Manusia: Perbedaan antara revisi

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(13 revisi perantara oleh 12 pengguna tidak ditampilkan)
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{{Speciesbox
{{speciesbox
| item = Q15978631
| name = Manusia<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Groves | pages = | id = 12100795}}</ref>
| fossil_range = {{rentang fosil|0,35|0}} <small>[[Pleistosen Tengah]] – [[Holosen|Kini]]</small>
| image = Akha cropped hires.JPG <!-- Ini adalah gambar pilihan. Diharap jangan mengubahnya tanpa persetujuan konsensus. -->
| image_caption = Laki-laki (kiri) dan perempuan (kanan) dari Suku[[suku Akha]] di utara [[Thailand]] bagian [[utara]]
| taxon = Homo sapiens
| authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
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}}
[[Berkas:Two young girls at Camp Christmas Seals.jpg|jmpl|250px|ka|Dua anak perempuan manusia]]
'''Manusia''' (''Homo sapiens'')''' atau '''insan''' adalah [[spesies]] [[primata]] yang jumlahnya paling banyak dan tersebar luas. Mereka adalah jenis [[Hominidae|kera besar]] yang dicirikan oleh gaya berjalan dua kaki dan kemampuan [[Kognisi|kognitif]] yang mumpuni berkat [[otak]] mereka yang besar dan kompleks. Manusia adalah makhluk yang sangat sosial dan cenderung hidup dalam [[struktur sosial]] yang kompleks yang terdiri dari banyak kelompok yang saling bekerja sama dan bersaing, mulai dari keluarga dan jaringan kekerabatan hingga negara politik. Oleh karenanya, interaksi sosial antara manusia telah membentuk berbagai macam nilai, [[norma sosial]], [[bahasa]], dan [[ritual]], yang masing-masing menopang komunitas manusia. Keinginan untuk memahami dan mempengaruhi [[fenomena]] telah memotivasi manusia untuk mengembangkan [[Ilmu|ilmu pengetahuan]], [[teknologi]], [[filsafat]], [[hukum]], [[mitologi]], [[agama]], dan bidang studi lainnya.
 
Meskipun beberapa ilmuwan memperlakukan istilah manusia sama dengan semua anggota genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', dalam penggunaan umum, istilah hari ini biasanya merujuk pada ''Homo sapiens'', satu-satunya anggota ''Homo'' yang masih ada. [[Manusia modern anatomis|Manusia modern secara anatomis]] muncul sekitar 300.000 tahun yang lalu di Afrika, berevolusi dari ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' atau spesies yang serupa dan bermigrasi keluar dari Afrika, secara bertahap menggantikan atau melakukan kawin silang dengan populasi lokal [[manusia purba]]. Manusia merupakan [[pemburu-pengumpul]] yang hidup berpindah-pindah selama sebagian besar rentang sejarahnya. Manusia mulai menunjukkan perilaku modern sekitar 160.000-60.000 tahun yang lalu. [[Revolusi Neolitikum]], yang dimulai di Asia Barat Daya sekitar 13.000 tahun yang lalu (dan secara terpisah di beberapa tempat lain), melahirkan [[pertanian]] dan [[Pola pemukiman|pemukiman manusia]] yang permanen. Ketika populasi manusia menjadi lebih besar dan lebih padat, bentuk-bentuk pemerintahan berkembang di dalam dan di antara mereka, dan sejumlah [[peradaban]] telah bangkit dan runtuh. Manusia terus berkembang, dengan populasi global mencapai lebih dari 8 miliar hingga tahun 2022.
 
Faktor [[gen]] dan [[lingkungan]] memengaruhi variasi biologis manusia dalam karakteristik tampilan, fisiologi, kerentanan terhadap penyakit, kemampuan mental, ukuran tubuh, dan rentang hidup. Meskipun manusia bervariasi dalam banyak sifat (seperti pembawaan genetik dan ciri-ciri fisik), setiap dua orang manusia setidaknya 99% mirip secara genetik. Manusia secara [[Dimorfisme seksual|seksual bersifat dimorfik]]: secara umum, laki-laki memiliki tubuh yang lebih kuat dan perempuan memiliki persentase [[lemak tubuh]] yang lebih tinggi. Pada masa [[pubertas]], manusia mengembangkan [[Ciri kelamin sekunder|karakteristik seks sekunder]]. Wanita dapat [[Kehamilan|hamil]], biasanya antara masa pubertas, sekitar 12 tahun, hingga masa [[menopause]], sekitar usia 50 [[tahun]].
