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{{penyangkalan medis}}
{{terjemah|Inggris}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
[[Berkas:Normal cancer cell division from NIH.png|thumb|right|Ketika sel normal (A) rusak atau tua (2), mereka mengalami [[apoptosis]] (1); sel kanker (B) menghindari apoptosis dan terus membelah diri.]]
| name = Kanker
| image = Tumor Mesothelioma2 legend.jpg
| caption = Sebuah [[Tomografi terkomputasi]] koronal menunjukkan [[mesotelioma]] ganas<br />Keterangan: →&nbsp;[[Tumor]]&nbsp;←, *&nbsp;[[Efusi pleura]] pusat, 1 & 3&nbsp;[[Paru-paru]], 2&nbsp;[[Koluma vertebra]], 4&nbsp;[[Tulang rusuk]], 5&nbsp;[[aorta]], 6&nbsp;[[Limpa]], 7 & 8&nbsp;[[Ginjal]], 9&nbsp;[[Hati]]
| field = [[Onkologi]]
| synonyms = [[Neoplasma]] [[Maligna|Ganas]], [[Tumor]] Ganas
| symptoms = Benjolan, perdarahan abnormal, batuk berkepanjangan, [[penurunan berat badan]] yang tidak dapat dijelaskan, perubahan [[buang air besar]]<ref name=NHS2012>{{cite web |title=Cancer – Signs and symptoms |url=http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Cancer/Pages/Symptoms.aspx |website=NHS Choices |access-date=10 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608104550/http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/cancer/Pages/symptoms.aspx |archive-date=8 June 2014}}</ref>
| complications =
| onset =
| duration =
| causes =
| risks = Paparan [[Karsinogen]], Tembakau, [[Kegemukan]], [[Diet (nutrisi)|Diet]] yang buruk, [[Gaya hidup kurang bergerak]], [[Alkohol (obat)|alkohol]] yang berlebihan, Infeksi tertentu<ref name=WHO2018>{{cite web |title=Cancer |url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer |website=World Health Organization |access-date=19 December 2018 |date=12 September 2018}}</ref><ref name=Enviro2008 />
| diagnosis =
| differential =
| prevention =
| treatment = [[Radioterapi]], [[Bedah|Operasi]], [[Kemoterapi]], [[Terapi Target]]<ref name=WHO2018 /><ref name=TCT2018>{{cite web |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/targeted-therapies/targeted-therapies-fact-sheet |title=Targeted Cancer Therapies |website=cancer.gov |publisher=National Cancer Institute |date=26 February 2018 |access-date=28 March 2018 }}</ref>
| medication =
| prognosis = Rata-rata [[Kelangsungan hidup lima tahun]] 66% (Amerika Serikat)<ref name=Seer2014>{{cite web |title=SEER Stat Fact Sheets: All Cancer Sites |publisher=National Cancer Institute |url=http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/all.html |access-date=18 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926191037/http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/all.html |archive-date=26 September 2010}}</ref>
| frequency = 24 juta per tahun (2019)<ref name="kocarnik">{{cite journal|pmc=8719276|pmid= 34967848|title=Cancer Incidence, Mortality, Years of Life Lost, Years Lived With Disability, and Disability-Adjusted Life Years for 29 Cancer Groups From 2010 to 2019. A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019|journal=JAMA Oncology|year= 2022|volume=8|issue=3|pages=420–444| doi=10.1001/jamaoncol.2021.6987|last1= Kocarnik|first1= JM|last2= others|issn = 2374-2437 }}</ref>
| deaths = 10 juta per tahun (2019)<ref name=kocarnik/>
}}
'''Kanker''', '''tumor ganas''', atau '''neoplasma ganas''' ({{lang-en|cancer, malignant neoplasm, malignant tumor}}) adalah penyakit yang ditandai dengan munculnya [[sel (biologi)|sel]] yang membelah tak terkendali, mampu [[Invasi tumor|invasi]] ke jaringan yang berdekatan dan [[metastasis]] ke organ yang jauh. Penyakit ini berhubungan dengan kelainan [[Proliferasi]] dan [[Diferensiasi Sel]] karena gangguan [[Genetika]]. [[Tumor]] yang membuatnya sangat mengancam jiwa [[organisme]] menjadikan alasan untuk menyebutnya "tumor ganas". Kanker terdiri dari [[sel kanker|sel ganas]]. [[Karsinoma|Tumor epitel ganas]] disebut '''kanker''' di [[Rusia]], [[Jerman]] dan [[Baltik|negara-negara Baltik]], di negara lain istilah ini dapat berarti berbagai bentuk neoplasma ganas (misalnya, {{lang-fr|cancer}} menggabungkan chorionepithelioma, endothelioma, [[sarcoma]] dan lain-lain). <ref>[[:ru:Большая медицинская энциклопедия|Great Medical Encyclopedia]], 1970.</ref>
 
Perkembangan obat dan metode pengobatan kanker merupakan masalah ilmiah yang penting dan masih belum terpecahkan.
'''Kanker''' adalah segolongan [[penyakit]] yang ditandai dengan [[pembelahan sel]] yang tidak terkendali dan kemampuan sel-sel tersebut untuk menyerang [[jaringan (biologi)|jaringan biologis]] lainnya, baik dengan pertumbuhan langsung di jaringan yang bersebelahan (''invasi'') atau dengan migrasi sel ke tempat yang jauh (''[[metastasis]]''). Pertumbuhan yang tidak terkendali tersebut disebabkan kerusakan [[DNA]], menyebabkan [[mutasi]] di [[gen]] vital yang mengontrol pembelahan sel. Beberapa buah mutasi mungkin dibutuhkan untuk mengubah sel normal menjadi sel kanker. Mutasi-mutasi tersebut sering diakibatkan agen kimia maupun fisik yang disebut [[karsinogen]]. Mutasi dapat terjadi secara spontan (diperoleh) ataupun diwariskan (mutasi ''germline'').Kanker dapat menyebabkan banyak gejala yang berbeda, bergantung pada lokasinya dan karakter dari keganasan dan apakah ada metastasis. Sebuah diagnosis yang menentukan biasanya membutuhkan pemeriksaan [[mikroskopi]]k jaringan yang diperoleh dengan [[biopsi]]. Setelah didiagnosis, kanker biasanya dirawat dengan [[operasi]], [[kemoterapi]] dan/atau [[terapi radiasi|radiasi]].
 
[[WHO]] memperkirakan bahwa kanker menyebabkan 9,6 juta kematian di seluruh dunia pada tahun 2018, dengan 30 hingga 60% kasus kanker dapat dicegah.<ref name="WHO Cancer tab 2" >{{post
Bila tak terawat, kebanyakan kanker menyebabkan [[kematian]]; kanker adalah salah satu penyebab utama kematian di [[negara berkembang]]. Kebanyakan kanker dapat dirawat dan banyak disembuhkan, terutama bila perawatan dimulai sejak awal. Banyak bentuk kanker berhubungan dengan [[faktor lingkungan]] yang sebenarnya bisa dihindari. [[rokok|Merokok tembakau]] dapat menyebabkan banyak kanker dari faktor lingkungan lainnya.
|1=artikel
|bahasa=en
|title=Kanker
|subtitle=Pencegahan
|edition=[[Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia|WHO]]
|link=https://www.who.int/health-topics/cancer#tab=tab_2
|tanggal arsip=20-05-2019
|archive=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520024053/https://www.who.int/cancer/detection/breastcancer/en/index1.html#tab=tab_2
}}</ref>
 
Tiga karakter ganas inilah yang membedakan kanker dari tumor jinak. Sebagian besar kanker membentuk tumor, tetapi beberapa tidak, seperti [[leukemia]]. Cabang ilmu kedokteran yang berhubungan dengan studi, diagnosis, perawatan, dan pencegahan kanker disebut [[onkologi]].
[[Tumor]] ([[bahasa Latin]]; pembengkakan) menunjuk massa jaringan yang tidak normal, tetapi dapat berupa "ganas" (bersifat kanker) atau "jinak" (tidak bersifat kanker). Hanya tumor ganas yang mampu menyerang jaringan lainnya ataupun bermetastasis.
 
