterjemahkan dari [[bahasa Ibrani]], bukan dari [[Septuaginta]].<ref>
[[Perjanjian Baru]] Pesyita, yang mula-mula tidak mencakup kitab-kitab yang diragukan keasliannya ([[2 Petrus]], [[2 Yohanes]], [[3 Yohanes]], [[Surat Yudas]], [[Kitab Wahyu|Wahyu]]), sudah menjadi bentuk Pesyita standar pada awal abad ke-5.
== Ikonografi ==
Pada abad ke-19, kerap muncul wacana bahwa Gereja di Timur menentang segala macam citra religius. Penghormatan terhadap citra religius di [[Kekristenan Suriah|Gereja-Gereja Suryani]] memang tidak pernah sampai pada taraf setinggi yang dicapai [[Gereja Ortodoks Timur|Gereja Romawi Timur]], tetapi tetap merupakan bagian dari tradisi Gereja di Timur.<ref name=ICE>{{cite journal |last=Parry |first=Ken |date=1996 |title=Images in the Church of the East: The Evidence from Central Asia and China |url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2404&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF |journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands Library |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=143–162 |access-date=23 Juli 2018 |doi=10.7227/BJRL.78.3.11 |archive-date=2018-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703103950/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2404&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF |dead-url=no }}</ref> Penolakan citra-citra religius pada akhirnya menjadi norma akibat [[penyebaran Islam|penyebaran agam Islam]] yang mengharamkan segala macam gambar orang-orang kudus dan [[para nabi dalam Kekristenan|nabi-nabi]]. Oleh karena itu, Gereja di Timur terpaksa menyingkirkan ikon-ikon.<ref name="Nestorian">{{cite web|url=http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=21-05-027-f|title=The Shadow of Nestorius|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2021-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224210038/http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=21-05-027-f|dead-url=no}}</ref>
Ada bukti sastrawi maupun arkeologi mengenai keberadaan citra-citra religius di dalam gereja. Pada tahun 1248, seorang pejabat [[Armenia]] di [[Samarkand]] menulis laporan kunjungannya ke sebuah gereja di kota itu dan melihat sendiri sebuah gambar Kristus dan orang-orang Majus. Dalam laporannya mengenai 1330 jiwa umat Suryani Timur di [[Khanbaliq]], Yohanes dari Kora ({{lang|it|Giovanni di Cori|italic=no}}), Uskup [[Sultaniyah]] Ritus latin di Persia, menyebutkan bahwa mereka memiliki ‘gereja-gereja yang sangat indah dan apik, lengkap dengan salib-salib dan gambar-gambar untuk memuliakan
Ilustrasi-ilustrasi dalam sebuah [[Kitab Injil]] [[Pesyita]] Nestorian buatan abad ke-13 dalam ragam aksara [[abjad Suryani|Estranggela]], yang berasal dari kawasan utara Mesopotamia atau [[Tur Abdin]] dan kini tersimpan di [[Perpustakaan Negeri Berlin]], membuktikan bahwa Gereja di Timur belum [[anikonisme|anikonis]] pada abad ke-13.{{sfn|Baumer|2006|p=75, 94}} Naskah Kitab Injil Nestorian lain yang tersimpan di [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] memuat sebuah ilustrasi sosok [[Yesus Kristus]] pada sebuah [[salib bercincin]] yang diapit empat sosok malaikat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Drège |first=Jean-Pierre |translator-last=López Carmona |translator-first=Mari Pepa |year=1992 |orig-year=1989 |title=Marco Polo y la Ruta de la Seda |language=es |series=Collection "[[Découvertes Gallimard#Appendix|Aguilar Universal]]" |volume=31 |location=Madrid |publisher=Aguilar, S. A. de Ediciones |pages=43 & 187 |isbn=978-84-0360-187-1 |oclc=1024004171 |quote=Doctrinas persas}}</ref> Tiga naskah [[bahasa Suryani|Suryani]] dari awal abad ke-19 atau sebelumnya, yang dipublikasikan dalam bentuk kompilasi dengan judul ''[[The Book of Protection]]'' oleh [[Hermann Gollancz]] pada tahun 1912, memuat sejumlah ilustrasi kurang berseni yang menunjukkan bahwa pemanfaatan citra masih berlanjut.
