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{{Info|'''Pemberitahuan:''' Ini adalah versi terdahulu artikel [[Muhammad]] di enwiki, sebelum mengutip sumber dari Rodgers yang masih diperdebatkan kredibilitasnya. Untuk versi artikel yang memakai sumber dari Rodgers, lihat [[Pengguna:Fazoffic/bak pasir/Muhammad/2]]}}
{{Short description|Founder and main prophet of Islam (c. 570–632)}}
{{About|nabi utama dalam Islam|orang lain yang bernama Muhammad|Muhammad (nama)|kegunaan lain|Muhammad (disambiguasi)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| honorific_prefix = <!-- see [[WP:GELARISLAM]] -->
| name = Muhammad
| native_name = {{Lang|ar|مُحَمَّد}}
| image = Dark vignette Al-Masjid AL-Nabawi Door800x600x300.jpg
| caption = "Muhammad, Utusan Tuhan"<br />tertulis di pintu gerbang [[Masjid Nabawi]] di [[Madinah]]
| alt = Prasasti yang menyatakan Muhammad sebagai utusan Allah
| birth_date = {{Circa|570}} [[Masehi|CE]] (53 [[Hijriyah|SH]]){{sfn|Conrad|1987}}
| birth_place = {{Longitem|[[Makkah]], [[Hijaz]], [[Jazirah Arab]]}}
| death_date = {{Death date|632|6|8|df=y}} (11 [[Hijriyah|H]]) (umur 61–62)
| death_place = {{Longitem|[[Madinah]], Hijaz, Jazirah Arab}}
| resting_place = {{Longitem|style=white-space; |[[Kubah Hijau]] di [[Masjid Nabawi]], Madinah}}
| resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|24|28|03|N|39|36|41|E|type:landmark_scale:5000_region:SA|display=inline|name=Green Dome}}
| other_names = {{Unbulleted list|style=line-height:1.3em; |''Rasūlullāh'' (Utusan Tuhan) |''(lihat [[Nama dan gelar Muhammad]])''}}
| known_for = Pendiri agama [[Islam]]
| spouse = ''lihat'' [[istri-istri Muhammad]]
| children = ''lihat'' [[anak-anak Muhammad]]
| parents = [[Abdullah bin Abdul Muthalib]] (ayah)<br />[[Aminah binti Wahab]] (ibu)
| relatives = [[Pohon keluarga Muhammad]], [[Ahlulbait]] ("Keluarga di rumah")
| module = {{Infobox Arabic name|embed=yes
|ism=Muḥammad
|nasab=Muḥammad bin [[Abdullah bin Abdul Muthalib|ʿAbdullāh]] bin [[Abdul Muthalib|ʿAbdul Muṭālib]] bin [[Hasyim bin Abdu Manaf|Hāsyim]] bin [[Abdu Manaf bin Qushay|ʿAbdu Manāf]] bin [[Qushay bin Kilab|Quṣay]] bin [[Kilab bin Murrah|Kilāb]]
|kunya=[[Abul Qasim|ʾAbul Qāsim]]
|laqab=[[Penutup para nabi|Khātam an-Nabiyyīn]] (Penutup para nabi)
}}
| religion =
}}
{{Muhammad}}
'''Muhammad'''{{efn|Muhamad memiliki banyak sebutan, di antaranya adalah '''Muhammad bin Abdullah''', '''Nabiyullah''', '''Nabi Muhammad''', '''Rasulullah''', '''Nabi terakhir dalam Islam''', dan lain-lain; ada juga banyak varian ejaan Muhammad, seperti '''Mohamet''', '''Mohammed''', '''Mahamad''', '''Muhamad''', '''Mohamed''' dan yang lainnya.}} ({{lang-ar|مُحَمَّد}}; {{circa}} 570 – 8 Juni 632 [[Masehi|M]]){{efn|{{harvnb|Goldman|1995|p=63}}, memberikan 8 Juni 632 M, tradisi Islam yang dominan. Banyak tradisi sebelumnya (terutama non-Islam) menyebut dia masih hidup pada masa [[Penaklukan Muslim atas Suriah#Penaklukam Palestina|Penaklukan Palestina]].}} adalah seorang pemimpin agama, sosial, politik dan pendiri dari agama [[Islam]].{{efn|Menurut {{harvnb|Welch|Moussalli|Newby|2009}}, yang menulis untuk Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: "Nabi Islam adalah seorang pembaharu agama, politik, dan sosial yang memunculkan salah satu peradaban besar dunia. Dari perspektif sejarah modern, Muhammad adalah pendiri Islam. Dari perspektif keyakinan umat Islam, dia adalah Utusan Tuhan (''Rasūlullāh''), dipanggil untuk menjadi "pemberi peringatan", pertama untuk orang Arab dan kemudian untuk seluruh umat manusia."}} Menurut keyakinan umat Islam, dia adalah [[nabi]] yang diberikan wahyu ilahi untuk memberitakan dan meneguhkan prinsip [[tauhid|monoteistis]] dalam ajaran [[Adam]], [[Abraham]], [[Musa]], [[Yesus]], dan [[Nabi Islam|nabi]] lainnya. {{sfn|Welch|Moussalli|Newby|2009}}{{sfn|Esposito|2002|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=9,12}} Dia diyakini sebagai [[Penutup Para Nabi]] dalam Islam. Muhammad menyatukan [[Jazirah Arab]] menjadi satu negara di bawah [[pemerintahan Islam]], dengan [[Al-Qur'an]] yang menjadi dasar negaranya.
Muhammad lahir sekitar tahun 570{{nbsp}}M di [[Makkah]]. {{sfn|Conrad|1987}} Dia adalah anak dari [[Abdullah bin Abdul Muthalib]] dan [[Aminah binti Wahab]]. Ayah Muhammad, Abdullah, adalah putra dari pemimpin konfederasi [[suku Quraisy]], [[Abdul Muthalib bin Hasyim]]. Abdullah meninggal beberapa bulan sebelum kelahiran Muhammad, sementara ibunya, Aminah meninggal ketika dia berusia enam tahun, meninggalkan Muhammad sebagai yatim piatu.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.al-islam.org/life-muhammad-prophet-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/early-years |title=Early Years |website=Al-Islam.org |date=18 October 2012 |language=en |access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref> Dia dibesarkan di bawah asuhan kakeknya, Abdul Muthalib, dan setelah kakeknya meninggal dunia, ia diasuh pamannya, [[Abu Thalib bin Abdul Muthalib|Abu Thalib]].{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=7}} Di tahun-tahun berikutnya, dia secara berkala mengasingkan diri di [[Jabal al-Nour|gua Hira]] selama beberapa malam untuk berdoa. Ketika dia berusia 40 tahun, sekitar tahun 610 M, Muhammad melaporkan telah dikunjungi oleh [[Jibril]] di dalam gua{{sfn|Conrad|1987}} dan menerima [[Nuzululqur'an|wahyu pertamanya]] dari Tuhan. Pada 613,<ref name=":2">Howarth, Stephen. ''Knights Templar.'' 1985. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-8034-7}} p. 199.</ref> Muhammad mulai [[Dakwah|berdakwah]] secara terbuka,<ref name="Al-A'zami2">[[Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami]] (2003), ''The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments'', pp. 26–27. UK Islamic Academy. {{ISBN|978-1-872531-65-6}}.</ref> menyatakan bahwa "[[Tauhid|Tuhan itu Esa]]", kemudian bawa cara hidup yang benar adalah dengan "menyerahkan diri" ({{transl|ar|[[Islam#Etimologi|islām]]}}) kepada Tuhan,{{sfn|Ahmad|2009}} dan bahwa dia sekarang adalah seorang nabi dan utusan Tuhan, mirip dengan [[Nabi|nabi dalam agama-agama Abrahamik]].{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=9}}{{sfn|Esposito|2002|pp=4-5}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
[[Sahabat Nabi|Pengikut Muhammad]] awalnya hanya berjumlah sedikit, dan bahkan mengalami [[Penindasan Muslim di Makkah|penindasan]] selama 13 tahun. Muhammad kemudian memutuskan untuk [[Hijrah Pertama|mengirim beberapa pengikutnya]] ke [[Kerajaan Aksum|Abyssinia]] pada tahun 615, sebelum dia dan para pengikutnya bermigrasi dari Makkah ke Yatsrib (kemudian dikenal sebagai [[Madinah]]) pada tahun 622. Peristiwa ini, yang disebut sebagai ''[[Hijrah]]'', menandai awal dari [[kalender Islam]], yang juga dikenal sebagai Kalender Hijriah. Di Madinah, Muhammad menyatukan suku-suku di bawah [[Konstitusi Madinah]]. Pada bulan Desember 629, setelah delapan tahun saling berperang dengan dengan suku-suku Makkah, Muhammad mengumpulkan 10.000 tentara Muslim dan [[Penaklukan Makkah|menaklukkan Makkah]]. Penaklukan itu hampir tidak menghadapi perlawanan sama sekali dan Muhammad merebut kota itu hanya dengan sedikit pertumpahan darah. Pada tahun 632, beberapa bulan setelah kembali dari [[Ziarah Perpisahan]], dia jatuh sakit dan meninggal. Pada saat kematiannya, sebagian besar [[Jazirah Arab]] telah masuk Islam.{{sfn|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=57}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|pp=31-32}}
Muhammad menerima wahyu sampai kematiannya, semua wahyu tersebut membentuk ayat-ayat di dalam [[Al-Qur'an]], yang dianggap oleh umat Islam sebagai "Firman Tuhan" dan telah menjadi dasar agama Islam. Selain Al-Qur'an, ajaran dan praktik Muhammad (''[[sunnah]]'') dapat ditemukan di dalam literatur [[Hadis]] dan {{transl|ar|[[Sirah Nabawiyah|sirah]]}} (biografi Muhammad) dan juga menjadi sumber utama [[Syariah|hukum Islam]].
