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{{Short description|1915–1917 Ottoman mass murder of its Armenian population during WWI}}
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== BackgroundLatar belakang ==
=== Orang Armenia di Kesultanan Utsmaniyah ===
{{further information|Causes of the Armenian genocide}}
[[FileBerkas:Armenian population map 1896.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|ArmenianPeta populationyang mapmenunjukkan persebaran populasi Armenia, publishedditerbitkan intahun 1896]]▼
=== Armenians in the Ottoman Empire ===
Keberadaan [[orang Armenia]] di [[Anatolia]] telah tercatat oleh sejarah semenjak abad ke-6 SM, lebih dari satu milenium sebelum invasi [[migrasi Turk|orang Turk]].{{sfn|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=xiv}} [[Kerajaan Armenia (kuno)|Kerajaan Armenia]] menjadikan agama Kristen sebagai agama negara pada abad ke-4 M dan mendirikan [[Gereja Apostolik Armenia]].{{sfn|Payaslian|2007|pp=34–35}} Setelah runtuhnya [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]] pada tahun 1453, terdapat dua negara Islam yang saling memperebutkan kawasan [[Armenia Barat]], yaitu [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]] dan [[Dinasti Safawiyah]] Iran. Wilayah Armenia Barat kemudian dipisahkan secara permanen dari [[Armenia Timur]] (yang dikendalikan oleh Dinasi Safawiyah) sesuai dengan ketentuan [[Perjanjian Zuhab]] tahun 1639.{{sfn|Payaslian|2007|pp=105–106}} Kesultanan Utsmaniyah sendiri merupakan negeri dengan keanekaragaman etnis dan agama.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=11, 15}} Walaupun [[sistem milet]] memberikan perlindungan terhadap kaum non-Muslim, kedudukan mereka tidak setara dengan umat Muslim.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=12}} [[Syariat Islam]] memberikan berbagai hak dan keistimewaan kepada kaum Muslim, tetapi juga menjamin hak atas harta benda dan kebebasan beribadah kepada kelompok non-Muslim yang disebut ''[[dhimmi]]'' asalkan mereka membayar [[jizyah]].{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=5, 7}}
{{main|Armenians in the Ottoman Empire}}
▲[[File:Armenian population map 1896.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Armenian population map published in 1896]]
The presence of [[Armenians]] in [[Anatolia]] has been documented since the [[sixth century BCE]], more than a millennium before the [[Turkic migration|Turkish incursion]].{{sfn|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=xiv}} The [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] adopted Christianity as its national religion in the [[fourth century CE]], establishing the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]].{{sfn|Payaslian|2007|pp=34–35}} Following the [[Byzantine Empire]]'s fall in 1453, two Islamic empires—the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Iranian [[Safavid Empire]]—contested [[Western Armenia]], which was permanently separated from [[Eastern Armenia]] (held by the Safavids) by the 1639 [[Treaty of Zuhab]].{{sfn|Payaslian|2007|pp=105–106}} The Ottoman Empire was multiethnic and multireligious,{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=11, 15}} and its [[millet system]] offered non-Muslims a subordinate but protected place in society.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=12}} [[Sharia law]] encoded Islamic superiority but guaranteed property rights and freedom of worship to non-Muslims (''[[dhimmis]]'') in exchange for [[Jizya|a special tax]].{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=5, 7}}
 
OnPada the eve ofpermulaan [[WorldPerang Dunia War&nbsp;I]], aroundterdapat twosekitar milliondua Armeniansjuta livedorang inArmenia yang tinggal di [[Anatolia]], outsementara ofjumlah apenduduk totalkawasan populationtersebut ofsecara keseluruhan berkisar 15–17.,5 millionjuta.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=xviii}} AccordingMenurut to theperkiraan [[ArmenianKebatrikan PatriarchateArmenia ofdi ConstantinopleKonstantinopel|ArmenianKebatrikan PatriarchateArmenia]]'s estimatesuntuk fortahun 1913–1914, there wereterdapat 2,.925 Armeniankota townsdan anddesa villagesArmenia indi theKesultanan empireUtsmaniyah, of whichdengan 2,.084 weredari inantaranya theberada di [[ArmenianDataran Tinggi highlandsArmenia]] in thedi [[vilayet]]s of(provinsi) [[Bitlis Vilayet Bitlis|Bitlis]], [[Diyarbekir Vilayet Diyarbekir|Diyarbekir]], [[Erzurum Vilayet Erzurum|Erzerum]], [[Vilayet Mamuret-ul-Aziz Vilayet|Harput]], anddan [[Van Vilayet Van|Van]].{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=279}} ArmeniansOrang wereArmenia amerupakan minoritygolongan inminoritas mostdi placessebagian wherebesar theywilayah livedyang mereka tinggali, alongsidedan mereka hidup berdampingan dengan [[Turkishbangsa peopleTurki|Turkishorang Turki]] and, [[Kurdsbangsa Kurdi|KurdishKurdi]], Muslim anddan [[Rummilet milletRum|GreekKristen OrthodoxOrtodoks ChristianYunani]] neighbors.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=xviii}}{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=279}} According toMenurut theperkiraan Patriarchate'sKebatrikan figureArmenia, 215,.131 Armeniansorang livedArmenia inhidup urbandi areaskawasan perkotaan, especiallykhususnya di [[ConstantinopleKonstantinopel]], [[Smyrna|Smirna]], anddan [[EasternTrakia ThraceTimur]].{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=279}} AlthoughMeskipun mostsebagian Ottomanbesar Armeniansorang wereArmenia peasantUtsmaniyah farmers,adalah theyrakyat werejelata overrepresentedyang inbermata commercepencaharian sebagai petani, mereka menguasai sektor perdagangan. AsSebagai [[middlemanminoritas minoritiesperantara]], despitebeberapa theorang wealthArmenia ofmenikmati some Armenianskekayaan, theirtetapi overallkekuatan politicalpolitik powermereka wasterbilang lowrendah, makingsehingga orang Armenia merupakan themkelompok especiallyyang vulnerablerentan.{{sfn|Bloxham|2005|p=8–9}}
 