Istilah "kanker" tidak mengacu pada satu [[penyakit]], tetapi sekelompok penyakit yang ditandai dengan proliferasi [[Sel (biologi)|sel]] yang tidak terkendali. Tidak seperti sel normal dalam tubuh pasien, yang tumbuh, membelah, dan mati dengan cara yang dikontrol ketat, sel kanker berbeda karena terus membelah tanpa terkendali. Tumor bisa jinak atau ganas.
== Mendiagnosa kanker ==
Kebanyakan kanker dikenali karena tanda atau gejala tampak atau melalui "screening". Kedua ini tidak menuju ke diagnosis yang jelas, yang biasanya membutuhkan sebuah biopsi. Beberapa kanker ditemukan secara tidak sengaja pada saat evaluasi medis dari masalah yang tak berhubungan.
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===Signs and symptoms===
Roughly, cancer symptoms can be divided into three groups:
* ''Local symptoms'': unusual lumps or swelling (''[[tumor]]''), [[hemorrhage]] (bleeding), [[pain]] and/or [[ulcer]]ation. Compression of surrounding tissues may cause symptoms such as [[jaundice]].
* ''Symptoms of [[metastasis]] (spreading)'': enlarged [[lymph node]]s, [[cough]] and [[hemoptysis]], [[hepatomegaly]] (enlarged [[liver]]), bone pain, [[fracture]] of affected bones and [[neurology|neurological]] symptoms. Although advanced cancer may cause [[pain]], it is usually not the first symptom.
* ''Systemic symptoms'': [
 
==Secara Jenisumum, ciri-ciri sel kanker ==adalah:
* melawan [[apoptosis]]
Sel-sel kanker dalam sebuah tumor berasal dari sebuah sel tunggal. Sel kanker dapat mengalami [[metastasi]]. Oleh sebab itu, kanker dapat dikelompokkan berdasarkan jenis sel dari mana ia berasal dan lokasi sel.
* berlipat ganda dengan atau tanpa [[faktor pertumbuhan]]
* menolak sinyal yang menghentikan proliferasi sel
* melawan mekanisme penuaan
* mereka bermetastasis
* membuat pembuluh untuk suplai darah mereka
 
== Penjelasan umum ==
[[Karsinoma]] berasal dari kelainan pada [[sel epitel]] (misal, [[sistem pencernaan]] atau [[kelenjar]]). [[Kanker darah]], seperti [[leukemia]] dan [[limfoma]], berasal dari kelainan pada [[sel darah]] dan [[sumsum tulang belakang]]. [[Sarkoma]] timbul dari kelainan pada sel [[jaringan penghubung]], [[tulang]] atau [[otot]]. [[Melanoma]] timbul dalam [[melanosit]]. [[Teratoma]] timbul dari kelainan pada [[sel kelamin]].
 
Penyakit ini sering dikenal oleh masyarakat sebagai [[tumor]], padahal tidak semuanya adalah kanker. [[Tumor]] adalah segala benjolan tidak normal, dan terbagi dalam dua golongan, yaitu [[tumor]] jinak dan [[tumor]] ganas. Kanker adalah istilah umum untuk semua jenis [[tumor]] ganas.<ref name = YKI>{{cite news
=== Kanker pada orang dewasa ===
| last =
Di [[Amerika Serikat]] dan beberapa negara berkembang lainnya, kanker sekarang ini bertanggung jawab untuk sekitar 25% dari seluruh kematian {{fn|1}}. Dalam setahun, sekitar 0,5% dari populasi terdiagnosa kanker.
| first =
| coauthors =
| title = Tentang Kanker
| work =
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = [[Yayasan Kanker Indonesia]]
| date =
| url = http://yayasankankerindonesia.org/tentang-kanker
| accessdate = 2018-02-09 }}</ref>
 
Penyakit ini dapat menimpa semua orang, pada setiap bagian tubuh, dan pada semua golongan umur, namun lebih sering menimpa orang yang berusia 40 tahun.<ref name = YKI/>
Pada pria dewasa di [[Amerika Serikat]], kanker yang paling umum adalah [[kanker prostat]] (33% dari seluruh kasus kanker), [[kanker paru-paru]] (13%), [[kanker kolon dan rektum]] (10%), [[kanker kandung kemih]] (7%), dan "cutaneous [[melanoma]] (5%). Sebagai penyebab kematian kanker paru-paru adalah yang paling umum (31%), diikuti oleh kanker prostat (10%), kanker kolon dan rektum (10%), [[kanker pankreas]] (5%) dan leukemia (4%) {{fn|1}}.
 
Umumnya sebelum kanker meluas atau merusak jaringan di sekitarnya, penderita tidak merasakan adanya keluhan ataupun gejala. Bila sudah ada keluhan atau gejala, biasanya penyakitnya sudah lanjut.<ref name = YKI/>
Untuk dewasa wanita di [[Amerika Serikat]], [[kanker payudara]] adalah kanker yang paling umum (32% dari seluruh kasus kanker), diikuti oleh kanker paru-paru (12%), kanker kolon dan rektum (11%), [[kanker endometrium]] (6%, uterus) dan [[limfoma non-Hodgkin]] (4%). Berdasarkan kasus kematian, kanker paru-paru paling umum (27% dari kematian kanker), diikuti oleh kanker payudara (15%), kanker kolon dan rektum (10%), [[kanker indung telur]] (6%), dan kanker pankreas (6%) {{fn|1}}.
 
Terdapat tujuh gejala yang perlu diperhatikan dan diperiksakan lebih lanjut ke dokter untuk memastikan ada atau tidaknya kanker, yaitu:<ref name = YKI/>
Statistik dapat bervariasi besar di negara lainnya. Di Indonesia, kanker menjadi penyumbang kematian ketiga terbesar setelah [[penyakit jantung]]. Penyebab utama kanker di Indonesia adalah pola hidup yang tidak sehat, seperti kurang [[olahraga]], merokok, dan pola makan yang tak sehat [http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/nasional/2006/02/05/brk,20060205-73471,id.html].
<!--
Other cancers not mentioned:
* Epithelial tumors: [[skin cancer]] (this is in fact the most common cancer but often not classified as such in health statistics), [[cervical cancer]], [[anal carcinoma]], [[esophageal cancer]], [[hepatocellular carcinoma]] (in the [[liver]]), [[laryngeal cancer]], [[renal cell carcinoma]] (in the [[kidney]]s), [[stomach cancer]], many [[testicular cancer]]s, and [[thyroid cancer]].
* Hematological malignancies ([[blood]] and [[bone marrow]]): [[leukemia]], [[lymphoma]], [[multiple myeloma]].
* Sarcomas: [[osteosarcoma]] (in [[bone]]), [[chondrosarcoma]] (arising from [[cartilage]]), [[rhabdomyosarcoma]] (in [[muscle]])
* Miscellaneous origin: [[brain tumor]]s, [[gastrointestinal stromal tumor]]s (GIST), [[mesothelioma]] (in the [[pleura]] or [[pericardium]]), [[thymoma]] and [[teratoma]]s, [[melanoma]]
 