==Names and appellations==
{{Main|Names and titles of Muhammad}}
The [[Muhammad (name)|name ''Muhammad'']] ({{IPAc-en|m|ʊ|ˈ|h|æ|m|ə|d|,_|-|ˈ|h|ɑː|m|ə|d}}{{sfn|Dictionary.com|2022}}) means "praiseworthy" in Arabic. It appears four times in the Quran.<ref>Jean-Louis Déclais, ''Names of the Prophet'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]].</ref> The Quran also addresses Muhammad in the second person by various appellations; [[Prophets in Islam|prophet]], [[Apostle (Islam)|messenger]], servant of God ('''abd''), announcer (''bashir''),<ref>{{qref|2|119|b=y}}</ref> witness (''[[Shahid (name)|shahid]]''),<ref>{{qref|33|45|b=y}}</ref> bearer of good tidings (''mubashshir''), warner (''nathir''),<ref>{{qref|11|2|b=y}}</ref> reminder (''mudhakkir''),<ref>{{qref|88|21|b=y}}</ref> one who calls [unto God] (''[[dawah|dā'ī]]''),<ref>{{qref|12|108|b=y}}</ref> light personified (''noor''),<ref>{{qref|05|15|b=y}}</ref> and the light-giving lamp (''siraj munir'').<ref>{{qref|33|46|b=y}}</ref>
==Pre-Islamic Arabia==
{{Main|Pre-Islamic Arabia|Jahiliyyah|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia}}
[[File:Tribes english.png|thumb|Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in Muhammad's lifetime]]
The [[Arabian Peninsula]] was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.{{sfn|Watt|1953|pp=1-2}} Communal life was essential for survival in the [[desert]] conditions, supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal affiliation, whether based on kinship or alliances, was an important source of social cohesion.{{sfn|Watt|1953|pp=16–18}} Indigenous Arabs were either [[nomad]]ic or [[Sedentism|sedentary]]. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.<ref name="Rue">Loyal Rue, ''Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological'', 2005, p. 224.</ref>
In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, [[Baetylus|stones]], springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the [[Kaaba]] shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: [[Allāt]], [[Manāt]] and [[al-'Uzzá]]. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and [[Jewish tribes of Arabia|Jews]].{{efn|See Quran 3:95}} [[Hanif]]s – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism"<ref>{{cite book |last=Ueberweg |first=Friedrich |title=History of Philosophy, Vol. 1: From Thales to the Present Time |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |page=409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZfL4GsU3JAC&q=Hanifs&pg=PA409 |isbn=978-1-4400-4322-2}}</ref> – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their [[historicity (philosophy)|historicity]].<ref>Kochler (1982), p. 29.</ref><ref>cf. [[Uri Rubin]], ''Hanif'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an.</ref> According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of [[Ishmael]], son of [[Abraham]],{{efn|See:
* Louis Jacobs (1995), p. 272.
* Turner (2005), p. 16.}} although no known evidence exists for a historical Abraham or Ishmael, and the links are based solely on tradition instead of historical records.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dever|first=William G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&q=What+Did+the+Biblical+Writers+Know+and+When+Did+They+Know+It%3F%3A+What+...|title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel|date=10 May 2001|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3|language=en}}</ref>
The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure.{{sfn|Robin|2012|pp=297-299}} Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=302}} [[Judaism]] became the dominant religion in [[Yemen]] while Christianity took root in the [[Persian Gulf]] area.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=302}} In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion. While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=302}}
During the early years of Muhammad's life, the [[Quraysh]] tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia.{{sfn|Robin|2012|pp=286–287}} They formed the cult association of ''hums'', which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the [[Kaaba]] and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=301}} To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=301}} Thus, although the association of ''hums'' was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=301}}
{{Clear}}
==Life==
=== Meccan years ===
==== Childhood and early life ====
{{See also|Mawlid|Family tree of Muhammad|Muhammad in Mecca}}
{{Muhammad timeline in Mecca}}
Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim<ref name="auto">[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad Muhammad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209125352/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad|date=9 February 2017}} [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]. Retrieved 15 February 2017.</ref> was born in Mecca<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodinson |first1=Maxime |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqR_mU0qpE4C&pg=PA38 |title=Muhammad: Prophet of Islam |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-86064-827-4 |page=38 |author-link1=Maxime Rodinson |access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> about the year 570,{{sfn|Conrad|1987}} and [[Mawlid|his birthday]] is believed to be in the month of [[Rabi' al-awwal]].{{sfn|Esposito|2003}} He belonged to the [[Quraysh]] tribe's [[Banu Hashim]] clan, which was one of the more distinguished families in Mecca, although the clan seemed to experience a lack of prosperity during his early years.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}{{efn|See also {{qref|43|31|b=y}} cited in EoI; Muhammad.}} Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with Yemeni King [[Abraha]]'s unsuccessful attempt to conquer [[Mecca]].<ref>Marr J.S., Hubbard E., Cathey J.T. (2014): The Year of the Elephant. <!-- figshare. -->
{{doi|10.6084/m9.figshare.1186833}}
Retrieved 21 October 2014 (GMT).</ref> Recent studies, however, challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had
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The consensus to include images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months-long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because you feel they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking and page protection, please discuss any prospective changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia.