Baris 145:
<gallery class="center" widths="225px" heights="249px">
File:Museum für Indische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 061.jpg|Rohaniwan Nestorian melaksanakan prosesi [[Minggu Palma]], in a 7th- or 8th-century [[Mural dari rumah ibadat Nestorian di Qocho|lukisan pada dinding sebuah gereja Nestorian di Tiongkok]] (abad ke-7 atau abad ke-8) dari zaman [[Dinasti Tang|Kulawangsa Tang]]
File:
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Feast of the Discovery of the Cross.jpg|Perayaan Penemuan [[Salib Sejati]], gambar di dalam sebuah Kitab Injil Pesyita Nestorian dalam ragam aksara [[abjad Suryani|Estranggela]] dari abad ke-13, tersimpan di [[Perpustakaan Negeri Berlin]]
File:Nestorian Peshitta Gospel – Announcement of Jesus’ Resurrection.jpg|Malaikat mewartakan [[kebangkitan Yesus|kebangkitan Kristus]] kepada [[Maria]] dan [[Maria Magdalena]], gambar di dalam Kitab Injil Pesyita Nestorian
Baris 159:
</gallery>
==
{{Seealso|Skisma Nestorian|Nestorianisme}}
Baris 166:
Di bawah tekanan syahansyah Sasani, Gereja di Timur kian lama kian menjarak dari [[Pentarki]] (saat itu dikenal sebagai Gereja [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]]). Oleh karena itu, pada tahun 424, uskup-uskup di Kemaharajaan Sasani bersidang di bawah pimpinan Katolikos [[Dadisyo]] (421–456) dan sepakat untuk seterusnya tidak merujuk kepada pihak berwenang mana pun di luar negeri dalam urusan-urusan tata tertib maupun teologi, khususnya kepada uskup atau konsili Gereja di [[Kekaisaran Romawi]].{{sfn|Hill|1988|p=105}}
Inilah sebabnya gereja-gereja di Mesopotamia tidak mengutus wakil-wakilnya ke berbagai konsili yang dihadiri wakil-wakil "[[Gereja Barat]]". Dengan demikian para pimpinan Gereja di Timur tidak merasa wajib
Kontroversi teologis yang timbul seusai [[Konsili Efesus]] tahun 431 terbukti menjadi salah satu tonggak sejarah Gereja. Konsili Efesus membidatkan Kristologi [[Nestorius]], lantaran keengganannya memuliakan Perawan Maria dengan gelar ''[[Theotokos|Teotokos]]'' (Pelahir [[Tuhan]]) dijadikan bukti bahwa ia percaya ada dua pribadi terpisah (alih-alih dua kodrat manunggal) di dalam diri Kristus.
Syahansyah Sasani yang memusuhi Romawi Timur memanfaatkan kontroversi ini sebagai kesempatan untuk membina umat Kristen Persia menjadi kawula yang setia kepada negara, sehingga memutuskan untuk mendukung [[skisma Nestorian]]. Syahansyah mengambil langkah-langkah untuk menjadikan para pengikut Nestorius sebagai golongan utama di dalam lingkup Gereja Asyur di Timur dengan memberi suaka kepada mereka,{{sfn|Outerbridge|1952}} menghukum mati Katolikos [[Babowai]] yang pro-Romawi pada tahun 484, dan menggantinya dengan [[Barsauma]], Uskup [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]] yang berhaluan Nestorian. Katolikos-Batrik [[Babai (Batrik Nestorian)|Babai]] (497–503) mengukuhkan keterkaitan Gereja Asyur dengan Nestorianisme.
=== Zaman Partia dan Sasani ===
[[File:Church of Saint John the Arab.jpg|thumb|225px|
Gereja di Timur juga berkembang di kerajaan [[bani Lakhmid]] sampai zaman penaklukan Muslim, teristimewa sesudah pemimpin bani Lakhmid, [[Alnu'man III bin Almundir]], secara resmi memeluk agama Kristen sekitar tahun 592.
