Rekayasa demografi: Perbedaan antara revisi

Tujuan rekayasa demografi tidak harus homogenitas etnis. Sebelum kebangkitan [[negara kebangsaan]], rekayasa demografi digunakan untuk mengamankan wilayah-wilayah yang baru ditaklukkan oleh kekaisaran, atau untuk meningkatkan tingkat penduduk di daerah-daerah yang jarang penduduknya, sering kali memiliki arti penting yang strategis bagi rute perdagangan kekaisaran dan meningkatkan kekuatan politik dan ekonomi dari kelompok etnis yang memiliki hak istimewa. Rekayasa demografi di era [[negara kebangsaan]], yaitu, setelah kemunduran kekaisaran, telah digunakan untuk mendukung kebangkitan [[nasionalisme]] (biasanya nasionalisme etnis, tetapi juga nasionalisme agama).<ref name="seker2007">{{Cite journal|last=Şeker|first=Nesim|date=2007|title=Demographic Engineering in the Late Ottoman Empire and the Armenians|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=43|issue=3|page=461}}</ref>

Ada tiga fase rekayasa demografi sebagai kebijakan negara [[Kesultanan Utsmaniyah]]. Antara abad ke-16 dan ke-18, kebijakan [[pemindahan penduduk]] biasanya dilakukan untuk mencapai rekayasa demografi penduduk di wilayah yang baru ditaklukkan (jenis rekayasa demografi ini kadang-kadang disebut "restrukturisasi etnis") Pada fase kedua antara tahun 1850-an dan 1913, ribuan Muslim dipindahkan sebagai buntut dari kekalahan militer Utsmaniyah yang signifikan di Balkan. Ini juga merupakan awal dari kebijakan rekayasa demografi di Anatolia yang akhirnya meningkat menjadi genosida dalam [[Genosida Armenia]].<ref name="seker2007">{{Cite journal|last=Şeker|first=Nesim|date=2007|title=Demographic Engineering in the Late Ottoman Empire and the Armenians|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=43|issue=3|page=461}}</ref>

Setelah [[Perang Dunia II]], sebagian besar etnis Jerman [[Pengusiran penduduk Jerman setelah Perang Dunia II|melarikan diri atau diusir dari negara-negara Eropa Timur]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weiner|first=Myron|last2=Teitelbaum|first2=Michael S.|date=2001|title=Political Demography, Demographic Engineering|url=https://archive.org/details/politicaldemogra0000wein|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=9781571812537|page=[https://archive.org/details/politicaldemogra0000wein/page/66 66]}}</ref>

Dalam beberapa dasawarsa terakhir ini, berbagai kebijakan [[pemerintah Kuwait]] telah dicirikan sebagai rekayasa demografi, khususnya yang berkaitan dengan [[Bidun]] tanpa kewarganegaraan Kuwait dan sejarah naturalisasi di [[Kuwait]].<ref name="new">{{Cite web|year=2019|title=Kuwait's humanitarian disaster Inter-generational erasure, ethnic cleansing and genocide of the Bedoon|url=https://uprdoc.ohchr.org/uprweb/downloadfile.aspx?filename=7585&file=EnglishTranslation|publisher=[[OHCHR]]}}</ref><ref name="s">{{Cite web|year=2020|title=Kuwait's Laws and Policies of Ethnic Discrimination, Erasure and Genocide Against The Bedoon Minority Submission on 'Human Rights Protections for Minorities Recognised in the UN System'|url=https://www.academia.edu/43213716|website=Susan Kennedy Nour al Deen}}</ref><ref name="una">{{Cite web|title=Kuwait Bedoon - Special Rapporteurs, United Nations, Requesting Investigation of Kuwait's Treatment of the Bedoon|url=https://www.academia.edu/39817003}}</ref><ref name="politicalnaturalization">{{Cite book|last=Rivka Azoulay|year=2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gurvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|title=Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State|isbn=9781838605063|page=100-110|quote=Political naturalizations of tribesmen}}</ref><ref name="extralegal">{{Cite web|last=Claire Beaugrand|title=Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959–2009|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/46519156.pdf|page=137|quote=Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics}}</ref><ref name="herb">{{Cite book|last=[[Michael Herb]]|date=18 December 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laODBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59|title=The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE|isbn=9780801454684|quote=How then do we explain the naturalizations that have occurred in the Gulf states in the past, such as the granting of citizenship to thousands of bedu (bedouin) by Kuwait in the 1960s and 1970s? Typically these naturalizations were imposed by the ruling families and were designed to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen society in a way that made the power of the ruling families more secure}}</ref><ref name="pl">{{Cite web|last=Andrzej Kapiszewski|year=2005|title=Non-indigenous citizens and "stateless" residents in the Gulf monarchies. The Kuwaiti bidun.|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/214930677.pdf|page=70}}</ref>