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<div class="depiction">[[File:Mohammed kaaba 1315.jpg|thumb|left|Miniature from [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]]'s ''[[Jami al-Tawarikh]]'', {{c.|lk=no|1315}}, illustrating the story of Muhammad's role in re-setting the [[Black Stone]] in 605 ([[Ilkhanate]] period)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=Wijdan |date=August 1999 |journal=Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art |title=From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art |number=7 |url=http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041203232347/http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 December 2004 |page=3 |issn=0928-6802 }}</ref>]]
</div>
Muhammad's father, [[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abdullah]], died almost six months before he was born.<ref name="Meri2004">{{cite book |last=Meri |first=Josef W. |author-link=Josef W. Meri |title=Medieval Islamic civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC |access-date=3 January 2013 |volume=1 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |page=525 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114153019/http://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a [[Bedouin]] family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity.{{sfn|Watt|1971}} Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, [[Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb]], and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother [[Aminah|Amina]] to illness and became an orphan.{{sfn|Watt|1971}}{{sfn|Watt|1960}} For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather [[Abd al-Muttalib]], of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abu Talib]], the new leader of the Banu Hashim.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=7}} According to Islamic historian [[William Montgomery Watt]] there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=8}}
In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=8}} Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named [[Bahira]] who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God.{{sfn|Abel|1960}}
Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=8}} He reportedly became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]."<ref name="BerkWorldHistory">''Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History'' (2005), v. 3, p. 1025.</ref> Muhammad was also known as al-Amin ({{literal translation|faithful}}) when he was young. Historians differ as to whether the name was given by people as a reflection of his nature,{{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=6}} or was simply a given name from his parents, i.e. a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina".{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah]], a successful businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.<ref name="BerkWorldHistory" />
Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian [[Ibn Ishaq]], Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the [[Black Stone]] in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who came through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.<ref name="Dairesi">{{cite book |title=The Sacred Trusts: Pavilion of the Sacred Relics, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul |editor=Uğurluel, Talha |editor2=Doğru, Ahmet |author1=Dairesi, Hırka-i Saadet |author2=Aydin, Hilmi |publisher=Tughra Books |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-932099-72-0}}</ref><ref>[[Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami]] (2003), ''The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments'', p. 24. UK Islamic Academy. {{ISBN|978-1-872531-65-6}}.</ref>
==== Beginnings of the Quran ====
{{See also|Muhammad's first revelation|History of the Quran|Wahy}}
Muhammad began to pray alone in a cave named [[Cave of Hira|Hira]] on [[Jabal al-Nour|Mount Jabal al-Nour]], near [[Mecca]], for several weeks every year.<ref>Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 6.</ref><ref>John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland (1904), p. 83.</ref> Islamic tradition states that during his visit to the cave in 610 CE, the angel [[Gabriel]] appeared before him, showing a cloth containing [[Quran|Quranic]] verses and instructing him to read. When Muhammad confessed his illiteracy, Gabriel pressed him forcefully, nearly suffocating him. This sequence occurred twice more before Gabriel finally recited the verses, enabling Muhammad to commit them to memory.{{sfn|Wensinck|Rippen|2002}} These verses later constituted [[Quran 96:1-5]].{{sfn|Rosenwein|2018|p=148}}
{{Quote box|quoted=true|bgcolor=#ffeeaa|align=right|width=30%|salign=right|quote=''Recite in the name of your Lord who created—Created man from a clinging substance. Recite, and your Lord is the most Generous—Who taught by the pen—Taught man that which he knew not.''|source=— [[Quran 96:1–5]]}}
The experience terrified Muhammad, but he was
Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a [[jinn]], a soothsayer, or a magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia. Nonetheless, these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his followers regarding the divine origin of his revelations.
Shortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad great distress and thoughts of suicide.{{sfn|Wensinck|Rippen|2002}}{{efn|''See:''
* Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7.
* Rodinson (2002), p. 71.}} On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a mountain intending to jump off. However, upon reaching the peak, Gabriel appeared to him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of
[[File:Miniatura_Maometto.jpg|thumb|left|A 16th-century [[Siyer-i Nebi]] image of angel [[Gabriel]] visiting Muhammad]]
[[File:Cave Hira.jpg|right|upright|thumb|The cave [[Cave of Hira|Hira]] in the mountain [[Jabal al-Nour]] where, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first revelation]]
Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 31.</ref> According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their [[eschatological]] punishment ([[Quran 38:70]],<ref>{{qref|38|70|b=y}}</ref> [[Quran 6:19]]).<ref>{{qref|6|19|b=y}}</ref> Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities.<ref name="EoQ-Muhammad">Uri Rubin, ''Muhammad'', [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]].</ref> Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected God's revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God. Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.<ref name="EoQ-Muhammad" />
The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise, and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were simple and few in numbers: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not exposing new-born girls to die in the desert, which was sometimes done at the time out of poverty.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
==== Onset of frictions with the Quraysh ====
{{See also|Persecution of Muslims by Meccans}}
Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public.<ref name="Al-A'zami2" />{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|pp=37–39}} Initially, he had no serious opposition from the inhabitants of [[Mecca]], who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=364}}<ref name=":B1">{{
According to [[Amr ibn al-As]], several of the Quraysh gathered at [[Hijr Ismail|Hijr]] and discussed how they had never faced such serious problems as they were facing from Muhammad. They said that he had derided their culture, denigrated their ancestors, scorned their faith, shattered their community, and cursed their gods.
The [[Quraysh]] attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of the offers.<ref name="Cambridge 1977 362">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 36.</ref> A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the [[Banu Makhzum|Makhzum]] clan, known by the Muslims as [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]], went to Muhammad's uncle [[Abu Talib]], head of the [[Banu Hashim|Hashim]] clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum:{{Sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=125}}
{{
Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear
While a group of Muslims were praying in a ravine, some Quraysh ran into them and blamed them for what they were doing. One of the Muslims, [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]], then took a camel's jawbone and struck a Quraysh, splitting his head open, in what is reported to be the first
Islamic traditions record at great length the persecution and mistreatment that Muhammad and his followers later underwent from the Meccan polytheists, but the accounts are more or less obscure and open to various equally uncertain interpretations.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=364–5}} Some of them include the stories of a slave identified as [[Sumayyah bint Khabbat|Sumayya bint Khayyat]], who was said to have been killed by her master Abu Jahl with a spear, and [[Bilal ibn Rabah|Bilal]], also a slave, who reportedly having a big stone placed on his chest by his master [[Umayya ibn Khalaf]] because they both refused to leave Islam;<ref>Jonathan E. Brockopp, ''Slaves and Slavery'', [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]].</ref> Bilal was eventually bought by Abu Bakr or traded for a slave of his own who had not yet embraced Islam.{{sfn|Arafat|1960}} [[Alford T. Welch]] et al. point out that the [[Quran|Qur'an]] is virtually silent on such episodes that the traditions report as major events in Muhammad’s Meccan years, despite its frequent references to the major events of his life following the [[Hijrah]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=364–5}}
==== The Quraysh
{{See also|Seven Sleepers|Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran}}The Quraysh tasked [[Nadr ibn al-Harith]] and [[Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt]] with seeking the opinions of Jewish [[Rabbi|rabbis]] in [[Medina]] regarding Muhammad. The rabbis advised them to ask Muhammad three questions: recount the tale of young men who ventured forth in the first age; narrate the story of a traveler who reached both the eastern and western ends of the earth; and provide details about the Spirit. If Muhammad answered correctly, they stated, he would be a Prophet; otherwise, he would be a liar. When they returned to [[Mecca]] and asked Muhammad the questions, he told them he would provide the answers the next day. However, 15 days passed without a response from his God, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing Muhammad distress. At some point later, Gabriel came to Muhammad and provided him with the answers.{{sfn|Ṣallābī|2005|p=460–1}}{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=75}}
In response to the first query, the
==== Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses ====
{{Main| Migration to Abyssinia | Satanic
In 615, fearful that his followers would be seduced from their religion,
While [[Al-Tabari|Tabari]] and [[Ibn Hisham]] mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to [[Ibn Sa'd]]. Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to [[Mecca]] before the event of [[Hijrah|Hijra]], while
This
In 616 (or 617), the leaders of [[Makhzum]] and [[Banu Abd-Shams]], two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted for three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=96}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=4}}
==== Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if ====
{{Main|Muhammad's visit to Ta'if}}
On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]], and he said, "They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him entry to Mecca as well." Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a passing horseman to deliver a message to [[Al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq|Akhnas ibn Shariq]], a member of his mother's clan, requesting his protection so that he could enter in safety. But Akhnas declined, saying that he was only a confederate of the house of [[Quraysh]]. Muhammad then sent a message to Suhayl ibn Amir, who similarly declined on the basis of tribal principle. Finally, Muhammad dispatched someone to ask [[Muṭʽim ibn ʽAdi|Mut'im ibn 'Adiy]], the chief of the [[Banu Nawfal]]. Mut'im agreed, and after equipping himself, he rode out in the morning with his sons and nephews to accompany Muhammad to the city. When Abu Jahl saw him, he asked if Mut'im was simply giving him protection or if he had already converted to his religion. Mut'im replied, "Granting him protection, of course." Then Abu Jahl said, "We will protect whomever you protect."{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=148}}
==== Isra' and Mi'raj ====
{{Main|Isra and Mi'raj}}
[[File:Domeoftherock1.jpg|thumb|Quranic inscriptions on the [[Dome of the Rock]]. It marks the spot Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to [[Jannah|heaven]].<ref name="BloomBlair2009">{{cite book |author1=Jonathan M. Bloom |author2=Sheila Blair |title=The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76 |access-date=26 December 2011 |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |page=76 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020218/http://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76 |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref>]]