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== Evolusi ==
{{Main|Evolusi manusia}}
Manusia adalah kera ([[Hominoidea|superfamili Hominoidea]]).<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Tuttle RH|date=4 October 2018|title=International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology|place=[[Hoboken]], [[New Jersey]], [[United States]]|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]]|isbn=978-1-118-58442-2|veditors=Trevathan W, Cartmill M, Dufour D, Larsen C|pages=1–2|language=en|chapter=Hominoidea: conceptual history|doi=10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0246|author-link=Russell Tuttle|access-date=26 May 2021|chapter-url=https://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0246|s2cid=240125199}}</ref> Garis keturunan kera yang akhirnya memunculkan manusia pertama kali berpisah dari [[Ungka|owa]] (famili ''Hylobatidae'') dan [[Orang utan|orangutan]] (genus Pongo), kemudian [[gorila]] (genus Gorilla), dan terakhir [[simpanse]] dan [[bonobo]] (genus Pan). Perpisahan terakhir, antara garis keturunan manusia dan simpanse-bonobo, terjadi sekitar 8-4 juta tahun yang lalu, pada akhir zaman [[Miosen]].<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=March 1990|title=Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_1990-03_30_3/page/260|journal=[[Journal of Molecular Evolution]]|volume=30|issue=3|pages=260–6|bibcode=1990JMolE..30..260G|doi=10.1007/BF02099995|pmid=2109087|vauthors=Goodman M, Tagle DA, Fitch DH, Bailey W, Czelusniak J, Koop BF, Benson P, Slightom JL|s2cid=2112935|issn = 0022-2844 }}</ref><ref name="Ruvolo1997">{{cite journal|date=March 1997|title=Molecular phylogeny of the hominoids: inferences from multiple independent DNA sequence data sets|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_1997-03_14_3/page/248|journal=[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]]|volume=14|issue=3|pages=248–65|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025761|pmid=9066793|vauthors=Ruvolo M|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2012|title=Our True Dawn|journal=[[New Scientist]]|volume=216|issue=2892|pages=34–37|bibcode=2012NewSc.216...34B|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(12)63018-8|vauthors=Brahic C}}</ref> Selama perpisahan ini, [[Kromosom 2 (manusia)|kromosom 2]] terbentuk dari penggabungan dua kromosom lainnya, sehingga manusia hanya memiliki 23 pasang kromosom, dibandingkan dengan 24 pasang kromosom untuk kera lainnya.<ref name="fusion">{{cite web|title=Human Chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes|url=https://www.evolutionpages.com/chromosome_2.htm|work=Evolution pages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809040210/https://www.evolutionpages.com/chromosome_2.htm|archive-date=9 August 2011|access-date=18 May 2006|vauthors=MacAndrew A}}</ref> Setelah perpisahan dengan simpanse dan bonobo, hominid terdiversifikasi menjadi banyak spesies dan setidaknya dua genera yang berbeda. Semua garis keturunan genus ''[[Homo]]'' telah punah kecuali Homo sapiens.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McNulty|first=Kieran P.|year=2016|title=Hominin Taxonomy and Phylogeny: What's In A Name?|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/hominin-taxonomy-and-phylogeny-what-s-in-142102877/|website=Nature Education Knowledge|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110013134/https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/hominin-taxonomy-and-phylogeny-what-s-in-142102877/|archive-date=10 January 2016|access-date=11 June 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{clade|{{clade
|1=Hylobatidae ([[owa]])
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{{Main|Sejarah manusia||}}
[[Berkas:Early_migrations_mercator.svg|jmpl|350x350px|Peta rangkuman penduduk dunia berdasarkan [[Migrasi manusia awal|migrasi awal manusia]] selama [[Paleolitikum Akhir|Paleolitik Akhir]], mengikuti paradigma Penyebaran Selatan]]
Hingga sekitar 12.000 tahun yang lalu, semua manusia hidup sebagai [[pemburu-pengumpul]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Little|first1=Michael A.|last2=Blumler|first2=Mark A.|year=2015|title=Basics in Human Evolution|place=Boston|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-802652-6|editor-last=Muehlenbein|editor-first=Michael P.|pages=323–335|language=en|chapter=Hunter-Gatherers|access-date=30 July 2022|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128026526000232|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703085714/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128026526000232|archive-date=3 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Scarre|first=Chris|year=2018|title=The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies|location=London|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]]|isbn=978-0-500-29335-5|editor-last=Scarre|editor-first=Chris|edition=4th|pages=174–197|chapter=The world transformed: from foragers and farmers to states and empires|author-link=Chris Scarre}}</ref> [[Revolusi Neolitikum]] (penemuan [[pertanian]]) pertama kali terjadi di [[Asia Barat Daya]] dan menyebar ke sebagian besar [[Dunia Lama]] selama ribuan tahun berikutnya.