# Waktu buang air besar atau kecil ada perubahan kebiasaan atau gangguan.
===Childhood cancers===
# Alat pencernaan terganggu dan susah menelan.
Cancer can also occur in young children and adolescents. Here, the aberrant genetic processes that fail to safeguard against the clonal proliferation of cells with unregulated growth potential occur early in life and can progress quickly.
# Suara serak atau batuk yang tak sembuh-sembuh
# Payudara atau di tempat lain ada benjolan ([[tumor]]).
# Andeng-andeng (tahi lalat) yang berubah sifatnya, menjadi semakin besar dan gatal.
# Darah atau lendir yang abnormal keluar dari tubuh
# Adanya koreng atau borok yang tak mau sembuh-sembuh.
 
Kanker menyebabkan banyak gejala yang berbeda, bergantung pada lokasi dan karakter keganasan, serta ada tidaknya metastasis. Diagnosis biasanya membutuhkan pemeriksaan mikroskopik jaringan yang diperoleh dengan [[biopsi]]. Setelah didiagnosis, kanker biasanya dirawat dengan [[operasi]], [[kemoterapi]], atau [[terapi radiasi|radiasi]].
The age of peak incidence of cancer in children occurs during the first year of life. [[Leukemia]] (usually [[Acute lymphoblastic leukemia|ALL]]) is the most common infant malignancy (30%), followed by the central nervous system cancers and [[neuroblastoma]]. The remainder consists of [[Wilms' tumor]], [[lymphoma]]s, [[rhabdomyosarcoma]] (arising from muscle), [[retinoblastoma]], [[osteosarcoma]] and [[Ewing's sarcoma]]{{fn|1}}.
 
Kebanyakan kanker menyebabkan [[kematian]]. Berdasarkan dari dari [[WHO|Badan Kesehatan Dunia]] - [[WHO]], tahun [[2015]], tidak kurang dari 8,8 juta manusia meninggal dunia karena penyakit ini.<ref name = WHO>{{cite news
Female infants and male infants have essentially the same overall cancer incidence rates, but white infants have substantially higher cancer rates than black infants for most cancer types. Relative survival for infants is very good for neuroblastoma, [[Wilms' tumor]] and [[retinoblastoma]], and fairly good (80%) for leukemia, but not for most other types of cancer.
| last =
| first =
| coauthors =
| title = World Health Statistic 2017
| work =
| pages =
| language = [[bahasa Inggris]]
| publisher = [[WHO|Badan Kesehatan Dunia]]
| date = 2017
| url = http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/255336/1/9789241565486-eng.pdf?ua=1
| accessdate = 2018-02-09 }}</ref> Data tersebut menunjukkan bahwasanya penyakit ini menjadi salah satu dari enam penyakit paling mematikan yang mempengaruhi tingkat mortalitas dunia.<ref name = YKIKanker>{{cite news
| last =
| first =
| coauthors =
| title = Menurunkan Risiko Kanker dengan Makanan Sehat dan Berolahraga
| work =
| pages =
| language = [[bahasa Indonesia]]
| publisher = [[Yayasan Kanker Indonesia]]
| date = 2017-08-03
| url = http://yayasankankerindonesia.org/article/menurunkan-risiko-kanker-dengan-makanan-sehat-dan-berolahraga
| accessdate = 2018-02-09 }}</ref> Walaupun begitu, 30 hingga 50% dari penyakit ini bisa dicegah. Salah satu caranya adalah dengan memberikan informasi dan dukungan untuk menerapkan gaya hidup sehat.<ref name = YKIKanker/>
 
[[Tumor]] ([[bahasa Latin]]; pembengkakan) menunjuk massa jaringan yang tidak normal, tetapi dapat berupa "ganas" (bersifat kanker) atau "jinak" (tidak bersifat kanker). Hanya tumor ganas yang mampu menyerang jaringan lainnya ataupun bermetastasis. Kanker dapat menyebar melalui [[kelenjar getah bening]] maupun [[pembuluh darah]] ke organ lain.
==Causes and pathophysiology==
{{main|Carcinogenesis}}
===Origins of cancer===
[[Cell division]] (''proliferation'') is a physiological process that occurs in almost all tissues and under many circumstances. Normally the balance between proliferation and cell death is tightly regulated to ensure the integrity of organs and [[tissue (biology)|tissues]]. Mutations in [[DNA]] that lead to cancer disrupt these orderly processes.
 
Di [[Amerika Serikat]] dan beberapa negara berkembang lainnya kanker sekarang ini bertanggung jawab untuk sekitar 25% dari seluruh kematian.<ref name="Jemal">Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2005.'' CA Cancer J Clin'' 2005;55:10-30. [http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/55/1/10 Fulltext] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226024130/http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/55/1/10|date=2008-12-26}}. PMID 15661684.</ref> Dalam setahun, sekitar 0,5% dari populasi terdiagnosis kanker.
The uncontrolled and often rapid proliferation of cells can lead to either a [[benign]] [[tumor]] or a [[malignant]] tumor (cancer). Benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body or invade other tissues, and they are rarely a threat to life unless they extrinsically compress vital structures. Malignant tumors can invade other organs, spread to distant locations ([[metastasis|metastasize]]) and become life-threatening.
 
Pada pria dewasa di [[Amerika Serikat]], kanker yang paling umum adalah [[kanker prostat]] (33% dari seluruh kasus kanker), [[kanker paru-paru]] (13%), [[kanker kolon dan rektum]] (10%), [[kanker kandung kemih]] (7%), dan "cutaneous [[melanoma]] (5%). Sebagai penyebab kematian kanker paru-paru adalah yang paling umum (31%), diikuti oleh kanker prostat (10%), kanker kolon dan rektum (10%), [[kanker pankreas]] (5%) dan leukemia (4%).<ref name=Jemal/>
===Molecular biology===
[[Berkas:Cancer requires multiple mutations from NIH.png|thumb|150px|right|Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. Each mutation alters the behavior of the cell somewhat.]]
''[[Carcinogenesis]]'' (meaning literally, the creation of cancer) is the process of derangement of the rate of cell division due to damage to [[DNA]].
 
Untuk dewasa wanita di [[Amerika Serikat]], [[kanker payudara]] adalah kanker yang paling umum (32% dari seluruh kasus kanker), diikuti oleh kanker paru-paru (12%), kanker kolon dan rektum (11%), [[kanker endometrium]] (6%, uterus) dan [[limfoma non-Hodgkin]] (4%). Berdasarkan kasus kematian, kanker paru-paru paling umum (27% dari kematian kanker), diikuti oleh kanker payudara (15%), kanker kolon dan rektum (10%), [[kanker indung telur]] (6%), dan kanker pankreas (6%).<ref name=Jemal/>
Cancer is, ultimately, a disease of [[gene]]s. Typically, a series of several [[mutation]]s is required before a normal cell transforms into a cancer cell. The process involves both [[proto-oncogene]]s and [[tumor suppressor gene]]s. Proto-oncogenes are involved in [[signal transduction]] by coding for a [[chemical]] "messenger", produced when a cell undergoes [[protein synthesis]]. These messengers, send signals based on the amount of them present to the cell or other cells, telling them to undergo [[mitosis]], in order divide and reproduce. When mutated, they become [[oncogene]]s and [[overexpression|overexpress]] the signals to divide, and thus cells have a higher chance to divide excessively. Frustratingly, the chance of cancer cannot be reduced by removing proto-oncogenes from the human genome as they are critical for growth, repair and [[homeostasis]] of the body. It is only when they become mutated, that the signals for growth become excessive.
 