It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the [[Prophetic biography|''Sira'']] lay out the famous Isra' and Mi'raj. Nowadays, Isra' is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad from [[Mecca]] to [[Jerusalem]], while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} There is considered no substantial basis for the Mi'raj in the Quran, as the Quran does not address it directly and emphasizes that Muhammad was not given any miracles other than the Quran.<ref>Sells, Michael. ''Ascension'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]].</ref>
According to Quran 17:1, Muhammad's night journey took him from the sacred place of prayer to the furthest place of prayer. While the [[Kaaba]] is widely accepted as "the sacred place of prayer," there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to the identity of the "furthest place of prayer." One modern scholarly view maintains that the oldest tradition regarded "the furthest place of prayer" as the heavenly prototype of the Kaaba, so the night journey was then a direct journey from Mecca through the heavens to the celestial Kaaba. A later tradition, however, identified "the furthest place of prayer" as the ''Bayt al-Maqdis'', which is commonly believed to be in Jerusalem. Over time, these two traditions were reconciled, presenting Muhammad's journey as from Mecca to Jerusalem and then from there to the heavens.<ref>Sells, Michael. ''Ascension'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]].</ref>
The dating of the events also differs from account to account. [[Ibn Sa'd]] recorded that Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of [[Ramadan]], 18 months before the [[Hijrah]], while the Isra' from Mecca to ''Bayt al-Maqdis'' took place on the 17th night of the [[Rabi' al-Thani|Last Rabi’ul]] before the hijrah. As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one. In [[Ibn Hisham]]'s account, the Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib. On the other hand, [[al-Tabari]] only included the story of Muhammad's ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first male to believe in the Messenger of God."{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
==== Hijrah ====
{{Main|Hegira}}
<!------------
PLEASE NOTE:
Baris 134 ⟶ 166:
------------->
After a year, they returned with five more people and converted to Islam. Muhammad promised them that Islam would pave the way for them to live harmoniously with the Jews.{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=244}} Following his failure in Taif, Muhammad acted with prudence and sent an agent to accompany the group back to Medina, ostensibly to spread his religious teachings.<ref name=":3" /> The next year, they returned to Aqaba with 73 men and two women. Al-Abbas said to those who were present:
{{Quote|text=Ye company of the Khazraj! This, my kinsman, dwells among us (the family of [[Banu Hashim|Hashim]]) in honor and safety. His clan will defend him—both those who are converts and those who still adhere to their ancestral faith—but he prefers to seek protection from you. Therefore, consider the matter well and count the cost. If you are resolved and able to defend him, well; but if you doubt your ability, at once abandon the design.{{sfn|Muir|1858|p=234–5}}}}
Then Muhammad himself spoke to those people:
{{Quote|text=I invite your allegiance on the basis that you protect me as you would your women and children.{{sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=245}}}}
In which they agreed. After that, Muhammad commanded the Muslims in Mecca to migrate to Medina.{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=245–7}} This event is known as the [[Hijrah]] which basically means severing of kinship ties.<ref>{{harv|Schacht et al.|1998|p=366}}</ref>{{Sfn|Nigosian|2004|p=10}} Some Muslims were held back by their families from leaving but in the end there were no Muslims left in Mecca.{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=246}} Twentieth-century [[Pakistanis|Pakistani]] Muslim scholar [[Fazlur Rahman Malik|Fazlur Rahman]] said that the Muslims were expelled from Mecca and their property seized.<ref>[[Fazlur Rahman Malik|Fazlur Rahman]] (1979), p. 21.</ref>
Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of [[Ali]], Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=5}} By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural [[oasis]]. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as ''[[muhajirun]]'' (emigrants).{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
=== Medinan years ===
Medina, located over 200 miles to the north of Mecca, is a lush oasis.<ref name=“Holt”>{{harv|Holt et al.|1977|p=39}}</ref> According to Muslim sources, the city was established by Jews who had survived the revolt against the Romans.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=11}} While agriculture was far from being the domain of the Arab tribes, the Jews were outstanding farmers, cultivating the land in the oases.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=11}} There were reportedly around 20 Jewish tribes residing in the city, with the three most prominent being [[Banu Nadir]], [[Banu Qaynuqa]] and [[Banu Qurayza]].{{Sfn|Zeitlin|2007|p=82}} In time, Arab tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled down alongside the Jewish community,{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=11}} and gradually replaced their position of hegemony.{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=194}} The Arab tribes consisted of [[Banu Aws]] and [[Banu Khazraj]], both collectively known as Banu Qayla.<ref>{{harv|Gibb et al.|1986|p=514}}</ref> Before 620, there had been fighting among the two Arab tribes for almost a hundred years,<ref name=“Holt” /> with each of them attempting to court the assistance of the Jewish tribes,{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=194}} causing the latter sometimes also had to fight each other.<ref name=“Holt” /> In 622, when Muhammad came to the city, the Jewish tribes were allied as subordinates to the two Arab tribes.{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=193}}
====Establishment of a new polity====
{{Main|Constitution of Medina}}
[[Ibn Ishaq]], following his narration of the ''[[hijrah]]'', maintains that Muhammad penned a text now referred to as the [[Constitution of Medina]] and divulges its assumed content without supplying any ''[[Hadith studies|isnad]]'' or corroboration.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}} The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes,{{Sfn|Arjomand|2022|p=111}} but rather addressed tribal matters.{{Sfn|Rubin|2022|p=8}} While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}}{{Sfn|Watt|1956|p=227}}
The first group of converts to Islam in Medina were the clans without great leaders; these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=175}} This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the [[pagan]] population of Medina, with some exceptions. According to [[Ibn Ishaq]], this was influenced by the conversion of [[Sa'd ibn Mu'adh]] (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=177}} Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|ansar]]'' (supporters).{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
====Beginning of armed conflict====
{{Main|Battle of Badr}}
{{See also|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Muhammad}}
War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivered [[Quran]]ic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans.<ref>[[John Kelsay]] (1993), p. 21.</ref> According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the [[Masjid al-Qiblatayn]] in Medina, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.{{sfn|Watt|1974|pp=112-114}}
{{Quote box|quoted=true|bgcolor=#ffeeaa|align=right|width=25%|salign=right|quote=''Permission has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory. Those who have been evicted from their homes without right—only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished [[monastery|monasteries]], [[Church (building)|churches]], [[synagogue]]s, and [[mosque]]s in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.''|source=— Quran (22:39–40)}}
Muhammad ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of Nakhla, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners.<ref name=":0" /> In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.<ref>Rodinson (2002), p. 164.</ref> Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. The [[Battle of Badr]] commenced.<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 45.</ref> Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including [[Amr ibn Hishām|Abu Jahl]].<ref>Glubb (2002), pp. 179–86.</ref> Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed.<ref name="Lewisw">Lewis (2002), p. 41.</ref>{{sfn|Watt|1961|p=123}}<ref name="Rodinson 168-9">Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–69.</ref> Muhammad and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} and Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.<ref>Lewis(2002), p. 44.</ref>
The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.<ref>Russ Rodgers, ''The Generalship of Muhammad: Battles and Campaigns of the Prophet of Allah'' (University Press of Florida; 2012) ch 1.</ref> As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, [[Asma bint Marwan]] of the Aws Manat tribe and [[Abu 'Afak]] of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=178}} They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove of the killings.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=178}} Most members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=179}}
Muhammad expelled from Medina the [[Banu Qaynuqa]], one of three main Jewish tribes,{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad's death.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-7456-5488-1 |last=Zeitlin |first=Irving M. |title=The Historical Muhammad |date=2007 |page=148}}</ref> According to [[al-Waqidi]], after [[Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy]] spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-92113-1 |last=Faizer |first=Rizwi |title=The Life of Muhammad: Al-Waqidi's Kitab al-Maghazi |date=2010 |page=79}}</ref> Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of [[Hejaz]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
====Conflict with Mecca====
{{Main|Battle of Uhud}}
[[File:The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the Battle of Uhud, from the Siyer-i Nebi, 1595.jpg|thumb|"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the [[Battle of Uhud]]", from a 1595 edition of the [[Mamluk]]-Turkic ''[[Siyer-i Nebi]]'']]
The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr.{{sfn|Watt|1961|p=132}} In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad led expeditions against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan.{{sfn|Watt|1961|p=134}} [[Abu Sufyan]] gathered an army of 3000 men and set out for an attack on Medina.<ref name="Lewis 1960 45">Lewis (1960), p. 45.</ref>
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the [[Battle of Uhud]] on 23 March 625.<ref>C.F. Robinson, ''Uhud'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref>{{sfn|Watt|1964|p=137}} Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including [[Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]], Muhammad's uncle who became one of the best known [[Martyrdom in Islam|martyrs in the Muslim tradition]]. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought dead. When they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=137}}<ref>David Cook (2007), p. 24.</ref> The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad delivered Quranic verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness.{{sfn|Watt|1964|p=144}}
Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=30}} Muhammad's new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Medina were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=30}} Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, and reacted in a severe manner.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=34}} One example is the assassination of [[Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf]], a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Nadir]]. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=18}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rubin |first1=Uri |date=1990 |title=The Assassination of Kaʿb b. al-Ashraf |journal=Oriens |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=65–71 |jstor=1580625 |doi=10.2307/1580625}}</ref> Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina{{sfn|Watt|1956|pp=220–21}} forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad's attempts to prevent a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential tribes from joining his enemies.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=35}}
====Battle
{{Main|Battle of the Trench}}
[[File:Masjid al-Qiblatain.jpg|thumb|The [[Masjid al-Qiblatayn]], where Muhammad established the new [[Qibla]], or direction of prayer]]
With the help of the exiled [[Banu Nadir]], the Quraysh military leader [[Abu Sufyan]] mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, [[Salman the Persian]]. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks.{{sfn|Watt|1956|pp=36-37}} Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home.{{efn|See:
* Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–11.