<ref>{{Cite book|vauthors=Colledge S, Conolly J, Dobney K, Manning K, Shennan S|date=2013|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/855969933|title=Origins and Spread of Domestic Animals in Southwest Asia and Europe.|location=Walnut Creek|publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-61132-324-5|pages=13–17|oclc=855969933|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032846/https://www.worldcat.org/title/origins-and-spread-of-domestic-animals-in-southwest-asia-and-europe/oclc/855969933|archive-date=30 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Revolusi ini juga terjadi secara independen di Mesoamerika (sekitar 6.000 tahun yang lalu),<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Scanes CG|date=January 2018|title=Animals and Human Society|isbn=978-0-12-805247-1|veditors=Scanes CG, Toukhsati SR|pages=103–131|chapter=The Neolithic Revolution, Animal Domestication, and Early Forms of Animal Agriculture|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-805247-1.00006-X}}</ref> [[Tiongkok]],<ref name="He2017">{{cite journal|date=7 June 2017|title=Prehistoric evolution of the dualistic structure mixed rice and millet farming in China|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317400332|journal=The Holocene|volume=27|issue=12|pages=1885–1898|bibcode=2017Holoc..27.1885H|doi=10.1177/0959683617708455|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120221221/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317400332_Prehistoric_evolution_of_the_dualistic_structure_mixed_rice_and_millet_farming_in_China|archive-date=20 November 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=He K, Lu H, Zhang J, Wang C, Huan X|s2cid=133660098|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Lu">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=May 2009|title=Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=106|issue=18|pages=7367–72|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.7367L|doi=10.1073/pnas.0900158106|pmc=2678631|pmid=19383791|vauthors=Lu H, Zhang J, Liu KB, Wu N, Li Y, Zhou K, Ye M, Zhang T, Zhang H, Yang X, Shen L, Xu D, Li Q|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Papua Nugini]],<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=July 2003|title=Origins of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of New Guinea|journal=Science|volume=301|issue=5630|pages=189–93|doi=10.1126/science.1085255|pmid=12817084|vauthors=Denham TP, Haberle SG, Lentfer C, Fullagar R, Field J, Therin M, Porch N, Winsborough B|s2cid=10644185}}</ref> dan wilayah [[Sahel]] dan [[Sabana SudaniaSudan|Sabana Barat]] di Afrika.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=May 2019|title=Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop domestication|journal=Science Advances|volume=5|issue=5|pages=eaaw1947|bibcode=2019SciA....5.1947S|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947|pmc=6527260|pmid=31114806|vauthors=Scarcelli N, Cubry P, Akakpo R, Thuillet AC, Obidiegwu J, Baco MN, Otoo E, Sonké B, Dansi A, Djedatin G, Mariac C, Couderc M, Causse S, Alix K, Chaïr H, François O, Vigouroux Y|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2017|title=Evidence for Sorghum Domestication in Fourth Millennium BC Eastern Sudan: Spikelet Morphology from Ceramic Impressions of the Butana Group|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=58|issue=5|pages=673–683|doi=10.1086/693898|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152728/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1574602/7/Fuller_693898.pdf|archive-date=23 June 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Winchell F|s2cid=149402650|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=February 2011|title=4500-Year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternative cereal domestication pathway|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=38|issue=2|pages=312–322|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007|vauthors=Manning K}}</ref> Akses terhadap surplus makanan menyebabkan terbentuknya [[pemukiman manusia]] yang permanen, [[domestikasi]] hewan, dan [[Zaman Tembaga|penggunaan peralatan logam]] untuk pertama kalinya dalam sejarah. Pertanian dan gaya hidup menetap menyebabkan munculnya [[peradaban]] awal.