=== LandKonflik conflictdan andreformasi reformslahan ===
[[FileBerkas:Looting of an Armenian village by the Kurds.png|thumb|left|"LootingPenjarahan ofdi ansebuah Armeniandesa villageArmenia byoleh thekelompok KurdsKurdi", pada tahun 1898 oratau 1899]]
ArmeniansOrang-orang inArmenia thedi easternprovinsi-provinsi provincestimur livedKesultanan inUtsmaniyah tinggal dalam suatu masyarakat semi-[[feudalfeodalisme|semi-feodal]] conditionsdan andumumnya commonlymenjadi encounteredkorban [[forcedkerja labor]]paksa, [[Taxationpemungutan inpajak theilegal, Ottomandan Empire|illegalkejahatan-kejahatan taxation]], andyang unpunishedpada crimesakhirnya againsttidak themdiusut includingseperti robberiesperampokan, murderspembunuhan, anddan sexualpelecehan assaultsseksual.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|p=60}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=19}} InPada thepertengahan mid-nineteenthabad centuryke-19, thePemerintah OttomanUtsmaniyah governmentmelancarkan instituted thereformasi [[Tanzimat]], ayaitu seriesserangkaian ofkebijakan reformsyang tomempersamakan equalizestatus theorang-orang statusdi ofbawah OttomanPemerintah subjectsUtsmaniyah regardlessterlepas ofdari religionagama mereka. ThisNamun, goalkebijakan wasini stronglymenuai opposedkecaman bydari Islamicpara clergyulama anddan orang-orang Muslim pada umumnya. MuslimsMayoritas inkebijakan generalini andjuga remainedtidak mostlypernah theoreticaldiimplementasikan.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=9}}{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=8}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=26–27}} NeverthelessWalaupun begitu, somebeberapa Islamistskelompok believedIslamis thatmengemukakan bybahwa seekingdengan equalitymelakukan reformasi untuk kesetaraan, nonorang-Muslimsorang lost thenon-Muslim protectionakan tokehilangan whichperlindungan theyyang weremereka entitlednikmati underberdasarkan shariasyariat lawIslam.{{sfn|Nichanian|2015|p=247}} The [[OttomanUndang-Undang LandAgraria CodeUtsmaniyah oftahun 1858]] disadvantagedmerugikan Armeniansorang-orang andArmenia manydan nowbanyak haddari tomereka payyang [[doublediharuskan taxation]]membayar bothpajak toberganda Kurdishkepada landlordstuan andtanah theKurdi Ottomandan governmentPemerintah Utsmaniyah.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=19, 53}} ConditionsSituasi ofyang thedialami Armenianoleh peasantryrakyat injelata theArmenia easterndi provincesprovinsi-provinsi regressedtimur frommengalami 1860kemunduran onwardssejak tahun 1860.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|pp=62–63}}
 
FromSejak thepertengahan mid-nineteenthabad centuryke-19, Armeniansorang-orang facedArmenia large-scalemengalami [[landpenyerobotan usurpation]]lahan assebagai aakibat consequencedari ofberpindahnya themasyarakat Kurdi dari gaya hidup nomaden [[sedentarizationsedentarisasi ofsuku KurdishKurdi|menjadi tribesmenetap]]. andSelain theitu, penyerobotan lahan tanah ini juga disebabkan arrivaloleh ofkedatangan [[muhacir|Muslimpencari refugeessuaka]] anddan immigrantsimigran Muslim (mainlyterutama [[CircassiansAdighe|orang-orang Sirkasia]]) followingsebagai theakibat dari [[Russo-CircassianPerang WarRusia-Sirkasia]].{{sfn|Astourian|2011|pp=56, 60}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=19, 21}}{{sfn|Göçek|2015|p=123}} InPada tahun 1876, whenketika Sultan [[Abdul Hamid&nbsp;II]] camenaik to powertakhta, thePemerintah stateUtsmaniyah beganmengambil tolahan confiscatemilik Armenianorang-ownedorang landArmenia indi the easternprovinsi-provinsi provincestimur anddan givememberikannya itkepada toimigran Muslim immigrantssebagai asbagian partdari ofkebijakan asistematis systematicuntuk policymengurangi topopulasi reduceArmenia thedi Armeniandaerah population ofini; thesekebijakan areasini thatdilaksanakan lastedsampai untilmasa WorldPerang WarDunia IPertama.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|pp=62, 65}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=55}} TheseSituasi conditionsini ledmenyebabkan topenurunan ajumlah substantialpopulasi declinedi indataran thetinggi ArmenianArmenia highlands'secara populationsignifikan; 300,.000 Armeniansorang leftArmenia themeninggalkan empireKesultanan Utsmaniyah, whilesementara othersorang-orang movedArmenia tolainnya townspindah ke kota-kota.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=271}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=54–56}} SomeSebagian Armeniansorang-orang joinedArmenia [[Armenianbergabung nationaldengan liberationpartai movement|revolutionarypolitik politicalrevolusioner; parties]],salah ofsatu whichyang thepaling mostberpengaruh influential was theialah [[ArmenianFederasi RevolutionaryRevolusi FederationArmenia]] (ARF), foundedyang didirikan pada intahun 1890. ThesePartai-partai partiesini primarilypada soughtpokoknya reformbertujuan withinuntuk themelakukan empirereformasi, andtetapi foundhanya onlymemperoleh limitedsedikit dukungan dari orang-orang supportArmenia fromdi OttomanKesultanan ArmeniansUtsmaniyah.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=87–88}}
 