Statistik dapat bervariasi besar di negara lainnya. Di Indonesia, kanker menjadi penyumbang kematian ketiga terbesar setelah [[penyakit jantung]]. Penyebab utama kanker di negara tersebut adalah pola hidup yang tidak sehat, seperti kurang [[olahraga]], merokok, dan pola makan yang tak sehat. Pada tanaman, kanker adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh jenis jamur/ bakteri tertentu. Pola invasi kanker tanaman dan kanker pada manusia sangat berbeda.<ref>{{Cite news
Tumor suppressor genes code for chemical messengers that command cells to slow or stop mitosis in order to allow [[DNA repair]]. This is done by special [[enzymes]] which detect any mutation or damage to DNA, such that the mistake is not carried on to the next generation. Tumor suppressor genes are usually triggered by signals that DNA damage has occurred. In addition to inhibiting mitosis, they can code for such enzymes themselves, or sending signals to activate such enzymes. However, a mutation can damage the tumor suppressor gene itself, or the signal pathway which activates it, "switching it off". The invariable consequence of this is that DNA repair is hindered or inhibited: DNA damage accumulates without repair, inevitably leading to cancer.
|last =
|first =
|title = Departemen Kesehatan Bentuk Subdirektorat Kanker
|pages =
|work = TEMPO Interaktif
|location =
|date = 5 Februari 2006
|url = http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/nasional/2006/02/05/brk,20060205-73471,id.html
|accessdate = 14 Maret 2010
|archive-date = 2009-05-10
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090510060416/http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/nasional/2006/02/05/brk,20060205-73471,id.html
|dead-url = yes
}}</ref>
 
Dari segi biaya, penyakit kanker merupakan penyakit nomor 2 di Indonesia, setelah [[hemodialisis]] yang banyak menghabiskan dana pemerintah.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://jabar.tribunnews.com/2015/02/04/penderita-kanker-capai-236-juta-di-tahun-2030 |title=Penderita Kanker Capai 23,6 Juta di Tahun 2030 |date=4 Februari 2015|language=id |work=[[Tribunnews|Tribunnews.com]] }}</ref>
In general, mutations in both types of genes are required for cancer to occur. For example, a mutation limited to one oncogene would be suppressed by normal mitosis control (the [[Knudson hypothesis|Knudson]] or 1-2-hit hypothesis) and tumor suppressor genes. A mutation to only one tumor suppressor gene would not cause cancer either, due to the presence of many "[[backup]]" genes that duplicate its functions. It is only when enough proto-oncogenes have mutated into oncogenes, and enough tumor suppressor genes deactivated or damaged, that the signals for cell growth overwhelm the signals to regulate it, that cell growth quickly spirals out of control.
 
== Klasifikasi ==
Mutations can have various causes. Particular causes have been linked to specific types of cancer. [[Tobacco smoking]] is associated with [[lung cancer]]. Prolonged exposure to [[radiation]], particularly [[ultraviolet radiation]] from the [[sun]], leads to [[melanoma]] and other skin malignancies. Breathing [[asbestos]] fibers is associated with [[mesothelioma]]. In more general terms, chemicals called [[mutagen]]s and [[free radical]]s are known to cause mutations. Other types of mutations can be caused by chronic [[inflammation]], as [[neutrophil granulocyte]]s secrete free radicals that damage DNA. [[Chromosomal translocation]]s, such as the [[Philadelphia chromosome]], are a special type of mutation that involve exchanges between different chromosomes.
[[Berkas:Cancer progression from NIH.png|jmpl|300px|ka|Perkembangan sel normal menjadi sel kanker]]
Pada umumnya, kanker dirujuk berdasarkan jenis [[organ]] atau [[sel (biologi)|sel]] tempat terjadinya. Sebagai contoh, kanker yang bermula pada [[usus besar]] dirujuk sebagai [[kanker usus besar]], sedangkan kanker yang terjadi pada sel basal dari [[kulit]] dirujuk sebagai [[karsinoma sel basal]].
Klasifikasi kanker kemudian dilakukan pada kategori yang lebih umum, misalnya:<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/what-is-cancer|title = What is Cancer?|accessdate = 2010-07-07|work = National Cancer Institute}}</ref>
* [[Karsinoma]], merupakan kanker yang terjadi pada jaringan epitel, seperti kulit atau jaringan yang menyelubungi organ tubuh, misalnya organ pada [[sistem pencernaan]] atau [[kelenjar]]. Contoh meliputi [[kanker kulit]], [[kanker leher rahim|karsinoma serviks]], [[karsinoma anal]], [[kanker esofageal]], [[karsinoma hepatoselular]], [[kanker laringeal]], [[hipernefroma]], [[kanker lambung]], [[kanker testiskular]] dan [[kanker tiroid]].
* [[Sarkoma]], merupakan kanker yang terjadi pada [[tulang]] seperti [[osteosarkoma]], [[tulang rawan]] seperti [[kondrosarkoma]], [[jaringan otot]] seperti [[rabdomiosarcoma]], jaringan adiposa, [[pembuluh darah]] dan jaringan penghantar atau pendukung lainnya.
* [[Leukemia]], merupakan kanker yang terjadi akibat tidak matangnya sel darah yang berkembang di dalam [[sumsum tulang]] dan memiliki kecenderungan untuk berakumulasi di dalam sirkulasi darah.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer/page2
|title = Slide 2 Different Kinds of Cancer
|accessdate = 2011-09-18
|work = National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health
|archive-date = 2011-10-19
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111019090954/http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/cancer/page2
|dead-url = yes
}}</ref>
* [[Limfoma]], merupakan kanker yang timbul dari [[nodus limfa]] dan jaringan dalam [[sistem kekebalan]] [[tubuh]]
* ''Central Nervous Systems Cancers'', merupakan kanker yang dimulai di jaringan otak dan sumsum tulang belakang<ref name=YKIApaItuKanker>{{cite news
| last =
| first =
| coauthors =
| title = Apa Itu Kanker
| work =
| pages =
| language = [[bahasa Indonesia]]
| publisher = [[Yayasan Kanker Indonesia]]
| date =
| url = http://yayasankankerindonesia.org/apa-itu-kanker
| accessdate = 2018-02-09 }}</ref>
 
<!-- [[Mieloma]] kanker yang terjadi pada jaringan darah
Many [[mutagen]]s are also [[carcinogen]]s, but some carcinogens are not mutagens. Examples of carcinogens that are not mutagens include [[alcohol]] and [[estrogen]]. These are thought to promote cancers through their stimulating effect on the rate of cell [[mitosis]]. Faster rates of mitosis increasingly leave less window space for repair enzymes to repair damaged DNA during [[DNA replication]], increasingly the likelihood of a genetic mistake. A mistake made during mitosis can lead to the daughter cells receiving the wrong number of [[chromosomes]], which leads to [[aneuploidy]] and may lead to cancer.
* [[Melanoma]] timbul dari [[melanosit]].
* [[Mesotelioma]] pada [[pleura]] atau [[perikardium]]
-->
 
== Patofisiologi ==
Mutations can also be inherited. Inheriting certain mutations in the [[BRCA1]] gene, a tumor suppressor gene, renders a woman much more likely to develop [[breast cancer]] and [[ovarian cancer]]. Mutations in the [[Rb1]] gene predispose to [[retinoblastoma]], and those in the [[APC gene|APC]] gene lead to [[colon cancer]].
Kanker adalah kelas penyakit beragam yang sangat berbeda dalam hal penyebab dan biologisnya. Setiap organisme, bahkan tumbuhan, bisa terkena kanker. Hampir semua kanker yang dikenal muncul secara bertahap, saat kecacatan bertumpuk di dalam sel kanker dan sel anak-anaknya (lihat bagian [[mekanisme]] untuk jenis cacat yang umum).
 