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Noble TF, Strauss B, Osheim D, Neuschel K, Accamp E|date=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Td4WAAAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PA16|title=Cengage Advantage Books: Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries|isbn=978-1-285-66153-7|access-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214010433/https://books.google.com/books?id=Td4WAAAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PA16|archive-date=14 December 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Spielvogel J|date=1 January 2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LceiAgAAQBAJ&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt&pg=PT65|title=Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500|publisher=Cenpage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-98299-1|access-date=11 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905105225/https://books.google.com/books?id=LceiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT65#v=onepage&q=western%20civilisation%20egypt|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Thornton B|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fa6swJv64xkC&q=Greek%20Ways%3A%20How%20the%20Greeks%20Created%20Western%20Civilization|title=Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization|location=San Francisco, CA|publisher=Encounter Books|isbn=978-1-893554-57-3|pages=1–14|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222224422/https://books.google.com/books?id=fa6swJv64xkC&q=Greek|archive-date=22 February 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Sebuah revolusi perkotaan terjadi pada milenium ke-4 sebelum masehi dengan berkembangnya berbagai [[negara kota]], terutama kota-kota [[Sumeria]] yang terletak di [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Garfinkle SJ, Bang PF, Scheidel W|date=1 February 2013|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|title=Ancient Near Eastern City-States|website=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean|isbn=978-0-19-518831-8|veditors=Bang PF, Scheidel W|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152722/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195188318.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195188318-e-4|archive-date=23 June 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> Di kota-kota inilah bentuk tulisan paling awal yang diketahui, aksara paku, muncul sekitar tahun 3000 SM.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Woods C|date=28 February 2020|title=A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-19329-6|veditors=Hasselbach-Andee R|edition=1st|pages=27–46|language=en|chapter=The Emergence of Cuneiform Writing|doi=10.1002/9781119193814.ch2|s2cid=216180781}}</ref> Peradaban besar lainnya yang berkembang pada masa ini adalah Mesir Kuno dan [[Peradaban Lembah Indus]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=October 2015|title=Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script|journal=Nature|volume=526|issue=7574|pages=499–501|bibcode=2015Natur.526..499R|doi=10.1038/526499a|pmid=26490603|vauthors=Robinson A|s2cid=4458743}}</ref> Bangsa-bangsa ini kemudian berdagang satu sama lain dan menciptakan teknologi seperti roda, bajak, dan layar.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Crawford H|year=2013|title=The Sumerian World|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-21911-5|pages=447–61|chapter=Trade in the Sumerian world|author-link=Harriet Crawford}}</ref><ref name=":142">{{cite journal|date=2018|title=Prehistoric innovations: Wheels and wheeled vehicles|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|journal=Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae|language=English|volume=69|issue=2|pages=271–298|doi=10.1556/072.2018.69.2.3|issn=0001-5210|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623152751/https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=714342|archive-date=23 June 2021|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Bodnár M|s2cid=115685157|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1985|title=The Invention of the Plow|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=27|issue=4|pages=727–743|doi=10.1017/S0010417500011749|issn=0010-4175|jstor=178600|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409092618/https://www.jstor.org/stable/178600|archive-date=9 April 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Pryor FL|s2cid=144840498|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Carter2">{{cite book|vauthors=Carter R|year=2012|url=https://www.academia.edu/1576775|title=A companion to the archaeology of the ancient Near East|location=Chichester, West Sussex|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8988-0|veditors=Potts DT|pages=347–354|chapter=19. [[Watercraft]]|access-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428190743/https://www.academia.edu/1576775/Watercraft|archive-date=28 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomi dan matematika juga dikembangkan dan [[Piramida Agung Giza]] pun dibangun.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Pedersen O|year=1993|title=Early physics and astronomy: A historical introduction.