Negara Kuwait secara resmi memiliki [[Undang-Undang Kewarganegaraan Kuwait|Undang-Undang Kewarganegaraan]] resmi yang memberikan jalur hukum bagi orang yang bukan warga negara untuk mendapatkan kewarganegaraan.<ref name="humanrightwatch">{{Cite web|year=2000|title=IV. DISCRIMINATION BASED ON ORIGIN AND STATUS: THE BIDUN|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/kuwait/kuwait-04.htm|website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> Namun, karena akses ke kewarganegaraan di Kuwait dikendalikan secara otokratis oleh keluarga penguasa [[Wangsa Sabah|Al Sabah]], hal ini tidak tunduk pada pengawasan peraturan eksternal.<ref name="politicalnaturalization">{{Cite book|last=Rivka Azoulay|year=2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gurvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|title=Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State|isbn=9781838605063|page=100-110|quote=Political naturalizations of tribesmen}}</ref><ref name="humanrightwatch" /> Ketentuan-ketentuan naturalisasi dalam Undang-Undang Kewarganegaraan diterapkan secara sewenang-wenang dan kurang transparan.<ref name="humanrightwatch" /><ref name="politicalnaturalization" /> Kurangnya transparansi mencegah orang yang bukan warga negara menerima kesempatan yang adil untuk mendapatkan kewarganegaraan.<ref name="unitednations">{{Cite web|date=17 February 2021|title=Human Rights Council, Forty-sixth session, 22 February–19 March 2021, Agenda item 3, Promotion and protection of all human rights, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to development. Written statement* submitted by International Council. Supporting Fair Trial and Human Rights, a nongovernmental organization in special consultative status. The Secretary-General has received the following written statement which is circulated in accordance with Economic and Social Council resolution 1996/31.|url=https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/HRC/46/NGO/33%2FA%2FHRC%2F46%2FNGO%2F33|website=[[United Nations]]|page=2|access-date=2022-09-25|archive-date=2021-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405164006/https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en%2FA%2FHRC%2F46%2FNGO%2F33|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="politicalnaturalization" /> Akibatnya, keluarga penguasa Al Sabah telah mampu memanipulasi naturalisasi untuk alasan-alasan yang bermotif politik.<ref name="politicalnaturalization" /><ref name="extralegal">{{Cite web|last=Claire Beaugrand|title=Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959–2009|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/46519156.pdf|page=137|quote=Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics}}</ref><ref name="naturalize" /><ref name="rivka" /><ref name="herb">{{Cite book|last=[[Michael Herb]]|date=18 December 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laODBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59|title=The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE|isbn=9780801454684|quote=How then do we explain the naturalizations that have occurred in the Gulf states in the past, such as the granting of citizenship to thousands of bedu (bedouin) by Kuwait in the 1960s and 1970s? Typically these naturalizations were imposed by the ruling families and were designed to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen society in a way that made the power of the ruling families more secure}}</ref><ref name="unitednations" /><ref name="foreignpolicy" /><ref name="carn">{{Cite web|last=Justin Gengler|date=August 29, 2016|title=The Political Economy of Sectarianism in the Gulf|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2016/08/29/political-economy-of-sectarianism-in-gulf-pub-64410|website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}</ref><ref name="jadaliyya">{{Cite web|last=John Warner|date=April 17, 2013|title=Questioning Sectarianism in Bahrain and Beyond: An Interview with Justin Gengler|url=https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/28458/Questioning-Sectarianism-in-Bahrain-and-Beyond-An-Interview-with-Justin-Gengler|publisher=[[Jadaliyya]]}}</ref> Dalam tiga dasawarsa setelah [[Sejarah Kuwait|kemerdekaan pada tahun 1961]], keluarga penguasa Al Sabah menaturalisasi ratusan ribu imigran Badui asing yang sebagian besar berasal dari Arab Saudi.<ref name="rivka">{{Cite book|last=Rivka Azoulay|year=2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gurvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State|isbn=9781838605063|page=21}}</ref><ref name="pl">{{Cite web|last=Andrzej Kapiszewski|year=2005|title=Non-indigenous citizens and "stateless" residents in the Gulf monarchies. The Kuwaiti bidun.|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/214930677.pdf|page=70}}</ref><ref name="foreignpolicy">{{Cite web|last=Gwenn Okruhlik|date=February 8, 2012|title=The identity politics of Kuwait's election|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/02/08/the-identity-politics-of-kuwaits-election/|website=[[Foreign Policy]]}}</ref><ref name="extralegal" /><ref name="carn" /><ref name="naturalize">{{Cite book|date=February 2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5NODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA186|title=Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East|isbn=9780190911195|editor-last=[[Frederic Wehrey]]|page=186|quote=To counter the strong influence of Arab nationalism in the decades after independence in 1961, Kuwait naturalized more than 200,000 Bedouin tribesmen to serve as a reliable pro-government bloc in parliament.}}</ref><ref name="unitednations" /><ref name="jadaliyya" /><ref name="alshahed" /> Pada tahun 1980, sebanyak 200.000 imigran dinaturalisasi di.<ref name="pl" /> Sepanjang tahun 1980-an, kebijakan naturalisasi bermotif politik Al Sabah terus berlanjut.<ref name="pl" /><ref name="politicalnaturalization" /> Naturalisasi tidak diatur atau disetujui oleh undang-undang Kuwait.<ref name="politicalnaturalization" /><ref name="extralegal" /><ref name="rivka" /><ref name="alshahed" /> Jumlah pasti naturalisasi tidak diketahui, tetapi diperkirakan hingga 400.000 imigran dinaturalisasi secara tidak sah di Kuwait.<ref name="alshahed">{{Cite web|last=Sheikh Sabah Al-Mohammad Al-Sabah|date=February 10, 2018|title=اتقوا الله وجنِّسوا الكويتيين البدون|url=https://alshahedkw.com/182290|website=Al-Shahed Newspaper|language=ar}}</ref><ref name="rivka" /> Para imigran Badui asing terutama dinaturalisasi untuk mengubah susunan demografis penduduk dengan cara yang membuat kekuasaan keluarga penguasa Al Sabah lebih aman.<ref name="herb" /><ref name="politicalnaturalization" /><ref name="extralegal" /><ref name="rivka" /> Sebagai hasil dari naturalisasi yang bermotif politik, jumlah warga negara yang dinaturalisasi melebihi jumlah orang Bidun di Kuwait.<ref name="unitednations" /> Keluarga penguasa Al Sabah secara aktif mendorong imigran Badui asing untuk bermigrasi ke Kuwait.<ref name="pl" /> Keluarga penguasa Al Sabah lebih menyukai naturalisasi imigran Bedouin karena mereka dianggap setia kepada keluarga penguasa, tidak seperti ekspatriat Palestina, Lebanon, dan Suriah yang aktif secara politik di Kuwait. Warga negara yang dinaturalisasi sebagian besar adalah imigran [[Suni|Sunni]] Saudi dari suku-suku selatan.<ref name="jadaliyya" /><ref name="rivka" /><ref name="extralegal" /> Oleh karena itu, tak satu pun orang Bidun tanpa kewarganegaraan di Kuwait yang berasal dari suku Ajman.<ref name="extralegal" />