Russia's decisive victorySeusai inkekalahannya thedalam [[Russo-TurkishPerang WarRusia-Turki (1877–1878)|1877–1878perang warmelawan Rusia pada tahun 1877-1878]], forcedKesultanan theUtsmaniyah Ottomanterpaksa Empiremelepaskan tosebagian cedewilayahnya partsdi ofAnatolia easternTimur Anatoliadan Balkan, thesementara Balkans,wilayah [[Siprus Utsmaniyah|Siprus]] juga direlakan andkepada [[OttomanImperium CyprusBritania|CyprusBritania]] sebagai ganti atas jaminan perlindungan dari serangan Rusia.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=94–95, 105}} UnderKemudian, internationalakibat pressuretekanan atinternasional the 1878dari [[Congress ofKongres Berlin]], theyang [[Ottomandiselenggarakan government]]pada agreedtahun to1878, carryPemerintah outUtsmaniyah reformsmenyatakan andkesediaannya guaranteeuntuk themelakukan physicalreformasi safetydan ofmenjamin itskeselamatan Armenianorang-orang Armenia. subjectsNamun, buttidak thereada wasmekanisme nountuk enforcementmenjamin mechanism;penegakan komitmen ini,{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=95–96}} conditionsdan situasi orang continuedArmenia toterus worsenmemburuk.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|p=64}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=97}} The Congress ofKongres Berlin markedmenandai the emergence of themunculnya [[Armenianpermasalahan questionArmenia]] indalam internationaldiplomasi diplomacyinternasional askarena Armeniansisu weremengenai fororang-orang theArmenia firstuntuk timepertama usedkalinya bydijadikan thedalih [[Internationaloleh relationsnegara-negara ofbesar theEropa Greatuntuk Powersmelakukan (1814–1919)|Greatintervensi Powers]]politik toterhadap interfereKesultanan in Ottoman politicsUtsmaniyah.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=96}} AlthoughMeskipun Armeniansorang-orang hadArmenia beentelah calleddianggap thesebagai "loyalkomunitas millet"yang insetia contrast(tidak toseperti Greeksorang-orang andYunani othersdan whokelompok hadlainnya previouslyyang challengedpernah Ottoman rulememberontak), thePemerintah authoritiesUtsmaniyah beganmulai tomenganggap perceiveorang-orang ArmeniansArmenia assebagai aancaman threatsetelah aftertahun 1878.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=48–49}} InPada tahun 1891, Abdul Hamid createdmembentuk theresimen [[Hamidiye (cavalrykavaleri)|''Hamidiye'' regiments]] fromyang Kurdishberasal tribesdari kelompok Kurdi, allowingdan themresimen toini actdiperbolehkan withmelakukan impunitytindakan againstsewenang-wenang terhadap orang-orang ArmeniansArmenia.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|pp=75–76}}{{sfn|Astourian|2011|p=64}} FromDari tahun 1895 tosampai 1896 the empire saw, [[HamidianPembantaian massacresHamid|widespreadterjadi massacrespembantaian besar-besaran]]; atdi leastKesultanan Utsmaniyah; setidaknya 100,.000 Armeniansorang wereArmenia killeddibunuh{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|pp=11, 65}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=129}} primarilyoleh bytentara-tentara OttomanUtsmaniyah soldiersdan andmassa mobsyang letdibiarkan looseoleh by the authoritiesaparat.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=129–130}} ManyBanyak Armeniandesa villagesdi wereArmenia forciblyyang converteddipaksa tomasuk Islam.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=271}} The OttomanPemerintah stateUtsmaniyah borebertanggung ultimatejawab responsibilitypenuh foratas thepembantaian killingsitu,{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=130}}{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=11}} whosedengan purposetujuan wasuntuk violentlymengembalikan restoringtatanan thesosial previoussebelumnya social(yaitu orderketika inorang-orang whichKristen Christianstidak wouldmempertanyakan unquestioninglysupremasi acceptorang-orang Muslim supremacy,){{sfn|Suny|2015|p=131}}{{sfn|Hovannisian|2017|p=201}} andserta forcinguntuk Armeniansmemaksa toorang emigrate,Armenia pindah therebydan decreasingmengurangi theirjumlah numbersmereka.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=266}}
 
=== YoungRevolusi TurkTurki RevolutionMuda ===
{{Main|YoungRevolusi TurkTurki RevolutionMuda}}
Kekuasaan Abdul Hamid's despotismyang promptedsewenang-wenang thememicu formationpembentukan ofkelompok anoposisi oppositionyang movement,disebut thegolongan [[YoungTurki TurkMuda]]s,. whoMereka soughtberupaya tomenjatuhkan overthrowAbdul himHamid anddan restore the 1876mengembalikan [[ConstitutionUndang-Undang ofDasar theKesultanan OttomanUtsmaniyah|Undang-Undang EmpireDasar Kesultanan Utsmaniyah tahun 1876]] , whichyang hesebelumnya hadtelah suspendedditanggukan insang Sultan pada tahun 1877.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=92–93, 99, 139–140}} OneSalah factionsatu offaksi thedi Younggolongan TurksTurki wasMuda the secret and revolutionaryadalah [[Committee ofKomite UnionPersatuan anddan ProgressKemajuan]] (CUP), basedyang inbersifat rahasia dan revolusioner. Faksi ini berbasis di [[Salonica]], from(kini whichThessaloniki, the charismaticYunani), conspiratordan [[Mehmed Talaat]] (laterkelak disebut Talaat Pasha) emerged as aberperan leadingsebagai memberpemimpinnya.