|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-40340-5|page=1|chapter=Science Before the Greeks}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Robson E|year=2008|title=Mathematics in ancient Iraq: A social history.|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=xxi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=2003|title=Building the Great Pyramid: Probable Construction Methods Employed at Giza|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=44|issue=2|pages=340–354|doi=10.1353/tech.2003.0063|issn=0040-165X|jstor=25148110|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306011135/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25148110|archive-date=6 March 2022|access-date=30 July 2022|vauthors=Edwards JF|s2cid=109998651|url-status=live}}</ref> Terdapat bukti adanya kekeringan parah yang berlangsung sekitar seratus tahun yang mungkin menyebabkan kemunduran peradaban-peradaban ini,<ref>{{cite journal|date=August 2018|title=New geological age comes under fire|journal=Science|volume=361|issue=6402|pages=537–538|bibcode=2018Sci...361..537V|doi=10.1126/science.361.6402.537|pmid=30093579|vauthors=Voosen P|s2cid=51954326}}</ref> dan peradaban-peradaban baru muncul setelahnya. Bangsa [[Babilonia]] mendominasi Mesopotamia,<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Saggs HW|year=2000|title=Babylonians|url=https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20222-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/babylonians0000sagg/page/7 7]}}</ref> sementara yang lainnya seperti kebudayaan pra-historis di hilir lembah [[Mississippi|Mississipi]], [[peradaban Minoa]], dan [[Dinasti Shang]], memperoleh kejayaannya di daerah-daerah baru.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1 December 2005|title=Poverty Point as Structure, Event, Process|journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=335–364|doi=10.1007/s10816-005-8460-4|issn=1573-7764|vauthors=Sassaman KE|s2cid=53393440}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|date=August 2017|title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans|journal=Nature|volume=548|issue=7666|pages=214–218|bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L|doi=10.1038/nature23310|pmc=5565772|pmid=28783727|vauthors=Lazaridis I, Mittnik A, Patterson N, Mallick S, Rohland N, Pfrengle S, Furtwängler A, Peltzer A, Posth C, Vasilakis A, McGeorge PJ, Konsolaki-Yannopoulou E, Korres G, Martlew H, Michalodimitrakis M, Özsait M, Özsait N, Papathanasiou A, Richards M, Roodenberg SA, Tzedakis Y, Arnott R, Fernandes DM, Hughey JR, Lotakis DM, Navas PA, Maniatis Y, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Stewardson K, Stockhammer P, Pinhasi R, Reich D, Krause J, Stamatoyannopoulos G}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Keightley DN|year=1999|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8|veditors=Loewe M, Shaughnessy EL|pages=232–291|chapter=The Shang: China's first historical dynasty}}</ref> Zaman Perunggu tiba-tiba [[Keruntuhan Zaman Perunggu Akhir|runtuh]] sekitar tahun 1200 SM, mengakibatkan hilangnya sejumlah peradaban dan dimulainya [[Zaman Kegelapan Yunani]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2015|title=Drought and societal collapse 3200 years ago in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review|journal=WIREs Climate Change|volume=6|issue=4|pages=369–382|doi=10.1002/wcc.345|vauthors=Kaniewski D, Guiot J, van Campo E|s2cid=128460316}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1 June 2012|title=The influence of climatic change on the Late Bronze Age Collapse and the Greek Dark Ages|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1862–1870|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.029|vauthors=Drake BL}}</ref> Selama periode ini, besi mulai menggantikan perunggu, yang mengarah ke [[Zaman Besi]].<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Wells PS|date=2011|title=European Prehistory: A Survey|url=https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-6633-9|veditors=Milisauskas S|series=Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology|pages=[https://archive.org/details/europeanprehisto0000unse_q5z8_2ed/page/405 405]–460|language=en|chapter=The Iron Age|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-6633-9_11}}</ref>
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== Habitat dan populasi ==