* {{harvnb|Watt|1964|p=169}}.}} The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27.<ref name="Rubin">Uri Rubin'', Quraysh'', [[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an]].</ref>
During the battle, the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Qurayza]], located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts.{{sfn|Watt|1964|pp=170-172}} After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=126}}{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|p=141}}
In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=39}} Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an [[Aisha#Accusation of adultery|accusation of adultery]] was made against [[Aisha]], Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, [[An-Nur]]).<ref name="Watt-encyc-online" />
===
{{Main|
{{Quote box|align=right|quote=
"In your name, O God!<br />This is the treaty of peace between Muhammad Ibn Abdullah and Suhayl Ibn Amr. They have agreed to allow their arms to rest for ten years. During this time each party shall be secure, and neither shall injure the other; no secret damage shall be inflicted, but honesty and honour shall prevail between them. Whoever in Arabia wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with Muhammad can do so, and whoever wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with the Quraysh can do so. And if a Qurayshite comes without the permission of his guardian to Muhammad, he shall be delivered up to the Quraysh; but if, on the other hand, one of Muhammad's people comes to the Quraysh, he shall not be delivered up to Muhammad. This year, Muhammad, with his companions, must withdraw from Mecca, but next year, he may come to Mecca and remain for three days, yet without their weapons except those of a traveller; the swords remaining in their sheaths."
|source=—The statement of the treaty of Hudaybiyyah<ref name=Text>{{cite book |title=Learning Islam 8 |date=2009 |publisher=Islamic Services Foundation |isbn=978-1-933301-12-9 |page=D14}}</ref>
}}
Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the [[Hajj]],<ref>{{qref|2|196-210}}</ref> the Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of [[Shawwal]] 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (''[[umrah]]'') to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj.<ref>Lings (1987), p. 249.</ref> Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca.<ref name="Hudaybiya" /> According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion.<ref name="Hudaybiya">Watt, ''al- Hudaybiya or al-Hudaybiyya'' [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref> [[File:Kaaba Masjid Haraam Makkah.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] long held a major economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim [[Qibla]], or direction for prayer ([[salat]]). The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.{{sfn|Peters|2003b|p=88}}]]
Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, [[Uthman|Uthman bin al-Affan]], had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" or the "[[Pledge of the Tree|Pledge under the Tree]]". News of Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.<ref name="Hudaybiya" /><ref>Lewis (2002), p. 42.</ref> The main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year, and agreement to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Medina without permission from their protector.<ref name="Hudaybiya" />
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "[[Al-Fath]]" (The Victory) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one.<ref>Lings (1987), p. 255.</ref> It was later that Muhammad's followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad as an equal, cessation of military activity allowing Medina to gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage rituals.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of [[Khaybar]], known as the [[Battle of Khaybar]]. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.<ref name="Lewis 1960 45" /><ref>Vaglieri, ''Khaybar'', Encyclopaedia of Islam.</ref> According to Muslim tradition, [[Muhammad's letters to the Heads-of-State|Muhammad also sent letters]] to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}<ref name=King_Lings>Lings (1987), p. 260.</ref>{{sfn|Khan|1998|pp=250–251}} He sent messengers (with letters) to [[Heraclius]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (the eastern Roman Empire), [[Khosrau II|Khosrau]] of [[Sassanid Empire|Persia]], the chief of [[Yemen]] and to some others.<ref name=King_Lings />{{sfn|Khan|1998|pp=250–251}} In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed his forces against the Arabs on [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordanian]] Byzantine soil in the [[Battle of Mu'tah]].<ref>F. Buhl, ''Muta'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref>
===Final years===
====Conquest of Mecca====
{{Main|Conquest of Mecca|Muhammad after the
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The [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah|truce of Hudaybiyyah]] was enforced for two years.{{sfn|Khan|1998|p=274}}<ref name="Lings_291">Lings (1987), p. 291.</ref> The tribe of [[Banu Khuza'a]] had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the [[Banu Bakr ibn Abd Manat|Banu Bakr]], had allied with the Meccans.{{sfn|Khan|1998|p=274}}<ref name="Lings_291" /> A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of them.{{sfn|Khan|1998|p=274}}<ref name=Lings_291 /> The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.{{sfn|Khan|1998|p=274}} After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay [[Blood money (term)|blood money]] for the slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.{{sfn|Khan|1998|pp=274-275}}
The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition.{{sfn|Khan|1998|pp=274-275}} Soon they realized their mistake and sent [[Abu Sufyan]] to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad.
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.<ref>Lings (1987), p. 292.</ref> In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized control of Mecca.{{sfn|Watt|1956|p=66}} He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace".<ref name=Subhani>''The Message'' by Ayatullah Ja'far Subhani, [http://www.al-islam.org/message/49.htm#n582 chapter 48] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502163638/http://www.al-islam.org/message/49.htm |date=2 May 2012 }} referencing Sirah by [[Ibn Hisham]], vol. II, page 409.</ref> Some of these were later pardoned.<ref>Rodinson (2002), p. 261.</ref> Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues of [[Pre-Islamic Arabian gods|Arabian gods]] in and around the Kaaba.<ref>Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p. 163.</ref> According to reports collected by [[Ibn Ishaq]] and [[al-Azraqi]], Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]] and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah" |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Guillaume |first=Alfred |author-link=Alfred Guillaume |date=1955 |page=552 |isbn=978-0-19-636033-1 |quote=Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary. |url=https://archive.org/details/IbnIshaq-SiratRasulAllah-translatorA.Guillaume |access-date=8 December 2011}}</ref> The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.<ref name="Rubin" /><ref>{{qref|110|1–3|b=y}}.</ref>
====Conquest of Arabia====
{{Main|Battle of Hunayn|Expedition
[[File:Muslim Conquest.PNG|thumb|Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and the Rashidun caliphs (black lines). Shown: Byzantine empire (North and West) & Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast).]]
Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of [[Hawazin]] who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad's. The [[Hawazin|Banu Hawazin]] were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the [[Banu Thaqif]] (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=207}} Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the [[Battle of Hunayn]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}
In the same year, Muhammad organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the [[Battle of Mu'tah]] and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With great difficulty he assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with [[Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy]], untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad hurled at them. Although Muhammad did not engage with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}<ref>M.A. al-Bakhit, ''Tabuk'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref>
He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was [[Taif]]. Muhammad refused to accept the city's surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to destroy the statue of their goddess [[Al-Lat]].<ref name=":0">Ibn Ishaq (translated by Guillaume, A. 1955) The Life of Muhammad. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 281–287.</ref><ref>Haykal, M.H. (1933) The Life of Muhammad, translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi. The Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs, Cairo, Egypt and University of Chicago.</ref><ref>Husayn, M.J. Biography of Imam 'Ali Ibn Abi-Talib, Translation of Sirat Amir Al-Mu'minin, Translated by: Sayyid Tahir Bilgrami, Ansariyan Publications, Qum, Islamic Republic of Iran.</ref>
A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to safeguard against his attacks and to benefit from the spoils of war.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad required a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the [[Zakat]], the Muslim religious levy."<ref>Lewis (1993), pp. 43–44.</ref>
====Farewell pilgrimage====
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PLEASE NOTE:
The consensus to include images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months-long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because you feel they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking and page protection, please discuss any prospective changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia.