{{sfn|Kieser|2018|pp=46–47}} AlthoughWalaupun skepticalmerasa ofragu adengan growing, exclusionarybangkitnya [[Turkishnasionalisme nationalismTurki]] inyang thebersifat Youngeksklisif Turkdi movementdalam golongan Turki Muda, the ARF decided tomemutuskan allyuntuk withbersekutu thedengan CUP inpada DecemberDesember 1907.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=152–153}}{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=50}} InPada tahun 1908, the CUP came to power in themelancarkan [[YoungRevolusi TurkTurki RevolutionMuda]], whichdan beganberhasil withmerebut akekuasaan. stringRevolusi ofini CUPdimulai dengan serangkaian assassinationspembunuhan ofterhadap leadingpejabat-pejabat officialsdi inkawasan [[MacedoniaMakedonia (regionwilayah)|MacedoniaMakedonia]].{{sfn|Kieser|2018|pp=53–54}}{{sfn|Göçek|2015|p=192}} Abdul Hamid wasterpaksa forcedmengembalikan toUndang-Undang reinstateDasar thetahun 1876 constitutiondan andmembentuk restorekembali parliamentparlemen, whichdan washal celebratedini bydidukung Ottomansoleh oforang-orang allUtsmaniyah ethnicitiesdari andberbagai religionssuku dan agama.{{sfn|Kieser|2018|pp=54–55}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=154–156}} AlthoughSetelah securitytahun improved1908, inkeamanan thedi easternprovinsi-provinsi provincestimur after 1908membaik,{{sfn|Kaligian|2017|pp=82–84}} thetetapi CUP didtidak mengembalikan notlahan-lahan reverseorang theArmenia landyang usurpationtelah ofdiserobot thepada previousdasawarsa-dasawarsa decadessebelumnya.{{sfn|Astourian|2011|p=66}}
 
[[File:AdanaChristianQuarter.jpg|thumb|TheKawasan Armenianorang quarterArmenia ofdi kota [[Adana]] aftersetelah theberlangsungnya [[Adanapembantaian massacreAdana|1909pembantaian massacrestahun 1909]]]]
InPada earlyawal tahun 1909, kelompok konservatif dan beberapa orang liberal melancarkan [[31Insiden March31 IncidentMaret|anupaya unsuccessfulkudeta countercoupbalasan]] waspada launchedtahun by1909, conservativeskarena andmereka somemenentang liberalspemerintahan whoCUP opposedyang thesemakin CUP'smenindas, tetapi upaya increasinglyini repressivemengalami governancekegagalan.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=165–166}} WhenSaat newskabar ofmengenai thekudeta countercoupbalasan reachedmencapai kota [[Adana]], armedkelompok MuslimsMuslim attackedbersenjata themenyerang Armeniandaerah quarterorang andArmenia, Armeniansdan returnedorang fireArmenia kemudian membalasnya. OttomanTentara Utsmaniyah soldierstidak didmelindungi notoleh protectorang ArmeniansArmenia anddan insteadmalah armedmempersenjatai thepara riotersperusuh.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=168–169}} BetweenSekitar 20,.000 andhingga 25,.000 people,orang mostly Armenians, wereArmenia [[pembantaian Adana massacre|killeddibantai indi Adana]] anddan nearbykota-kota townssekitar.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=171}} UnlikeTidak theseperti 1890spembantaian massacrestahun 1890-an, theperistiwa eventsini weretidak notdidalangi organizedoleh bypemerintah thepusat, centraltetapi governmentdipicu butoleh instigatedpejabat by local officialssetempat, intellectualscendekiawan, anddan Islamic clericsulama, includingtermasuk CUPpendukung supportersCUP indi Adana.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=172}} AlthoughMeskipun thepara massacrespelaku wentpembantaian unpunished,ini thetidak pernah dihukum, ARF continuedterus toberharap hopebahwa thatakan reformsdilancarkan toreformasi improveyang securityakan andmeningkatkan restorekeamanan landsdan weremengembalikan forthcominglahan. Akhirnya, untilpada lateakhir tahun 1912, whenARF theymemutus brokehubungan with thedengan CUP and appealeddan tomeminta thebantuan Europeannegara-negara powersEropa.{{sfn|Kieser|2018|pp=152–153}}{{sfn|Astourian|2011|pp=66–67}}{{sfn|Kaligian|2017|p=92}} OnPada 8&nbsp;FebruaryFebruari 1914, the CUP reluctantlymau agreedtidak tomau theharus menyetujui [[1914reformasi ArmenianArmenia reforms1914]] brokeredyang bydiprakarsai Germanyoleh komunitas internasional dan dimediasi oleh [[Kekaisaran Jerman]]. TheMenurut kebijakan reformsini, neverdua implementedinspektur dueEropa toakan Worlddiangkat War&nbsp;I,untuk stipulatedseluruh thekawasan appointmenttimur ofUtsmaniyah, twosementara Europeanrezimen inspectorsHamidiye forakan thedicadangkan. entireReformasi Ottomanini eastpada andakhirnya puttingtidak thepernah Hamidiyediwujudkan regimentsakibat inmeletusnya reservePerang Dunia I. Para pemimpin CUP leaderssendiri feared,merasa ifkhawatir implemented,bahwa theseapabila reformskebijakan wouldtersebut leaddilaksanakan, towilayah Utsmaniyah akan terpecah. partitionMereka andbahkan citedmenjadikan themreformasi asini asebagai reasonsalah forsatu thealasan eliminationuntuk ofmembinasakan theorang ArmenianArmenia populationpada intahun 1915.{{sfn|Kieser|2018|pp=163–164}}{{sfn|Akçam|2019|pp=461–462}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=203, 359}}
 
===BalkanPeperangan WarsBalkan===
[[FileBerkas:Phocaea massacre Sartiaux.jpg|thumb|upright=|left|[[Çetes|MuslimSejumlah banditspenyamun Muslim]] parading(yang withdisebut loot''Çetes'') mempertunjukkan hasil jarahan mereka indi Phocaea (modern-daykini dikenal dengan nama [[Foça]], Turkeydi Turki) onpada tanggal [[Massacre ofpembantaian Phocaea|13 JuneJuni 1914]]. InDi thelatar backgroundbelakang areterdapat Greeksejumlah refugeespencari andsuaka Yunani dan gedung-gedung burningyang buildingsterbakar.]]