Setiap hal yang bereplikasi memiliki kemungkinan cacat (mutasi). Kecuali jika pencegahan dan perbaikan kecatatan ditangani dengan baik, kecacatan itu akan tetap ada, dan mungkin diwariskan ke sel anang/(daughter cell). Biasanya, tubuh melakukan penjagaan terhadap kanker dengan berbagai metode, seperti [[apoptosis]], molekul pembantu (beberapa polimerase DNA), [[penuaan]]/(senescence), dan lain-lain. Namun, metode koreksi-kecacatan ini sering kali gagal, terutama di dalam lingkungan yang membuat kecacatan lebih mungkin untuk muncul dan menyebar. Sebagai contohnya, lingkungan tersebut mengandung bahan-bahan yang merusak, disebut dengan bahan [[karsinogen]], cedera berkala (fisik, panas, dan lain-lain), atau lingkungan yang membuat sel tidak mungkin bertahan, seperti [[hipoksia]]. Karena itu, kanker adalah penyakit progresif, dan berbagai kecacatan progresif ini perlahan berakumulasi hingga sel mulai bertindak berkebalikan dengan fungsi seharusnya di dalam organisme.
Some types of viruses can cause mutations. They play a role in about 15% of all cancers. ''Tumor viruses'', such as some [[retrovirus]]es, [[herpesvirus]]es and [[papillomavirus]]es, usually carry an oncogene or a gene inhibits normal tumor suppression in their [[genome]].
Kecacatan sel, sebagai penyebab kanker, biasanya bisa memperkuat dirinya sendiri (self-amplifying), pada akhirnya akan berlipat ganda secara eksponensial. Sebagai contohnya:
* Mutasi dalam perlengkapan perbaikan-kecacatan bisa menyebabkan sel dan sel anangnya mengakumulasikan kecacatan dengan lebih cepat.
* Mutasi dalam perlengkapan pembuat sinyal ([[endokrin]]) bisa mengirimkan sinyal penyebab-kecacatan kepada sel di sekitarnya.
* Mutasi bisa menyebabkan sel menjadi [[neoplastik]], membuat sel bermigrasi dan dan merusak sel yang lebih sehat.
* Mutasi bisa menyebabkan sel menjadi kekal (immortal), lihat [[telomeres]], membuat sel rusak bisa membuat sel sehat rusak selamanya.
 
=== Pembentukan sel kanker ===
It is impossible to tell the initial cause for any specific cancer. However, with the help of [[molecular biology|molecular biological]] techniques, it is possible to characterize the mutations or chromosomal aberrations within a tumor, and rapid progress is being made in the field of predicting [[prognosis]] based on the spectrum of mutations in some cases. For example, up to half of all tumors have a defective [[p53]] gene, a tumor suppressor gene also known as "the guardian of the genome". This mutation is associated with poor prognosis, since those tumor cells are less likely to go into [[apoptosis]] (programmed cell death) when damaged by therapy. [[Telomerase]] mutations remove additional barriers, extending the number of times a cell can divide. Other mutations enable the tumor to [[angiogenesis|grow new blood vessels]] to provide more nutrients, or to metastasize, spreading to other parts of the body.
Kondisi-kondisi yang dapat menyebabkan perubahan sel normal menjadi sel kanker adalah hiperplasia, displasia, dan neoplasia. Hiperplasia adalah keadaan saat sel normal dalam jaringan bertumbuh dalam jumlah yang berlebihan. Displasia merupakan kondisi ketika sel berkembang tidak normal dan pada umumnya terlihat adanya perubahan pada [[inti sel|nukleusnya]]. Pada tahapan ini ukuran nukleus bervariasi, aktivitas [[mitosis]] meningkat, dan tidak ada ciri khas [[sitoplasma]] yang berhubungan dengan diferensiasi sel pada jaringan. Neoplasia merupakan kondisi sel pada jaringan yang sudah berproliferasi secara tidak normal dan memiliki sifat invasif.<ref>{{Cite book
|first = Weinberg|last = RA|title = The Biology of Cancer|place = New York|publisher = Garland Science|year = 2007}}</ref>
 
Pertumbuhan yang tidak terkendali tersebut disebabkan kerusakan [[DNA]], menyebabkan [[mutasi]] di [[gen]] vital yang mengontrol pembelahan sel. Beberapa mutasi mungkin dibutuhkan untuk mengubah sel normal menjadi sel kanker. Mutasi-mutasi tersebut sering diakibatkan agen kimia maupun fisik yang disebut [[karsinogen]]. Mutasi dapat terjadi secara spontan (diperoleh) ataupun diwariskan (mutasi ''germline'').
<!-- more elaboration here, maybe fork off to another article? -->
<!--
Malignant tumors cells have distinct properties:
* evading [[apoptosis]]
* unlimited growth potential (immortalitization)
* self-sufficiency of [[growth factor]]s
* insensitivity to anti-growth factors
* increased [[cell division]] rate
* altered ability to [[cellular differentiation|differentiate]]
* no ability for [[contact inhibition]]
* ability to invade neighbouring [[biological tissue|tissue]]s
* ability to build [[metastasis|metastases]] at distant sites
* ability to promote blood vessel growth ([[angiogenesis]])
 