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{{Main|Farewell Pilgrimage}}
{{See also|The event of Ghadir Khumm}}
[[File:Maome.jpg|thumb|Anonymous illustration of [[Abu Rayhan Biruni|al-Bīrūnī]]'s ''[[The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries]]'', depicting Muhammad [[Islamic calendar#Prohibiting Nasī'|prohibiting Nasī']] during the [[Farewell Pilgrimage]], 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century ([[Ilkhanate]]) manuscript (Edinburgh codex)]]
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In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Medina, Muhammad completed his first true Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as ''[[Hajj]]''.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} On the 9th of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] Muhammad delivered his [[Farewell Sermon]], at [[Mount Arafat]] east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. For instance, he said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any superiority over a white except by piety and good action.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sultan |first=Sohaib |title=The Koran For Dummies |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]] |date=March 2011 |isbn=978-0-7645-5581-7}}</ref> He abolished old [[blood feud]]s and disputes based on the former [[tribal]] system and asked for old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male followers to "be good to women, for they are powerless captives (''awan'') in your households. You took them in God's trust, and [[Islamic marriage contract|legitimated your sexual relations]] with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words ..." He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.<ref>[[Devin J. Stewart]], ''Farewell Pilgrimage'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an.</ref><ref>Al-Hibri (2003), p. 17.</ref> According to [[Sunni]] [[tafsir]], the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you".<ref>{{qref|5|3|b=y}}</ref>{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} According to [[Shia]] tafsir, it refers to the appointment of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]] at the [[Rabigh#Ghadir Khumm|pond of Khumm]] as [[Succession to Muhammad|Muhammad's successor]], this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina.{{efn|See:
* [http://www.almizan.org/Tafseer/Volume3/Baqarah50.asp Tabatabae, Tafsir Al-Mizan, vol. 9, pp. 227–47] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011223853/http://almizan.org/Tafseer/Volume3/Baqarah50.asp |date=11 October 2007}}.
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.tafseercomparison.org/study2.asp?TitleText=Study%202:%20Verse%205:3 |title=Comparing the Tafsir of various exegetes |publisher=Tafseer Comparison |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514111339/http://www.tafseercomparison.org/study2.asp?TitleText=Study%202%3A%20Verse%205%3A3 |archive-date=14 May 2012 |access-date=2 February 2013 |url-status=dead }}}}
====Death and tomb====
A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.<ref name="USN&WR">[https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/religion/2008/04/07/the-last-prophet.html?PageNr=3 ''The Last Prophet''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123041056/http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/religion/2008/04/07/the-last-prophet.html?PageNr=3 |date=23 January 2009}}, p. 3. Lewis Lord of [[U.S. News & World Report]]. 7 April 2008.</ref> With his head resting on Aisha's lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then spoke his final words:
{{Blockquote|“O God, forgive me and have mercy on me; and let me join the highest companion.”{{Sfn|Cole|1996|p=268}}{{Sfn|Borup|Fibiger|Kühle|2019|p=132}}{{Sfn|Ibn Kathīr|1998|p=344}}|Muhammad}}
According to the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', Muhammad's death may be presumed to have been caused by Medinan fever exacerbated by physical and mental fatigue.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=374}}
Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}<ref>Leila Ahmed (1986), 665–91 (686).</ref>{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=90}} During the reign of the Umayyad caliph [[al-Walid I]], [[al-Masjid an-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Muhammad's tomb.]]<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Penerbit UTM |isbn=978-983-52-0373-2 |last=Ariffin |first=Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed |title=Architectural Conservation in Islam: Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque |date=2005 |page=88}}</ref> The [[Green Dome]] above the tomb was built by the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] sultan [[Al Mansur Qalawun]] in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=10061 |title=Prophet's Mosque |publisher=Archnet.org |date=2 May 2005 |access-date=26 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323131933/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=10061 |archive-date=23 March 2012 }}</ref> Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions ([[Sahabah]]), the first two Muslim caliphs [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar]], and an empty one that [[Jesus in Islam#Second Coming|Muslims believe awaits Jesus]].{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=90}}<ref>"Isa", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''.</ref><ref name="Al-HaqqaniKabbani2002">{{cite book |first1=Shaykh Adil |last1=Al-Haqqani |first2=Shaykh Hisham |last2=Kabbani |author-link2=Hisham Kabbani |title=The Path to Spiritual Excellence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzpV0QnOVxsC&pg=PA65 |date=2002 |publisher=ISCA |isbn=978-1-930409-18-7 |pages=65–66 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043430/https://books.google.com/books?id=mzpV0QnOVxsC&pg=PA65 |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref>
When [[Saud bin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud|Saud bin Abdul-Aziz]] took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.<ref name="Weston2008" /> Adherents to [[Wahhabism]], Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,<ref name="Weston2008">{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Weston |author-link=Mark Weston (journalist) |title=Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA102 |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-18257-4 |pages=102–03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA102 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.<ref name="Behrens-AbouseifVernoit2006">{{cite book |first1=Doris |last1=Behrens-Abouseif |first2=Stephen |last2=Vernoit |title=Islamic art in the 19th century: tradition, innovation, and eclecticism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4q58Af5zAoC&pg=PA22 |date=2006 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-14442-2 |page=22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930145617/https://books.google.com/books?id=A4q58Af5zAoC&pg=PA22 |archive-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> Similar events took place in 1925, when the [[Ikhwan|Saudi militias]] retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.<ref name="Weston2008b">{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Weston |title=Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA136 |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-18257-4 |page=136 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA136 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="Cornell2007">{{cite book |first=Vincent J. |last=Cornell |title=Voices of Islam: Voices of the spirit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dNKFLJVvNkC&pg=PA84 |date=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-98734-3 |page=84 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=8dNKFLJVvNkC&pg=PA84 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="Ernst2004">{{cite book |first=Carl W. |last=Ernst |author-link=Carl W. Ernst |title=Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOWn22EkJsQC&pg=PA1173 |date=2004 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-5577-5 |pages=173–74 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=DOWn22EkJsQC&pg=PA1173 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.<ref name="Behrens-AbouseifVernoit2006" /> Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a [[ziyarat]]—a ritual visit—to the tomb.<ref name="Bennett1998">{{cite book |first=Clinton |last=Bennett |author-link=Clinton Bennett |title=In search of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182 |date=1998 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-304-70401-9 |pages=182–83 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922131141/https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182 |archive-date=22 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Clark2011">{{cite book |first=Malcolm |last=Clark |title=Islam For Dummies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT165 |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05396-6 |page=165 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035138/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT165 |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref>
{{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|800px|[[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]] ("the Prophet's mosque") in [[Medina]], Saudi Arabia, with the [[Green Dome]] built over Muhammad's tomb in the center|left}}
===After Muhammad===
{{further|Succession to Muhammad|Rashidun|Early Muslim conquests}}
[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|right|Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE:
Baris 305 ⟶ 299:
{{legend|#fad07d|Umayyad caliphate, 661–750 CE.}}]]
Muhammad united several of the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.{{sfn|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=57}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|pp=
*{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=57}}.
*{{harvnb|Hourani|Ruthven|2003|p=22}}.