The 1912 [[FirstPerang Balkan WarPertama]] resultedpada intahun the1912 [[Territorial_evolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire#1913|lossmengakibatkan oflepasnya almosthampir allkeseluruhan ofwilayah theKesultanan empire'sUtsmaniyah Europeandi territory]]Eropa{{sfn|Suny| 2015| pp= 184–185}} andserta thepengusiran massorang-orang expulsionMuslim ofdari Muslimsdaerah from the BalkansBalkan.{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=167}} OttomanMasyarakat Muslim societydi wasKesultanan incensedUtsmaniyah bytersulut theoleh atrocitieskekejaman committedyang againstdilakukan terhadap orang-orang Muslim Balkan. Muslims,Hal intensifyingini anti-Christianmemperkuat sentimentsentimen andanti-Kristen leadingdan tomenimbulkan akeinginan desireuntuk formembalas revengedendam.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=185, 363}}{{sfn|Üngör|2012|p=50}} BlameOrang-orang forKristen thedijadikan losskambing washitam assignedatas tokekalahan all Christianstersebut, includingtermasuk the Ottoman Armenians, manyorang-orang ofArmenia whomyang hadturut foughtberjuang ondi thepihak OttomanKesultanan sideUtsmaniyah.{{sfn|Bozarslan ''et al.''|2015|pp=169, 171}} ThePerang Balkan Warsmengakhiri put an end to thekebijakan [[Ottomanism|OttomanistOtomanisme]] movementyang forberupaya pluralismmewujudkan andpluralisme coexistence;dan kehidupan bersama,{{sfn|Bloxham|Göçek|2008|p=363}} instead, themalahan CUP turnedberubah tomenjadi angerakan increasinglyradikal radicalnasionalis TurkishTurki nationalismyang toberupaya preservemempertahankan theKesultanan empireUtsmaniyah.{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=156}} CUPPara leaderspemimpin suchCUP asseperti Talaat anddan [[Enver Pasha]] camemenyalahkan to blamepopulasi non-Muslim populationyang concentrationstinggal indi strategickawasan-kawasan areasstrategis foratas manymasalah-masalah ofyang theada empire'sdi problems,Kesultanan concludingUtsmaniyah. byMereka bahkan menyimpulkan pada pertengahan tahun mid-1914 thatbahwa theypopulasi werenon-Muslim "internalini tumorsadalah "tumor" toyang beperlu exciseddiberantas.{{sfn|Kaligian|2017|pp=97–98}} OfDi theseantara orang-orang non-Muslim ini, Ottomanorang-orang ArmeniansArmenia weredianggap consideredyang mostpaling dangerous,berbahaya becausekarena para pemimpin CUP leadersmengkhawatirkan bahwa tanah air mereka di Anatolia (yang feareddiklaim thatsebagai theirtempat homelandperlindungan interakhir Anatolia—claimedbagi asbangsa theTurki) lastakan refugeberubah ofmenjadi theseperti TurkishMakedonia nation—wouldyang turntelah intomenjadi anotherwilayah MacedoniaYunani.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=193}}{{sfn|Göçek|2015|p=191}}{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=156}}
 
InPada Januarybulan Januari 1913, the CUP melancarkan [[1913kudeta OttomanUtsmaniyah coup d'état1913|launched another coupkudeta]], installedmembentuk asebuah [[one-partynegara satu state]]partai, anddan menindas strictlysemua repressedpihak allyang realdianggap orsebagai perceivedmusuh internaldari enemiesdalam.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Kieser|2018|pp=133–134, 136, 138, 172}} AfterSetelah thekudeta coupini, the CUP shiftedmengubah thebatas-batas demographykesukuan ofdengan bordermemukimkan areaskembali byorang-orang resettlingMuslim Balkan Muslimsdan whilememaksa coercingorang-orang ChristiansKristen tountuk emigratehengkang; immigrantspara wereimigran promiseddijanjikan propertyharta thatbenda hadyang belongedsebelumnya todimiliki oleh orang-orang ChristiansKristen.{{sfn|Kaligian|2017|pp=95, 97}} Ketika Whensebagian partsdari ofTrakia EasternTimur Thracediduduki werekembali reoccupiedoleh byKesultanan theUtsmaniyah Ottoman Empire during thedalam [[SecondPerang Balkan WarKedua]] inpada pertengahan tahun mid-1913, thereterjadi waspenjarahan adan campaignintimidasi ofterhadap lootingorang-orang andYunani intimidationdan againstArmenia Greeksyang andmengakibatkan Armenians, forcing many tomereka emigratemengungsi.{{sfn|Kaligian|2017|pp=96–97}} AroundSekitar 150,.000 Greekorang OrthodoxOrtodoks fromYunani thedi kawasan [[Aegeanpesisir coastAegea]] weredideportasi [[1914secara Greekpaksa deportations|forciblypada deported]]bulan inMei Maydan and JuneJuni 1914 byoleh [[Çetes|Muslimkelompok banditspenyamun Muslim]] secretly(disebut backed''Çetes'') yang diam-diam bydidukung theoleh CUP, andwalaupun sometimesada joinedpula bytentara theyang [[Ottomanikut army|regular army]]serta.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=193, 211–212}}{{sfn|Kieser|2018|pp=169, 176–177}}{{sfn|Kaligian|2017|p=98}} HistorianSejarawan [[Matthias Bjørnlund]] statesberpendapat thatbahwa thekeyakinan perceivedmengenai successkeberhasilan ofdeportasi theorang GreekYunani deportationsmendorong allowedpara pemimpin CUP leadersuntuk tomerencanakan envisionkebijakan evenyang morelebih radicalradikal policiesdengan "asmaksud yetuntuk anothermelakukan extensionTurkifikasi ofterhadap amasyarakat policy of [[demographic engineering|social engineering]] through [[Turkification]]"Utsmaniyah.{{sfn|Bjørnlund|2008|p=51}}
 