Kelainan siklus sel, antara lain terjadi saat:
A cell that degenerates into a tumor cell does not usually acquire all these properties at once, but its descendant cells are [[natural selection|selected]] to build them. This process is called [[clonal evolution]]. A first step in the development of a tumor cell is usually a small change in the DNA, often a [[point mutation]], which leads to a genetic instability of the cell. The instability can increase to a point where the cell loses whole [[chromosome]]s, or has multiple copies of several. Also, the [[DNA methylation]] pattern of the cell changes, activating and deactivating [[gene]]s without the usual control. Cells that divide at a high rate, such as [[epithelial]]s, show a higher risk of becoming tumor cells than those which divide less, for example [[neuron]]s.
* perpindahan [[fase]] G<sub>1</sub> menuju fase S.<ref>{{cite book
|title = Holland-Frei Cancer medicine - What Makes a Cancer Cell a Cancer Cell?
|author = Kufe, Donald W.; Pollock, Raphael E.; Weichselbaum, Ralph R.; Bast, Robert C., Jr.; Gansler, Ted S.; Holland, James F.; Frei III, Emil.
|work = Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School Boston, Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago Hospital, Chicago Tumor Institute, University of Chicago Chicago, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, American Cancer Society, Derald H Ruttenberg Cancer Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York
|isbn = 1-55009-213-8|edition = 6|year = 2003|page =|publisher = Hamilton on BC Decker Inc.,
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=cmed6&part=A2419#A2449
|accessdate = 2010-07-06
}}</ref>
* siklus sel terjadi tanpa disertai dengan aktivasi [[faktor transkripsi]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8353842
|title = Cyclosporine stimulates hepatocyte proliferation and accelerates development of hepatocellular carcinomas in rats
|accessdate = 2010-08-08
|work = Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine; Masuhara M, Ogasawara H, Katyal SL, Nakamura T, Shinozuka H.
}}</ref> Pencerap [[hormon tiroid]] beta1 (TRbeta1) merupakan [[faktor transkripsi]] yang diaktivasi oleh [[hormon]] [[tri-iodotironina|T3]] dan berfungsi sebagai supresor [[tumor]] dan gangguan [[gen]] THRB yang sering ditemukan pada kanker.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20691260
|title = Untranslated regions of thyroid hormone receptor beta 1 mRNA are impaired in human clear cell renal cell carcinoma.
|accessdate = 2010-08-19
|work = The Medical Centre of Postgraduate Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Master A, Wójcicka A, Piekiełko-Witkowska A, Bogusławska J, Popławski P, Tański Z, Darras VM, Williams GR, Nauman A.
}}</ref>
* siklus sel terjadi dengan kerusakan [[DNA]] yang tidak terpulihkan.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15489566
|title = Mitochondrial injury in steatohepatitis.
|accessdate = 2010-08-08
|work = Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unité 481, Faculté de Médecine Xavier Bichat,; Pessayre D, Fromenty B, Mansouri A.
}}</ref>
* translokasi posisi [[kromosom]] yang sering ditemukan pada kanker [[sel darah putih]] seperti [[leukemia]] atau [[limfoma]], atau hilangnya sebagian [[DNA]] pada domain tertentu pada kromosom.<ref>{{cite book
|title = An Introduction to Genetic Analysis
|author = Anthony JF Griffiths, Jeffrey H Miller, David T Suzuki, Richard C Lewontin, and William M Gelbart
|work = University of British Columbia, University of California, Harvard University
|isbn = 0-7167-3520-2
|edition = 7
|year = 2000
|page = Cancer: the genetics of aberrant cell control
|publisher = W. H. Freeman
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=iga&part=A3619
|accessdate = 2010-08-16
}}</ref> Pada leukemia mielogenus kronis, 95% penderita mengalami translokasi kromosom 9 dan 22, yang disebut [[kromosom filadelfia]].
[[Karsinogenesis]] pada [[manusia]] adalah sebuah proses berjenjang sebagai akibat paparan [[karsinogen]] yang sering dijumpai dalam lingkungan, sepanjang hidup, baik melalui [[konsumsi]],<ref>{{cite book
|title = Holland-Frei Cancer medicine - Chemical Carcinogenesis
|author = Kufe, Donald W.; Pollock, Raphael E.; Weichselbaum, Ralph R.; Bast, Robert C., Jr.; Gansler, Ted S.; Holland, James F.; Frei III, Emil.
|work = Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School Boston, Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago Hospital, Chicago Tumor Institute, University of Chicago Chicago, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, American Cancer Society, Derald H Ruttenberg Cancer Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York
|isbn = 1-55009-213-8
|edition = 6
|year = 2003
|page =
|publisher = Hamilton on BC Decker Inc.,
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=cmed6&part=A4989
|accessdate = 2010-07-07
}}</ref> maupun [[infeksi]].<ref>{{cite book
|title = Holland-Frei Cancer medicine - Multistage Carcinogenesis
|author = Kufe, Donald W.; Pollock, Raphael E.; Weichselbaum, Ralph R.; Bast, Robert C., Jr.; Gansler, Ted S.; Holland, James F.; Frei III, Emil.
|work = Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School Boston, Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago Hospital, Chicago Tumor Institute, University of Chicago Chicago, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, American Cancer Society, Derald H Ruttenberg Cancer Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York
|isbn = 1-55009-213-8
|edition = 6
|year = 2003
|page =
|publisher = Hamilton on BC Decker Inc.,
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=cmed6&part=A4991
|accessdate = 2010-07-07
}}</ref> Terdapat empat jenjang karsinogenesis:
* [[Tumor#Inisiasi tumor|inisiasi tumor]]
* promosi tumor
* konversi malignan
* progresi tumor
 
===Morphology Angiogenesis ===
Pada umumnya, sel kanker membentuk sebuah [[tumor]], kecuali pada leukemia. Sebelum [[tahun]] 1960, peneliti kanker berpendapat bahwa asupan nutrisi yang mencapai tumor terjadi oleh karena adanya jaringan pembuluh darah yang telah ada, namun penelitian yang lebih baru menunjukkan bahwa lintasan [[angiogenesis]] diperlukan bagi tumor untuk berkembang dan menyebar.<ref>{{cite web
[[Berkas:Cancer progression from NIH.png|thumb|250px|left|Tissue can be organized in a continuous spectrum from normal to cancer.]]
|url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page8
|title = Slide 8 Angiogenesis and Cancer
|accessdate = 2011-09-17
|work = National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health
|archive-date = 2011-10-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021043810/http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page8
|dead-url = yes
}}</ref> Tanpa lintasan angiogenesis, sebuah tumor hanya akan berkembang hingga memiliki [[diameter]] sekitar 1–2&nbsp;mm, dan setelah itu perkembangan tumor akan terhenti.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page9
|title = Slide 9 Without Angiogenesis, Tumor Growth Stops
|accessdate = 2011-09-17
|work = National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health
|archive-date = 2011-10-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021043759/http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page9
|dead-url = yes
}}</ref> Sebaliknya, dengan angiogenesis, sebuah tumor akan berkembang hingga melampaui ukuran diameter 2 [[milimeter]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page10
|title = Slide 10 With Angiogenesis, Tumor Growth Proceeds
|accessdate = 2011-09-17
|work = National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health
|archive-date = 2011-10-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021043907/http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page10
|dead-url = yes
}}</ref> Oleh karena itu, sel tumor memiliki kemampuan untuk mensekresi protein yang dapat mengaktivasi lintasan angiogenesis. Dari berbagai protein yang dapat mengaktivasi lintasan angiogenesis seperti ''acidic fibroblast growth factor'', [[angiogenin]], ''epidermal growth factor'', [[faktor stimulasi koloni granulosit|G-CSF]], [[faktor pertumbuhan hepatosit|HGF]], [[interleukin-8]], ''placental growth factor'', ''platelet-derived endothelial growth factor'', ''scatter factor'', ''transforming growth factor-alpha'', [[faktor nekrosis tumor-alfa|TNF-α]], dan [[molekul kecil]] seperti [[adenosina]], ''1-butyryl glycerol'', [[nikotinamida]], [[prostaglandin]] E1 dan E2; para ilmuwan telah mengidentifikasi dua protein yang sangat penting bagi pertumbuhan tumor yaitu ''vascular endothelial growth factor'' (VEGF) dan ''basic fibroblast growth factor'' (bFGF). Kedua protein ini disekresi oleh berbagai jenis sel kanker dan beberapa jenis sel normal.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page12
|title = Slide 12 Activators of Angiogenesis
|accessdate = 2011-09-17
|work = National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health
|archive-date = 2011-10-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021043854/http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page12
|dead-url = yes
}}</ref>
 