Baris 311 ⟶ 305:
*{{harvnb|Esposito|1998|p=36}}.}}
The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanian]] empires. The [[Roman–Persian Wars]] between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims
==Appearance==
[[File:Hilye-i serif 5.jpg|thumb|A ''[[hilya]]'' containing a description of Muhammad, by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[calligraphy|calligrapher]] [[Hâfiz Osman]] (1642–1698)]]
According to the accounts of [[Anas ibn Malik|Anas]] and [[Al-Bara' ibn Malik|al-Bara]] in [[Sahih al-Bukhari]], Muhammad had an average height, a robust frame, and broad shoulders. His complexion was neither completely white nor deep brown, and his hair was neither curly nor straight, reaching his earlobes. At the time of his death, he had a few white hairs in his head and beard.<ref>{{cite web |title=Virtues and Merits of the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari/61/57 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326135947/https://sunnah.com/bukhari/61/57 |archive-date=26 March 2017 |access-date=25 March 2017 |website=Sunnah.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Virtues and Merits of the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari/61/60 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326050856/https://sunnah.com/bukhari/61/60 |archive-date=26 March 2017 |access-date=25 March 2017 |website=Sunnah.com}}</ref>
In [[Al-Tirmidhi|Thirmidhi]]'s [[Ash-Shama'il al-Muhammadiyya|Shama'il al Mustafa]], [[Ali]] and Hind ibn Abi Hala portrayed Muhammad as having a medium height, a white, round face, wide black eyes, and long eyelashes. His thick, curly hair reached beyond his earlobes, and he had a bright, luminous complexion. Additional features included a wide forehead, fine arched eyebrows, a vein between the eyebrows, a hooked nose, a thick beard, smooth cheeks, a strong mouth with teeth set apart, and a neck like an ivory statue. His build was well-proportioned, stout, and broad-chested, with a firm grip.<ref name="AsaniAbdel-Malek1995">{{cite book |author1=Ali Sultaan Asani |url=https://archive.org/details/celebratingmuham00asan |title=Celebrating Muḥammad: images of the prophet in popular Muslim poetry |author2=Kamal Abdel-Malek |author3=Annemarie Schimmel |date=October 1995 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-57003-050-5 |access-date=5 November 2011}}</ref><ref name="Schimmel1985">{{cite book |author=Annemarie Schimmel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZojDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 |title=And Muhammad is his messenger: the veneration of the Prophet in Islamic piety |date=1985 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-1639-4 |page=34 |access-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326161811/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZojDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 |archive-date=26 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Al-Tirmidhi, [https://sunnah.com/shamail/1 Shama'il Muhammadiyah] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326230223/https://sunnah.com/shamail/1|date=26 March 2017}} Book 1, Hadith 5 & Book 1, Hadith 7/8.</ref>
The "seal of prophecy" between Muhammad's shoulders is commonly described as a raised mole the size of a pigeon's egg.<ref name="Schimmel1985" /> Another account of Muhammad's appearance comes from [[Umm Ma'bad]], a woman he met on his journey to Medina, who depicted him as a handsome and elegant figure with perfect posture. He has a clean and attractive face, with deep black eyes and thick eyelashes. His beard is dense, and his finely arched eyebrows are connected. When he is silent, he displays a calm and dignified demeanor, and when he speaks, an aura of majesty surrounds him. His voice is melodious and he has a long neck. His speech is captivating and eloquent, yet never frivolous, resembling a flowing string of pearls.<ref name="Safi2009">{{cite book |author=Omid Safi |url=https://archive.org/details/memoriesofmuhamm00safi/page/273 |title=Memories of Muhammad: why the Prophet matters |date=17 November 2009 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-123134-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/memoriesofmuhamm00safi/page/273 273–274] |access-date=5 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Carl W. Ernst |title=Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World |page=78}}</ref>
Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (Turkish: ''[[hilya|hilye]]''), which in the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Safi2009" />
=={{anchor|household}}Household==
{{Further|Muhammad's wives|Ahl al-Bayt}}
[[File:Mrs Aisha room.jpg|thumb|The tomb of Muhammad is located in the quarters of his third wife, [[Aisha]] ([[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]], [[Medina]]).]]
Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: [[Muhammad in Mecca|pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca]] (from 570 to 622), and [[Muhammad in Medina|post-hijra in Medina]] (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, [[Rayhana bint Zayd]] and [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]], as wife or concubine{{efn|See for example Marco Schöller, ''Banu Qurayza'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]] mentioning the differing accounts of the status of [[Rayhana]]}}<ref name="Barbara Freyer">Barbara Freyer Stowasser, ''Wives of the Prophet'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]].</ref>). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred after the [[Hijra (Islam)|migration to Medina]].
At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid]] who was 40 years old.<ref>{{cite book |last=Subhani |first=Jafar |title=The Message |chapter-url=http://www.al-islam.org/message |publisher=Ansariyan Publications, Qom |chapter=Chapter 9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007221418/http://www.al-islam.org/message/ |archive-date=7 October 2010 }}</ref> The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.<ref name="Esp2">Esposito (1998), p. 18.</ref> Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.<ref name="Bullough 1998 119">Bullough (1998), p. 119.</ref><ref name="Reeves46">Reeves (2003), p. 46.</ref> After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry [[Sawdah bint Zamah]], a Muslim widow, or [[Aisha]], daughter of [[Umm Ruman]] and [[Abu Bakr]] of [[Mecca]]. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.<ref name="Watt-encyc-online">Watt, ''Aisha'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref>
According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad,<ref name="Watt-encyc-online" /><ref name="Spellberg">[[Denise Spellberg|D. A. Spellberg]], ''Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr'', [[Columbia University Press]], 1994, p. 40.</ref><ref name="Armstrong">Karen Armstrong, ''Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet'', Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 145.</ref> with the marriage not being [[consummate]]d until she reached the age of nine or ten years old.{{efn|<ref name="Watt-encyc-online" /><ref name="Spellberg" /><ref name="Karen_Armstrong">[[Karen Armstrong]], ''Muhammad: Prophet For Our Time'', HarperPress, 2006, p. 105.</ref><ref name="Haykal">Muhammad Husayn Haykal, ''The Life of Muhammad'', North American Trust Publications (1976), p. 139.</ref><ref>Barlas (2002), pp. 125–26.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=A.C. Brown |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |isbn=978-1-78074-420-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/143 143–44] |url=https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/143 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=A.C. Brown |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |isbn=978-1-78074-420-9 |page=316 |quote=Evidence that the Prophet waited for Aisha to reach physical maturity before consummation comes from al-Ṭabarī, who says she was too young for intercourse at the time of the marriage contract; |url=https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow |url-access=limited }}</ref><ref>{{Hadith-usc|bukhari|5|58|234}}, {{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|5|58|236}}, {{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|7|62|64}}, {{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|7|62|65}}, {{Hadith-usc|bukhari|usc=yes|7|62|88}}, {{Hadith-usc|usc=yes|muslim|8|3309}}, {{Hadith-usc|muslim|8|3310}}, {{Hadith-usc|muslim|8|3311}}, {{Hadith-usc|abudawud|41|4915}}, {{Hadith-usc|abudawud|usc=yes|41|4917}}</ref><ref>Tabari, volume 9, page 131; Tabari, volume 7, page 7.</ref>}} She was therefore a virgin at marriage.<ref name="Spellberg" /> Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha's age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage.{{efn|<ref>{{cite book |first=Asma |last=Barlas |date=2012 |title="Believing Women" in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an |publisher=University of Texas Press |page=126 |quote=On the other hand, however, Muslims who calculate 'Ayesha's age based on details of her sister Asma's age, about whom more is known, as well as on details of the Hijra (the Prophet's migration from Mecca to Madina), maintain that she was over thirteen and perhaps between seventeen and nineteen when she got married. Such views cohere with those Ahadith that claim that at her marriage Ayesha had "good knowledge of Ancient Arabic poetry and genealogy" and "pronounced the fundamental rules of Arabic Islamic ethics.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Muhammad |author1-link=Muhammad Ali (writer) |title=Muhammad the Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=od6dAQKgK-YC&pg=PT150 |date=1997 |publisher=Ahamadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam |isbn=978-0-913321-07-2 |page=150 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=od6dAQKgK-YC&pg=PT150&redir_esc=y |archive-date=1 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.valiasr-aj.com/fa/page.php?bank=question&id=699 |title=Ayesha married the Prophet when she was young? (In Persian and Arabic) |last=Ayatollah Qazvini |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926234317/http://www.valiasr-aj.com/fa/page.php?bank=question&id=699 |archive-date=26 September 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=A.C. Brown |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |isbn=978-1-78074-420-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/146 146–47] |url=https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/146 }}</ref>}}
After migration to Medina, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more women.
Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|pp=168–69}}<ref>Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125.</ref><ref>Armstrong (1992), p. 157.</ref>
Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad ([[Ruqayyah bint Muhammad]], [[Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad]], [[Zainab bint Muhammad]], [[Fatimah|Fatimah Zahra]]) and two sons ([[Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad]] and [[Qasim ibn Muhammad]], who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.<ref name="Nich" /> Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.<ref>Ordoni (1990), pp. 32, 42–44.</ref> [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]] bore him a son named [[Ibrahim ibn Muhammad]], but the child died when he was two years old.<ref name="Nich">Nicholas Awde (2000), p. 10.</ref>
Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.<ref name="Barbara Freyer" /> Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.<ref name="Watt-encyc-online" />
Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as ''[[sharif]]s'', ''syeds'' or ''[[sayyid]]s''. These are honorific titles in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], ''sharif'' meaning 'noble' and ''sayed'' or ''sayyid'' meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ali |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref>
[[Zayd ibn Harithah|Zayd ibn Haritha]] was a slave that Khadija gave to Muhammad. He was bought by her nephew [[Hakim ibn Hizam|Hakim bin Hizam]] at the market in [[Ukaz, Arabia|Ukaz]].<ref>{{harv|Bearman et al.|2002|p=475}}</ref> Zayd then became the couple’s adopted son, but was later disowned when Muhammad was about to marry Zayd’s ex-wife, [[Zaynab bint Jahsh]].{{Sfn|Powers|2014|p=100-101}} According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml |title=Slavery in Islam |publisher=BBC |access-date=16 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624234057/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml |archive-date=24 June 2017 }}</ref>
==See also==
Baris 414 ⟶ 347:
* [[Diplomatic career of Muhammad]]
* [[Glossary of Islam]]
* [[List of founders of religious traditions]]
* [[List of notable Hijazis]]
Baris 423 ⟶ 355:
* [[Possessions of Muhammad]]
* [[Relics of Muhammad]]
* [[Muhammad in Islam]]
* [[Muhammad in the Baháʼí Faith]]{{div col end}}
==
{{notelist}}
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*{{cite book |last=Rue |first=Loyal |author-link=Loyal Rue |date=2005 |title=Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological |url=https://archive.org/details/religionisnotabo00loya |url-access=registration |publisher=Rutgers |isbn=978-0-8135-3955-3|ref={{sfnref|Rue|2005}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Serin |first=Muhittin |author-link=Muhittin Serin |date=1998 |title=Hattat Aziz Efendi |publisher=Istanbul |isbn=978-975-7663-03-4 |oclc=51718704|ref={{sfnref|Serin|1998}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |date=2004 |title=Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-31486-2|ref={{sfnref|Sikand|2004}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Spellberg |first=Denise A. |author-link=Denise Spellberg |date=1996 |title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07999-0 |pages=39–40 |language=en|ref={{sfnref|Spellberg|1996}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Stillman |first=Norman A. |author-link=Norman A. Stillman |date=1979 |title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bFN2ismyhEYC&pg=PA236 |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |isbn=978-0-8276-0198-7 |page=236|ref={{sfnref|Stillman|1979}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Tabatabai |first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei |title=AL-MIZAN:AN EXEGESIS OF THE QUR'AN, translation by S. Saeed Rizvi |publisher=WOFIS |isbn=978-964-6521-14-8 |title-link=Tafsir al-Mizan|ref={{sfnref||}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Teed |first=Peter |date=1992 |title=A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-211676-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoftwen00teed |ref={{sfnref|Teed|1992}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin |date=2005 |title=Islam: The Basics |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-34106-6|ref={{sfnref|Turner|2005}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1953 |title=Muhammad at Mecca |publisher=Oxford University Press |id=ASIN: B000IUA52A |isbn=978-0-19-577277-7 |title-link=Muhammad at Mecca (book)|ref={{sfnref|Watt|1953}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1956 |title=Muhammad at Medina |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577307-1 |title-link=Muhammad at Medina (book)|ref={{sfnref|Watt|1956}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1961 |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt|ref={{sfnref|Wat1961t|}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1964 |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=2756451 |isbn=9780198810780|ref={{sfnref|Watt|1964}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1974 |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt/page/138 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=United Kingdom |isbn=0-19-881078-4|ref={{sfnref|Watt|1974}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |quote= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017|ref={{sfnref|Welch|Moussalli|Newby|2009}}}}
*{{cite journal |last=Wijdan |first=Ali |date=28 August 1999 |journal=[[Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art]] |title=From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art |pages=1–24 |issue=7|ref={{sfnref|Widjan|1999}}}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Willis |editor-first=John Ralph |date=2013 |title=Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Routledge Press|Routledge]] |volume=1 |pages=vii–xi, 3–26 |isbn=978-0-7146-3142-4|ref={{sfnref|Willis|2013}}}}
{{refend}}
====Encyclopaedia of Islam====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |
*{{cite encyclopedia |
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1960 |title=Āmina |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/amina-SIM_0601 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1|ref={{sfnref|Watt|1960}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Abel |first=Armand |date=1960 |title=Baḥīrā |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bahira-SIM_1050 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1|ref={{sfnref|Abel|1960}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Arafat |first=W. |date=1960 |title=Bilāl b. Rabāḥ |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bilal-b-rabah-SIM_1412 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1|ref={{sfnref|Arafat|1960}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wensinck |first1=A.J. |last2=Rippen |first2=A. |date=2002 |title=Waḥy |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/wahy-COM_1331 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=11|ref={{sfnref|Wensick|2002}}}}
{{refend}}
==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Berg |editor-first=Herbert |title=Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins |publisher=E. J. Brill |date=2003 |isbn=978-90-04-12602-2 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Cook |first=Michael |title=Muhammad |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1983 |isbn=978-0-19-287605-8 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Guillaume |first=Alfred |url=https://archive.org/details/TheLifeOfMohammed |title=The Life of Muhammad: A translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1955 |isbn=0-19-636033-1 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Hamidullah |first=Muhammad |title=The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam |publisher=Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute |date=1998 |isbn=978-969-8413-00-2 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Motzki |editor-first=Harald |editor-link=Harald Motzki |title=The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources – Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32 |publisher=Brill |date=2000 |isbn=978-90-04-11513-2 |ref=none}}
* Musa, A.Y. ''Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam'', New York: Palgrave, 2008
*{{cite book |last=Rubin |first=Uri |author-link=Uri Rubin |title=The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims (A Textual Analysis) |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-110-6 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |title=And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |date=1985 |isbn=978-0-8078-4128-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/andmuhammadishis00schi |ref=none}}
* [[Tariq Ali|Ali, Tariq]], "Winged Words" (review of [[Maxime Rodinson]], ''Muhammad'', translated by Anne Carter, NYRB, March 2021, 373 pp., {{ISBN|978 1 68137 492 5}}), ''[[London Review of Books]]'', vol. 43, no. 12 (17 June 2021), pp. 11–14.
{{refend}}
==Pranala luar==
{{Sister project links|Muhammad|d=Q9458|c=Category:Muhammad|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|n=no|s=no|b=no}}
*{{Curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/Prophets/Muhammed}}
Baris 568 ⟶ 528:
{{Islam topics}}
{{Social and political philosophy}}
{{Depictions of Muhammad}}
}}
{{Authority control}}
[[:Category:570s births]]
[[:Category:632 deaths]]
[[:Category:6th-century Arabs]]
[[:Category:7th-century Arabs]]
[[:Category:7th-century Islamic religious leaders]]
[[:Category:7th-century merchants]]
[[:Category:7th-century rulers in Asia]]
[[:Category:Adoptees]]
[[:Category:Angelic visionaries]]
[[:Category:Arab generals]]
[[:Category:Arab Muslims]]
[[:Category:Arab politicians]]
[[:Category:Arab prophets]]
[[:Category:Arab slave owners]]
[[:Category:Diplomats]]
[[:Category:Entering heaven alive]]
[[:Category:Founders of religions]]
[[:Category:Medina]]
[[:Category:Miracle workers]]
[[:Category:Muhammad|Muhammad]]
[[:Category:People from Mecca]]
[[:Category:Prophets of the Quran]]
[[:Category:Prophets in the Druze faith]]
[[:Category:Quraysh]]
[[:Category:The Fourteen Infallibles]]
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