==OttomanKeterlibatan entryUtsmaniyah intodalam WorldPerang WarDunia I==
[[FileBerkas:Ottoman revenge map after Balkan wars.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.1|Peta "RevengePembalasan" ({{lang-ota|انتقام}}) mapyang highlightingmenunjukkan territorywilayah lostyang duringlepas andpada aftermasa thePeperangan Balkan Warsdan sesudahnya. Wilayah-wilayah tersebut ditandai dengan inwarna blackhitam.]]
ABeberapa fewhari dayssetelah aftermeletusnya thePerang outbreakDunia of World War IPertama, the CUP concluded [[Ottoman–Germanpersekutuan allianceUtsmaniyah-Jerman|anmenjalin alliancepersekutuan withdengan GermanyJerman]] onpada 2 AugustAgustus 1914.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=214–215}} Pada Thebulan sameyang monthsama, CUPpara representativesperwakilan wentCUP tomengikuti [[ArmenianKongres congressArmenia atdi Erzurum|ankonferensi ARF conference]]. demandingPara that,perwakilan inini themenuntut eventagar ofARF warmengajak with Russia, the ARF inciteorang [[RussianArmenia ArmeniansRusia]] tountuk membantu Utsmaniyah interveneapabila onterjadi theperang Ottomanmelawan sideRusia. InsteadNamun, thepara delegatesdelegasi resolvedARF thatmalah Armeniansmemutuskan shouldbahwa fightorang forArmenia theharus countriesmembela ofnegaranya their citizenshipsmasing-masing.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=223–224}} During itsSelama warpersiapan preparationsperang, thePemerintah OttomanUtsmaniyah governmentmerekrut recruitedribuan thousandsnarapidana ofuntuk prisonersbergabung todengan joinkelompok theparamiliter paramilitaryyang disebut [[SpecialOrganisasi OrganizationKhusus (OttomanKesultanan EmpireUtsmaniyah)|SpecialOrganisasi OrganizationKhusus]],{{sfn|Üngör|2016|pp=16–17}} whichyang initiallyawalnya focusedbertujuan onuntuk stirringmemicu uppemberontakan revoltsdi amongkalangan MuslimsMuslim behindRusia Russiansebelum linesKesultanan beginningUtsmaniyah beforesecara theresmi Ottomanterjun Empireke officiallydalam enteredPerang theDunia warI.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=233–234}} OnPada 29&nbsp;OctoberOktober 1914, theKesultanan OttomanUtsmaniyah Empiremelakukan [[OttomanSerangan entryLaut into World War IHitam|enteredserangan World War&nbsp;Ikejutan]] onterhadap thepelabuhan-pelabuhan sideRusia of thedi [[CentralLaut PowersHitam]]; byserangan launchingini amenandai [[Blackdimulainya Seaketerlibatan Raid|surpriseUtsmaniyah attack]]dalam onPerang RussianDunia portsI indi thepihak [[BlackBlok SeaSentral]].{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=218}} ManyBanyak Russianorang ArmeniansArmenia wereRusia enthusiasticyang aboutantusias thedengan war,perang hopingini tokarena "liberatemereka Turkishberangan-angan "membebaskan Armenia Turki", buttetapi orang-orang Armenia Ottomandi ArmeniansKesultanan wereUtsmaniyah morecenderung ambivalentragu, afraidkarena thatmereka supportingkhawatir Russiabahwa woulddukungan bringkepada retaliationRusia akan menimbulkan pembalasan. OrganizationOrganisasi ofsukarelawan [[Armenianyang volunteerdibentuk units]]oleh byorang-orang RussianArmenia Armenians,Rusia later(kelak joinedjuga bydiikuti someoleh Ottomanpara Armenianpembelot deserters,dari furtherorang-orang increasedArmenia Ottomandi suspicionsKesultanan againstUtsmaniyah) theirsemakin Armenianmeningkatkan populationkecurigaan Pemerintah Utsmaniyah terhadap populasi Armenia.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=221–222}}
 
WartimeKetika requisitionspemerintah weremengambil oftensumber corruptdaya anddari arbitraryrakyat untuk keperluan perang, andpengambilan disproportionatelytersebut targetedsering Greekskali anddilakukan Armenianssecara korup, sewenang-wenang, dan terlalu menyasar orang-orang Yunani dan Armenia.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=225}} ArmenianPara leaderspemimpin urgedArmenia youngmendesak menpara topemuda acceptagar mereka bersedia [[seferberlik|conscription into the armydiwamilkan]], buttetapi manybanyak soldierstentara ofdari allberbagai ethnicitieskelompok andetnis religionsdan desertedagama dueyang tokemudian difficultmembelot conditionskarena andsituasi concernyang forsulit theirdan familieskekhawatiran atas keluarga mereka.