=== Di bawah daulat Islam ===
[[File:Church of the East provinces 10 c.svg|thumb|
[[File:Mural of a Cleric of the Church of the East.jpg|thumb|left|150px|
Patriarch [[Timothy I (Nestorian Patriarch)|Timothy I]] (780–823), a contemporary of the Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]], took a particularly keen interest in the missionary expansion of the Church of the East. He is known to have consecrated metropolitans for Damascus, for [[Armenia (East Syrian Diocese)|Armenia]], for Dailam and Gilan in Azerbaijan, for [[Rai (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|Rai]] in Tabaristan, for Sarbaz in Segestan, for the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] of Central Asia, for China, and possibly also for [[Tibet]]. He also detached India from the metropolitan province of [[Fars (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|Fars]] and made it a separate metropolitan province, known as [[India (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)|India]].{{sfn|Fiey|1993|p=47 (Armenia), 72 (Damascus), 74 (Dailam and Gilan), 94–6 (India), 105 (China), 124 (Rai), 128–9 (Sarbaz), 128 (Samarqand and Beth Turkaye), 139 (Tibet)}} By the 10th century the Church of the East had a number of dioceses stretching from across the Caliphate's territories to India and China.<ref name=Britannica/>
Baris 294:
'''Kepustakaan'''
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* {{Cite book|last=Ding|first=Wang|chapter=Remnants of Christianity from Chinese Central Asia in Medieval Ages|editor-last1=Malek|editor-first1=Roman|editor-last2=Hofrichter|editor-first2=Peter L.|title=Jingjiao: The Church of the East in China and Central Asia|year=2006|publisher=Institut Monumenta Serica|pages=149–162|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ck0KAQAAMAAJ|isbn=9783805005340|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003427/https://books.google.com/books?id=ck0KAQAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ebeid|first=Bishara|title=The Christology of the Church of the East: An Analysis of Christological Statements and Professions of Faith of the Official Synods of the Church of the East before A. D. 612|journal=Orientalia Christiana Periodica|year=2016|volume=82|number=2|pages=353–402|url=https://www.academia.edu/31305696|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331094413/https://www.academia.edu/31305696|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ebeid|first=Bishara|title=Christology and Deification in the Church of the East: Mar Gewargis I, His Synod and His Letter to Mina as a Polemic against Martyrius-Sahdona|journal=Cristianesimo Nella Storia|year=2017|volume=38|number=3|pages=729–784|url=https://www.academia.edu/36117723|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331094414/https://www.academia.edu/36117723|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=Les étapes de la prise de conscience de son identité patriarcale par l'Église syrienne orientale|journal=L'Orient Syrien|year=1967|volume=12|pages=3–22|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usIWAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003412/https://books.google.com/books?id=usIWAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=Jalons pour une histoire de l'Église en Iraq|year=1970a|location=Louvain|publisher=Secretariat du CSCO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3YPAQAAIAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003412/https://books.google.com/books?id=N3YPAQAAIAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=L'Élam, la première des métropoles ecclésiastiques syriennes orientales|journal=Parole de l'Orient|year=1970b|volume=1|issue=1|pages=123–153|url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34971/po_1970_1_123.pdf|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2021-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619040026/https://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34971/po_1970_1_123.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=Médie chrétienne|journal=Parole de l'Orient|year=1970c|volume=1|issue=2|pages=357–384|url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34979/po_1970_2_357.pdf|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2021-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619035943/https://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/34979/po_1970_2_357.pdf|dead-url=yes}}
* {{Cite book|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=Communautés syriaques en Iran et Irak des origines à 1552|year=1979|orig-year=1963|location=London|publisher=Variorum Reprints|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4BIXAAAAIAAJ|isbn=9780860780519|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003412/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BIXAAAAIAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|title=Pour un Oriens Christianus Novus: Répertoire des diocèses syriaques orientaux et occidentaux|year=1993|location=Beirut|publisher=Orient-Institut|isbn=9783515057189|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802075358/https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Fiey|first=Jean Maurice|author-link=Jean Maurice Fiey|chapter=The Spread of the Persian Church|title=Syriac Dialogue: First Non-Official Consultation on Dialogue within the Syriac Tradition|year=1994|location=Vienna|publisher=Pro Oriente|pages=97–107|isbn=9783515057189|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802075358/https://books.google.com/books?id=cE5tAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Foster|first=John|title=The Church of the T'ang Dynasty|year=1939|location=London|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scpZAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003912/https://books.google.com/books?id=scpZAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Frazee|first=Charles A.