Sekresi VEGF atau bFGF akan mengikat pada pencerap [[sel endotelial]] dan mengaktivasi sel tersebut untuk memicu lintasan metabolisme yang membentuk [[pembuluh darah]] baru.<ref>{{cite web
Cancer tissue has a distinctive appearance under the [[microscope]]. Among the distinguishing traits are a large number of dividing cells, variation in [[cell nucleus|nuclear]] size and shape, variation in cell size and shape, loss of specialized cell features, loss of normal tissue organization, and a poorly defined tumor boundary. [[Immunohistochemistry]] and other molecular methods may characterise specific markers on tumor cells, which may aid in diagnosis and prognosis.
|url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page14
|title = Slide 14 Endothelial Cell Activation
|accessdate = 2011-09-17
|work = National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health
|archive-date = 2011-10-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021043742/http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/angiogenesis/page14
|dead-url = yes
}}</ref> Sel endotelial akan memproduksi sejumlah enzim [[metaloproteinase matriks|MMP]] yang akan melakukan degradasi terhadap jaringan matriks ekstraseluler yang mengandung protein dan [[polisakarida]], dan berfungsi untuk sebagai jaringan ikat yang menyangga jaringan parenkima dengan mengisi ruang di sela-sela selnya. Degradasi jaringan tersebut memungkinkan sel endotelial bermigrasi menuju jaringan parenkima, melakukan [[proliferasi]] dan [[diferensiasi]] menjadi jaringan pembuluh darah yang baru.
 
Reaksi antara [[asam tetraiodotiroasetat]] dengan [[integrin]] adalah penghambat aktivitas [[hormon]] [[tiroksin]] dan [[tri-iodotironina]] yang merupakan salah satu faktor yang berperan dalam angiogenesis dan proliferasi sel tumor.<ref>{{cite web
Biopsy and microscopical examination can also distinguish between malignancy and [[hyperplasia]], which refers to tissue growth based on an excessive rate of cell division, leading to a larger than usual number of cells but with a normal orderly arrangement of cells within the tissue. This process is considered reversible. Hyperplasia can be a normal tissue response to an irritating stimulus, for example [[callus]].
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20051527
|title = Molecular aspects of thyroid hormone actions
|accessdate = 2010-07-22
|work = Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health; Cheng SY, Leonard JL, Davis PJ.
}}</ref>
 
=== Metastasis ===
[[Dysplasia]] is an abnormal type of excessive cell proliferation characterized by loss of normal tissue arrangement and cell structure. Often such cells revert back to normal behavior, but occasionally, they gradually become malignant.
Walaupun telah dilakukan penelitian intensif selama beberapa [[dekade]], mekanisme patofisiologis dari metastasis belum benar-benar diketahui dan masih menjadi [[kontroversi]]. Namun terdapat dua model metastasis fundamental,<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2914697
|title = MECHANISMS OF BONE METASTASES OF BREAST CANCER
|accessdate = 2011-07-24
|work = Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Center for Orthopaedic Research, Barton Research Institute, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Department of Radiation Oncology, Department of Breast Cancer Research Program, Department of Hematology and Oncology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences; Larry J. Suva, Robert J. Griffin, dan Issam Makhoul
}}</ref> yang mirip dengan proposal metastasis yang diajukan oleh [[Stephen Paget]] pada tahun 1889 yang mengatakan bahwa metastasis bergantung pada [[transduksi sinyal seluler|komunikasi]] antara sel kanker yang disebut ''the seed'' dan lingkungan mikro pada organ tertentu yang disebut ''the soil''.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12778135
|title = The pathogenesis of cancer metastasis: the 'seed and soil' hypothesis revisited.
|accessdate = 2011-07-24
|work = Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Texas, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center; Fidler IJ.
}}</ref>
 
Model yang pertama menjelaskan bahwa tumor primer pada organ akan timbul dari sel yang sama, yang mengalami berbagai perubahan seperti [[heterogenitas]], ketidakseimbangan genomik, akumulasi [[mutasi]] atau penyimpangan genetik, hingga terjadi [[evolusi]] klonal meliputi perubahan [[fenotipe]] dan perilaku sel hingga potensi untuk melakukan metastasis ke organ lain dan membentuk tumor sekunder.
The most severe cases of dysplasia are referred to as "[[carcinoma in situ]]." In Latin, the term "in situ" means "in place", so carcinoma in situ refers to an uncontrolled growth of cells that remains in the original location and shows no propensity to invade other tissues. Nevertheless, carcinoma in situ may develop into an invasive malignancy and is usually removed surgically, if possible.
 
Model yang kedua menjabarkan bahwa kanker yang timbul pada organ, terjadi akibat aktivasi ruang yang diperuntukkan bagi [[sel punca|sel punca kanker]] sehingga memungkinkan metastasis dari sejumlah [[jaringan]] tubuh yang lain.
===Heredity===
Most forms of cancer are "sporadic", and have no basis in heredity. There are, however, a number of recognised [[syndrome]]s of cancer with a hereditary component. Examples are:
* certain inherited mutations in the genes [[BRCA1]] and [[BRCA2]] are associated with an elevated risk of [[breast cancer]] and [[ovarian cancer]]
* tumors of various endocrine organs in [[multiple endocrine neoplasia]] (MEN types 1, 2a, 2b)
* [[Li-Fraumeni syndrome]] (various tumors such as [[osteosarcoma]], breast cancer, [[soft-tissue sarcoma]], [[brain tumor]]s) due to mutations of [[p53]]
* [[Turcot syndrome]] ([[brain tumor]]s and colonic polyposis)
* [[Familial adenomatous polyposis]] an inherited mutation of the ''APC'' gene that leads to early onset of [[colon carcinoma]].
* Retinoblastoma in young children is an inherited cancer
 
== Faktor risiko ==
===Environment and diet===
Kanker adalah penyakit yang 90-95% kasusnya disebabkan faktor lingkungan dan 5-10% karena faktor genetik.<ref name=Enviro2008>{{cite journal|author=Anand P, Kunnumakkara AB, Kunnumakara AB, ''et al.''|title=Cancer is a preventable disease that requires major lifestyle changes|journal=Pharm. Res.|volume=25|issue=9|pages=2097–116|year=2008|month=September|pmid=18626751|pmc=2515569|doi=10.1007/s11095-008-9661-9|url=}}</ref> Faktor lingkungan yang biasanya mengarahkan kepada kematian akibat kanker adalah [[tembakau]] (25-30%), diet dan [[obesitas]] (30-35 %), [[infeksi]] (15-20%), [[radiasi]], stres, kurangnya [[aktivitas fisik]], [[polutan lingkungan]].<ref name=Enviro2008/>
[[Berkas:Cancer smoking lung cancer correlation from NIH.png|thumb|300px|right|The incidence of lung cancer is highly correlated with smoking. Source:NIH.]]
The most consistent finding, over decades of research, is the strong association between [[tobacco]] use and cancers of many sites. Hundreds of epidemiological studies have confirmed this association. Further support comes from the fact that [[lung cancer]] death rates in the United States have mirrored [[tobacco smoking|smoking]] patterns, with increases in smoking followed by dramatic increases in lung cancer death rates and, more recently, decreases in smoking followed by decreases in lung cancer death rates in men. Up to half of all cancer cases can be attributed to smoking, diet, and environmental pollution.
 