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=226–227}} At leastSetidaknya 10 percentpersen ofdari Ottomanorang-orang ArmeniansArmenia weredi mobilized,Kesultanan leavingUtsmaniyah dimobilisasi, theirsehingga communitieskampung bereftmereka ofkehilangan fightingorang-ageorang menmuda; andhal thereforeinilah largelyyang unablekelak tomembuat organizemereka armedtidak resistancedapat tomengangkat deportationsenjata inuntuk melawan deportasi pada tahun 1915.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2011|p=242}}{{sfn|Bozarslan ''et al.''|2015|p=179}} During theKetika OttomanUtsmaniyah [[Caucasuskampanye campaign|invasionmiliter ofKaukasus|menyerang RussianRusia]] anddan [[Persiankampanye campaignmiliter Persia (WorldPerang WarDunia I)|Persian territoryPersia]], theOrganisasi SpecialKhusus Organizationmelakukan massacredpembantaian localterhadap Armeniansorang-orang andArmenia dan [[SeyfoGenosida Asiria|SyriacKristen ChristiansSuryani]].{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=243–244}}{{sfn|Üngör|2016|p=18}} BeginningSemenjak inawal November 1914, provincialpara governorsgubernur ofprovinsi Van, Bitlis, anddan Erzerum sentmengirimkan manybanyak telegramstelegram toke thepemerintah centralpusat; governmenttelegram-telegram pressingtersebut formenuntut moreagar severepemerintah measuresmengambil againsttindakan theyang Armenianslebih keras terhadap orang-orang Armenia, bothbaik regionallyitu anddi throughouttingkat thedaerah empiremaupun di seluruh kesultanan.{{sfn|Akçam|2019|p=475}} TheseTuntutan pressuresini playedberperan apenting keydalam rolememperburuk inpersekusi theterhadap intensificationorang ofArmenia, anti-Armenianwalaupun persecution,persekusi ini sebenarnya sudah endorseddidukung byoleh thepemerintah centralpusat governmentdari alreadysebelum beforetahun 1915.{{sfn|Akçam|2019|pp=478–479}} ArmenianPara civilpegawai servantspemerintah wereyang dismissedberdarah fromArmenia theirdiberhentikan postsdari inposisi latemereka pada akhir 1914 anddan earlyawal 1915.{{sfn|Üngör|2016|p=19}} InPada FebruaryFebruari 1915, thepara pemimpin CUP leadersmemutuskan decideduntuk tomelucuti disarmtentara-tentara Armeniansyang servingberdarah inArmenia thedan armymengirim andmereka transfer them toke [[Ottomanbatalion labourperburuhan battalionsUtsmaniyah|laborbatalion battalionburuh]]s.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=244}} ThePara Armeniantentara soldiersArmenia inini laborsecara battalionssistematis weredieksekusi, systematicallymeskipun executed,banyak tentara yang althoughmempunyai manykeahlian skilledtertentu workersyang weredibiarkan sparedhidup untilsampai 1916.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=248–249}}
 
== OnsetBermulanya of genocidegenosida ==
[[FileBerkas:Leavening the Levant (1916) (14586438289) restored.jpg|thumb|left|ArmenianPara defendersserdadu inArmenia yang berupaya mempertahankan kota Van]]▼
{{further information|Causes of the Armenian genocide#Wartime radicalization}}
[[File:Russian soldiers Sheykhalan 1915.jpg|thumb|left|Tentara Rusia di reruntuhan desa Armenia yang bernama "Sheykhalan" di dekat [[Muş|Mush]], 1915]]
▲[[File:Leavening the Levant (1916) (14586438289) restored.jpg|thumb|left|Armenian defenders in Van]]
Menteri Perang Enver Pasha mengambil alih komando atas angkatan darat Utsmaniyah dan melancarkan serangan terhadap Rusia. Dalam [[Pertempuran Sarikamish]] pada Desember 1914 hingga Januari 1915, ia menyusun strategi yang berupaya mengepung [[Angkatan Darat Kaukasus Rusia (Perang Dunia I)|Angkatan Darat Kaukasus Rusia]]. Namun, prajurit Utsmaniyah tidak siap dengan kejamnya musim dingin di wilayah pegunungan.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=241–242}} Akhirnya Utsmaniyah mengalami kekalahan dengan korban jiwa yang melebihi 60.000 prajurit.{{sfn|Akçam|2012|p=157}} Ketika mundur, tentara Utsmaniyah menghancurkan banyak desa Armenia di Vilayet Bitlis dan membantai penduduknya.{{sfn|Üngör|2016|p=19}} Di muka umum, Enver menjadikan orang Armenia sebagai kambing hitam. Ia mengklaim bahwa orang Armenia membela Rusia, dan klaim ini kemudian dipercayai oleh para pemimpin CUP.{{sfn|Üngör|2016|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=243}} Insiden lokal dan penemuan senjata milik orang Armenia dijadikan bukti bahwa orang Armenia sedang berkomplot untuk menghancurkan Utsmaniyah.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=244}} Sejarawan [[Taner Akçam]] menyimpulkan bahwa "tuduhan pemberontakan Armenia di dokumen-dokumen{{Nbsp}}... pada kenyataannya tidak berdasar tetapi secara sengaja dibuat-buat".{{sfn|Akçam|2012|p=168}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=282}}
[[File:Russian soldiers Sheykhalan 1915.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of two Russian soldiers in a ruined village looking at skeletal remains|Russian soldiers pictured in the former Armenian village of Sheykhalan near [[Muş|Mush]], 1915]]