{{Further|Demografi}}{{Infobox|image=[[Berkas:People's -Km² for all countries (and us states, uk kingdoms).png|300px]]|title=Statistik populasi{{#tag:ref|TheStatistik worldpopulasi populationdan andkepadatan populationpopulasi densitydunia statisticsdiperbarui aresecara updatedotomatis automaticallydari fromtemplat ayang template that uses themenggunakan CIA World Factbook anddan United Nations World Population Prospects.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world |title=World |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[CIA]] |date=17 May 2016 |access-date=2 October 2016 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032610/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_KeyFindings.pdf |publisher=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division |date=2017 |title=World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision |page=2&17 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626225001/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_KeyFindings.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=n}}|label1=Populasi dunia|data1={{#expr: {{data world|poptoday}} / 1e9 round 1}}&nbsp;miliar|label2=Kepadatan populasi|data2={{Pop density|{{data world|poptoday}}|{{data world|pst2|total area}}|km2|prec =0}} dengan area total<br />{{Pop density|{{data world|poptoday}}|{{data world|pst2|land area}}|km2|prec =0}} dengan area tanah|label3=Kota-kota terbesar{{#tag:ref|Kota-kota yang tahun 2018 berpenghuni lebih dari 10 juta.<ref>{{cite news|title=The World's Cities in 2018|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/citiesday/assets/pdf/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf|access-date=|newspaper=[[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]]|archive-date=1 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101135338/http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=n}}|data3=[[Tokyo]], [[Delhi]], [[Shanghai]], [[São Paulo]], [[Mexico City]], [[Kairo]], [[Mumbai]], [[Beijing]], [[Dhaka]], [[Osaka]], [[New York City|New York]]-[[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], [[Karachi]], [[Buenos Aires]], [[Chongqing]], [[Istanbul]], [[Kolkata]], [[Manila]], [[Lagos]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Tianjin]], [[Kinshasa]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Los Angeles]]-[[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]], [[Moscow]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Lahore]], [[Bangalore]], [[Paris]], [[Jakarta]], [[Chennai]], [[Lima]], [[Bogotá|Bogota]], [[Bangkok]], [[London]]}}
Pemukiman manusia awal bergantung pada kedekatan jaraknya dengan [[Sumber daya air|air]] dan—tergantung pada gaya hidup—juga [[sumber daya alam]] lain yang diperlukan untuk [[subsistensi|bertahan hidup]], seperti populasi [[perburuan|hewan buruan]] dan [[lahan subur]] untuk bercocok tanam dan menggembalakan ternak.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Rector RK|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/953735302|title=The Early River Valley Civilizations|date=2016|isbn=978-1-4994-6329-3|edition=First|location=New York, NY|page=10|oclc=953735302|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/early-river-valley-civilizations/oclc/953735302|url-status=live}}</ref> Namun, manusia modern memiliki kapasitas yang besar untuk mengubah [[habitat]] mereka melalui teknologi, [[irigasi]], [[perencanaan kota]], konstruksi, [[penggundulan hutan]] dan [[penggurunan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.westerville.k12.oh.us/userfiles/4188/Classes/7526/humanforcesthatchangeenvironment.pdf?id=448117 |title=How People Modify the Environment |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=[[Westerville City School District]] |access-date=13 March 2019 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225132108/http://www.westerville.k12.oh.us/userfiles/4188/Classes/7526/humanforcesthatchangeenvironment.pdf?id=448117 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pemukiman manusia]] senantiasa rentan terhadap [[bencana alam]], terutama yang berada di lokasi rawan dan dengan kualitas konstruksi yang rendah.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLACREGTOPHAZMAN/Resources/EN_Breve_Oct03_32_Nat_Dis_EN.pdf |title=Natural disasters and the urban poor |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |date=Oktober 2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809063303/https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLACREGTOPHAZMAN/Resources/EN_Breve_Oct03_32_Nat_Dis_EN.pdf |archive-date=9 Agustus 2017 }}</ref> Pengelompokan dan perubahan habitat yang disengaja sering kali dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk memberikan perlindungan, meningkatkan kenyamanan atau kekayaan materi, memperbanyak jumlah makanan yang tersedia, menambah [[estetika]], memperluas ilmu pengetahuan, atau mendorong pertukaran sumber daya.<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Habitat UN|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/889953315|title=The state of the world's cities 2012 / prosperity of cities.|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-01559-6|location=[London]|pages=x|oclc=889953315|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730032849/https://www.worldcat.org/title/state-of-the-worlds-cities-2012-prosperity-of-cities/oclc/889953315|url-status=live}}</ref>