Kurangnya wewenang sistem peradilan Kuwait untuk memutuskan kewarganegaraan semakin memperumit krisis Bidun, sehingga orang-orang Bidun tidak memiliki akses ke peradilan untuk mengajukan bukti dan memohon kasus kewarganegaraan mereka.<ref name="unitednations">{{Cite web|date=17 February 2021|title=Human Rights Council, Forty-sixth session, 22 February–19 March 2021, Agenda item 3, Promotion and protection of all human rights, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to development. Written statement* submitted by International Council. Supporting Fair Trial and Human Rights, a nongovernmental organization in special consultative status. The Secretary-General has received the following written statement which is circulated in accordance with Economic and Social Council resolution 1996/31.|url=https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/HRC/46/NGO/33|website=[[United Nations]]|page=2}}</ref> Meskipun warga non-warga negara mencakup 70% dari total penduduk Kuwait, keluarga penguasa Al Sabah tetap menolak kewarganegaraan bagi sebagian besar warga non-warga negara, termasuk mereka yang sepenuhnya memenuhi persyaratan untuk naturalisasi sebagaimana diatur dalam Undang-Undang Kewarganegaraan resmi negara. Pihak berwenang Kuwait mengizinkan pemalsuan ratusan ribu naturalisasi bermotif politik sementara secara bersamaan menolak kewarganegaraan bagi orang-orang Bidun.<ref name="unitednations" /><ref name="alshahed">{{Cite web|last=Sheikh Sabah Al-Mohammad Al-Sabah|date=February 10, 2018|title=اتقوا الله وجنِّسوا الكويتيين البدون|url=https://alshahedkw.com/182290|website=Al-Shahed Newspaper|language=ar}}</ref> Naturalisasi bermotif politik ini dicatat oleh [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]], aktivis politik, cendekiawan, peneliti dan bahkan anggota keluarga Al Sabah.<ref name="unitednations" /><ref name="politicalnaturalization">{{Cite book|last=Rivka Azoulay|year=2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gurvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|title=Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State|isbn=9781838605063|page=100-110|quote=Political naturalizations of tribesmen}}</ref><ref name="extralegal">{{Cite web|last=Claire Beaugrand|title=Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959–2009|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/46519156.pdf|page=137|quote=Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics}}</ref><ref name="rivka">{{Cite book|last=Rivka Azoulay|year=2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gurvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State|isbn=9781838605063|page=21}}</ref><ref name="herb">{{Cite book|last=[[Michael Herb]]|date=18 December 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laODBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT59|title=The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE|isbn=9780801454684|quote=How then do we explain the naturalizations that have occurred in the Gulf states in the past, such as the granting of citizenship to thousands of bedu (bedouin) by Kuwait in the 1960s and 1970s? Typically these naturalizations were imposed by the ruling families and were designed to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen society in a way that made the power of the ruling families more secure}}</ref><ref name="naturalize">{{Cite book|date=February 2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5NODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA186|title=Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East|isbn=9780190911195|editor-last=[[Frederic Wehrey]]|page=186|quote=To counter the strong influence of Arab nationalism in the decades after independence in 1961, Kuwait naturalized more than 200,000 Bedouin tribesmen to serve as a reliable pro-government bloc in parliament.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|url=http://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=history_theses|title=The Shia Migration from Southwestern Iran to Kuwait: Push-Pull Factors during the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries|publisher=[[Georgia State University]]|year=2010|last=Mohammad E. Alhabib}}</ref><ref name="foreignpolicy">{{Cite web|last=Gwenn Okruhlik|date=February 8, 2012|title=The identity politics of Kuwait's election|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/02/08/the-identity-politics-of-kuwaits-election/|website=[[Foreign Policy]]}}</ref><ref name="pl">{{Cite web|last=Andrzej Kapiszewski|year=2005|title=Non-indigenous citizens and "stateless" residents in the Gulf monarchies. The Kuwaiti bidun.|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/214930677.pdf|page=70}}</ref><ref name="carn">{{Cite web|last=Justin Gengler|date=August 29, 2016|title=The Political Economy of Sectarianism in the Gulf|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2016/08/29/political-economy-of-sectarianism-in-gulf-pub-64410|website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}</ref><ref name="alshahed" /> Hal ini secara luas dianggap sebagai bentuk rekayasa demografi yang disengaja dan telah disamakan dengan kebijakan naturalisasi bermotif politik Bahrain.<ref name="politicalnaturalization" /><ref name="herb" /><ref name="jadaliyya">{{Cite web|last=John Warner|date=April 17, 2013|title=Questioning Sectarianism in Bahrain and Beyond: An Interview with Justin Gengler|url=https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/28458/Questioning-Sectarianism-in-Bahrain-and-Beyond-An-Interview-with-Justin-Gengler|publisher=[[Jadaliyya]]}}</ref> Di negara-negara [[Dewan Kerjasama untuk Negara Arab di Teluk|GCC]], kebijakan naturalisasi bermotif politik disebut sebagai "naturalisasi politis" (التجنيس السياسي).<ref name="politicalnaturalization" />