Minister of War Enver Pasha took over command of the Ottoman armies for the invasion of Russian territory, and tried to encircle the [[Russian Caucasus Army (World War I)|Russian Caucasus Army]] at the [[Battle of Sarikamish]], fought from December 1914 to January 1915. Unprepared for the harsh winter conditions,{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=241–242}} his forces were routed, losing more than 60,000 men.{{sfn|Akçam|2012|p=157}} The retreating Ottoman army indiscriminately destroyed dozens of Ottoman Armenian villages in Bitlis Vilayet, massacring their inhabitants.{{sfn|Üngör|2016|p=19}} Enver publicly blamed his defeat on Armenians who he claimed had actively sided with the Russians, a theory that became a consensus among CUP leaders.{{sfn|Üngör|2016|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=243}} Any local incident or discovery of arms in the possession of Armenians was cited as evidence for a coordinated conspiracy against the empire.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=244}} Historian [[Taner Akçam]] concludes that "the allegations of an Armenian revolt in the documents{{Nbsp}}... have no basis in reality but were deliberately fabricated".{{sfn|Akçam|2012|p=168}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=282}}
 
Massacres of Armenian men were occurring in the vicinity of [[Bashkale]] in Van vilayet from December.{{sfn|Akçam|2019|p=472}} ARF leaders attempted to keep the situation calm, warning that even justifiable self-defense could lead to escalation of killing.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=255}} The governor, [[Djevdet Bey]], ordered the Armenians of [[Van, Turkey|Van]] to hand over their arms on 18&nbsp;April, creating a dilemma: If they obeyed, the Armenians expected to be killed, but if they refused, it would provide a pretext for massacres. Armenians fortified themselves in Van and repelled [[defense of Van (1915)|the Ottoman attack]] that began on 20&nbsp;April.{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=257}}{{sfn|Kévorkian| 2011|p= 319}} During the siege, Armenians in surrounding villages were massacred at Djevdet's orders. Russian forces captured Van on 18&nbsp;May, finding 55,000 corpses in the province—about half its prewar Armenian population.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=259–260}} Djevdet's forces proceeded to Bitlis and attacked Armenian and Syriac villages; men were killed immediately, women and children kidnapped by local Kurds, and others marched away to be killed later. By the end of June, there were only a dozen Armenians in the vilayet.{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=287, 289}}
Baris 82 ⟶ 79:
===Aims===
{{Quotebox|width=24em
| quote = WeKami havedisalahkan beenkarena blamedtidak formembedakan notantara makingorang aArmenia distinctionyang betweenbersalah guiltydan andyang innocent Armenianstidak. [To doHal sotersebut] wastidaklah impossiblemungkin. BecauseAdalah ofsuatu thehal natureyang ofakan thingsterjadi, onebahwa whoorang wasyang stillmasih innocenttidak todaybersalah couldhari beini guiltyakan tomorrow.menjadi Thebersalah concernesok forharinya. theKekhawatiran safetymengenai ofkeselamatan TurkeyTurki simplyharus hadmengungguli tokekhawatiran-kekhawatiran silence all other concernslainnya. Our actionsTindakan-tindakan werekami determineddidasarkan byatas nationalkeperluan andnasional historicaldan necessitysejarah. | source = —Talaat Pasha, ''[[Berliner Tageblatt]]'', 4 MayMei 1915{{sfn|Ihrig|2016|pp=162–163}}}}
During World War I, the CUP—whose central goal was to preserve the Ottoman Empire—came to identify Armenian civilians as an existential threat.{{sfn|Akçam|2012|p=337}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=245}} CUP leaders held Armenians—including women and children—collectively guilty for "betraying" the empire, a belief that was crucial to deciding on genocide in early 1915.{{sfn|Akçam|2019|p=457}}{{sfn|Bozarslan ''et al.''|2015|pp=166–167}} At the same time, the war provided an opportunity to enact, in Talaat's words, the "definitive solution to the Armenian Question".{{sfn|Suny|2015|p=245}}{{sfn|Dündar|2011|p=284}} The CUP hoped to permanently eliminate any possibility that Armenians could achieve autonomy or independence in the empire's eastern provinces by annihilating the concentrated Armenian population of these areas.{{sfn|Watenpaugh|2013|p=284}} Ottoman records show the government aimed to reduce the population of Armenians to no more than 5 percent in the sources of deportation and 10 percent in the destination areas. This goal could not be accomplished without mass murder.{{sfn|Akçam|2012|pp=242, 247–248}}{{sfn|Dündar|2011|p=282}}{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=261}}
 
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/wiki/Pengguna:Danu_Widjajanto/Genosida"