|title=Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453-1923|year=2006|orig-year=1983|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6DM4szwUpEC|isbn=9780521027007|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115221203/https://books.google.com/books?id=X6DM4szwUpEC|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Frykenberg|first=Robert Eric|title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present|year=2008|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ|isbn=9780198263777|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004008/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXgSDAAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite journal|last=Gulik|first=Wilhelm van|title=Die Konsistorialakten über die Begründung des uniert-chaldäischen Patriarchates von Mosul unter Papst Julius III|journal=Oriens Christianus|year=1904|volume=4|page=261–277|url=https://archive.org/download/orienschristian04grgoog/orienschristian04grgoog.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Гумилёв|first=Лев Николаевич|author-link=Lev N. Gumilev|title=Поиски вымышленного царства: Легенда о государстве пресвитера Иоанна|language=ru|trans-title=Searching for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John|location=Москва|publisher=Наука|year=1970|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cnm4AAAAIAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803003914/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cnm4AAAAIAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Hage|first=Wolfgang|title=Das orientalische Christentum|year=2007|location=Stuttgart|publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgz_NyvRFIUC|isbn=9783170176683|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802043723/https://books.google.com/books?id=jgz_NyvRFIUC|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite journal|last=Hunter|first=Erica|title=The church of the East in central Asia|journal=The Bulletin of the John Rylands Library|year=1996|volume=78|issue=3|pages=129–142|url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403|doi=10.7227/BJRL.78.3.10|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031352/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2403|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Jakob|first=Joachim|title=Ostsyrische Christen und Kurden im Osmanischen Reich des 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderts|year=2014|location=Münster|publisher=LIT Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNV8BAAAQBAJ|isbn=9783643506160|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115221203/https://books.google.com/books?id=vNV8BAAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jenkins|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Jenkins|title=The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia - and How It Died|year=2008|location=San Francisco|publisher=HarperOne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4HYAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780061472800|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803004923/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4HYAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite journal|last=Jugie|first=Martin|title=L'ecclésiologie des Nestoriens|journal=Échos d'Orient|year=1935|volume=34|issue=177|pages=5–25|doi=10.3406/rebyz.1935.2817}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Wassilios|title=Das nestorianische Christentum an den Handelswegen durch Kyrgyzstan bis zum 14. Jh|year=2000|location=Turnhout|publisher=Brepols Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0w7ZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9782503510354|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005433/https://books.google.com/books?id=0w7ZAAAAMAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Michael F.|title=God is One: A Christian Defence of Divine Unity in the Muslim Golden Age|year=2019|location=Carlisle|publisher=Langham Publishing|isbn=9781783685776|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXPnDwAAQBAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005429/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXPnDwAAQBAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Labourt|first=Jérôme|title=Note sur les schismes de l'Église nestorienne, du XVIe au XIXe siècle|journal=Journal Asiatique|year=1908|volume=11|pages=227–235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtrNz6uG6bIC|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005429/https://books.google.com/books?id=WtrNz6uG6bIC|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Lampart|first=Albert|title=Ein Märtyrer der Union mit Rom: Joseph I. 1681–1696, Patriarch der Chaldäer|year=1966|location=Einsiedeln|publisher=Benziger Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOFiQgAACAAJ|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005429/https://books.google.com/books?id=iOFiQgAACAAJ|dead-url=no}}
* {{cite book|last=Lange|first=Christian|title=Mia energeia: Untersuchungen zur Einigungspolitik des Kaisers Heraclius und des Patriarchen Sergius von Constantinopel|year=2012|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMvX6Ct6qxYC|isbn=9783161509674|access-date=2021-06-19|archive-date=2023-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803005927/https://books.google.com/books?id=sMvX6Ct6qxYC|dead-url=no}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Luke|first=Harry Charles|chapter=The Christian Communities in the Holy Sepulchre|editor-last=Ashbee|editor-first=Charles Robert|title=Jerusalem 1920-1922: Being the Records of the Pro-Jerusalem Council during the First Two Years of the Civil Administratio|year=1924|location=London|publisher=John Murray|pages=46–56|chapter-url=https://archive.org/download/jerusalem192019200ashbuoft/jerusalem192019200ashbuoft.pdf}}
* {{cite book|chapter=Chaldean Catholic Church (Eastern Catholic)|editor-last=Marthaler|editor-first=Berard L.|title=The New Catholic Encyclopedia|volume=3|year=2003|publisher=Thompson-Gale|pages=366–369|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpAQAAMAAJ}}{{Pranala mati|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
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{{refend}}
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