Upaya Israel untuk membangun mayoritas Yahudi yang akan memastikan kontrol atas penduduk Palestina meluas ke Israel. FollowingUsai anserangan attackoleh bypasukan JewishYahudi forces ondi [[Lod]] yang menyebabkan 20.000 orang Palestina melarikan diri atau diusir dari kota, penduduk Palestina berusaha untuk kembali ke rumah mereka. Tanggapan Israel adalah untuk menolak mereka dengan serangan militer dan untuk menempatkan sejumlah besar imigran Yahudi di properti yang sekarang disita yang telah ditinggalkan. Sementara 1.030 orang Arab diizinkan untuk tetap tinggal di Lod, pada tahun-tahun segera setelah perang 1948, lebih dari 10.000 imigran Yahudi menetap di kota itu. Sebuah rencana induk baru untuk kota ini melihat pembangunan besar-besaran perumahan dan infrastruktur lainnya untuk penduduk Yahudi, tidak seperti pembongkaran intensif yang dilakukan di pusat kawasan Arab di kota tersebut.{{Sfn|Tzfadia|Yacobi|2007|p=439–441}}

* {{Cite book|last=Weiner|first=Myron|last2=Teitelbaum|first2=Michael S.|date=2001|title=Political Demography, Demographic Engineering|url=https://archive.org/details/politicaldemogra0000wein|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-254-4|language=en}}