==Treatment= ofBahan cancerkimia ===
[[Berkas:Cancer smoking lung cancer correlation from NIH.svg|jmpl|ka|Timbulnya penyakit kanker paru-paru sangat berkorelasi dengan konsumsi rokok.Source:NIH.]]
Cancer can be treated by [[surgery]], [[chemotherapy]], [[radiation therapy]], [[immunotherapy]] or other methods. The choice of therapy depends upon the location and grade of the tumor and the [[Staging_(pathology)|stage]] of the disease, as well as the general state of the patient ([[performance status]]). A number of [[experimental cancer treatment]]s are also under development.
Patogenesis kanker dapat dilacak balik ke [[mutasi DNA]] yang berdampak pada pertumbuhan sel dan metastasis. Zat yang menyebabkan mutasi DNA dikenal sebagai mutagen, dan mutagen yang menyebabkan kanker disebut dengan [[karsinogen]]. Ada beberapa zat khusus yang terkait dengan jenis kanker tertentu. [[Rokok tembakau]] dihubungkan dengan banyak jenis kanker,<ref name=Sasco>{{cite journal|author=Sasco AJ, Secretan MB, Straif K|title=Tobacco smoking and cancer: a brief review of recent epidemiological evidence|journal=Lung cancer (Amsterdam, Netherlands)|volume=45 Suppl 2|issue=|pages=S3–9|year=2004|month=August|pmid=15552776|doi=10.1016/j.lungcan.2004.07.998}}</ref> dan penyebab dari 90% [[kanker paru-paru]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Biesalski HK, Bueno de Mesquita B, Chesson A, ''et al.''|title=European Consensus Statement on Lung Cancer: risk factors and prevention. Lung Cancer Panel|journal=CA: a cancer journal for clinicians|volume=48|issue=3|pages=167–76; discussion 164–6|year=1998|pmid=9594919|doi=10.3322/canjclin.48.3.167|url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9594919}}{{Pranala mati|date=Februari 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Keterpaparan secara terus-menerus terhadap serat [[asbestos]] dikaitkan dengan [[mesothelioma]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Reilly KM, Mclaughlin AM, Beckett WS, Sime PJ|title=Asbestos-related lung disease|journal=American family physician|volume=75|issue=5|pages=683–8|year=2007|month=March|pmid=17375514|doi=|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20070301/683.html|access-date=2010-09-27|archive-date=2007-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083111/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20070301/683.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
Banyak [[mutagen]] adalah juga karsinogen. Tetapi, beberapa mutagen bukanlah karsinogen. [[Alkohol]] adalah contoh bahan kimia bersifat karsinogen yang bukan mutagen.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Seitz HK, Pöschl G, Simanowski UA|title=Alcohol and cancer|journal=Recent developments in alcoholism : an official publication of the American Medical Society on Alcoholism, the Research Society on Alcoholism, and the National Council on Alcoholism|volume=14|pages=67–95|year=1998|pmid=9751943}}</ref> Bahan kimia seperti ini bisa menyebabkan kanker dengan menstimulasi tingkat pembelahan sel. Tingkat replikasi yang lebih cepat, hanya menyisakan sedikit waktu bagi enzim-enzim untuk memperbaiki DNA yang rusak pada saat [[replikasi DNA]], sehingga meningkatkan kemungkinan terjadinya mutasi.
Riset selama beberapa dekade menunjukkan keterkaitan antara penggunaan [[tembakau]] dan kanker pada [[paru-paru]], [[laring]], kepala, leher, perut, kandung kemih, ginjal, [[esofagus]], dan [[pankreas]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kuper H, Boffetta P, Adami HO|title=Tobacco use and cancer causation: association by tumour type|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-internal-medicine_2002-09_252_3/page/206|journal=Journal of internal medicine|volume=252|issue=3|pages=206–24|year=2002|month=September|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.01022.x|pmid=12270001}}</ref> Asap tembakau memiliki lebih dari lima puluh jenis karsinogen yang sudah dikenali termasuk [[nitrosamines]] dan [[hidrokarbon aromatik polisiklik]].<ref name=Kuper/> Tembakau bertanggung jawab atas satu per tiga dari seluruh kematian akibat kanker di negara-negara maju,<ref name=Sasco/> dan sekitar satu per lima di seluruh dunia.<ref name=Kuper>{{cite journal|author=Kuper H, Adami HO, Boffetta P|title=Tobacco use, cancer causation and public health impact|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-internal-medicine_2002-06_251_6/page/455|journal=Journal of internal medicine|volume=251|issue=6|pages=455–66|year=2002|month=June|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00993.x|pmid=12028500}}</ref>
Tingkat kematian akibat [[kanker paru-paru]] di Amerika Serikat mencerminkan pola [[merokok]], dengan kenaikan dalam pola merokok diikuti dengan peningkatan yang dramatis dalam tingkat kematian akibat kanker paru-paru. Walaupun begitu, jumlah perokok di seluruh dunia terus meningkat, sehingga beberapa organisasi menyebutkannya sebagai ''epidemik tembakau''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Proctor RN|title=The global smoking epidemic: a history and status report|journal=Clinical lung cancer|volume=5|issue=6|pages=371–6|year=2004|month=May|doi=10.3816/CLC.2004.n.016|pmid=15217537}}</ref>
Kanker yang berhubungan dengan pekerjaan seseorang diyakini memiliki jumlah sebesar 2-20% dari semua kasus.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Irigaray P, Newby JA, Clapp R, ''et al.''|title=Lifestyle-related factors and environmental agents causing cancer: an overview|journal=Biomed. Pharmacother.|volume=61|issue=10|pages=640–58|year=2007|month=December|pmid=18055160|doi=10.1016/j.biopha.2007.10.006|url=}}</ref>
 
=== Radiasi ionisasi ===
Complete removal of the cancer without damage to the rest of the body is the goal of treatment. Sometimes this can be accomplished by surgery, but the propensity of cancers to invade adjacent tissue or to spread to distant sites by microscopic metastasis often limits its effectiveness. The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by toxicity to other tissues in the body. Radiation can also cause damage to normal tissue.
Sumber-sumber [[radiasi ionisasi]], seperti gas [[radon]], bisa menyebabkan kanker. Keterpaparan terus-menerus terhadap [[radiasi ultraviolet]] dari matahari bisa menyebabkan [[melanoma]] dan beberapa penyakit kulit yang berbahaya.<ref>{{cite journal|author=English DR, Armstrong BK, Kricker A, Fleming C|title=Sunlight and cancer|journal=Cancer causes & control : CCC|volume=8|issue=3|pages=271–83|year=1997|month=May|doi=10.1023/A:1018440801577|pmid=9498892}}</ref> Diperkirakan 2% dari penyakit kanker pada masa yang akan datang dikarenakan [[CT Scan]] di saat ini.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Berrington de González A, Mahesh M, Kim KP, ''et al.''|title=Projected cancer risks from computed tomographic scans performed in the United States in 2007|journal=Arch. Intern. Med.|volume=169|issue=22|pages=2071–7|year=2009|month=December|pmid=20008689|doi=10.1001/archinternmed.2009.440|url=}}</ref>
Radiasi dari frekuensi radio tak berion dari [[telepon seluler]] dan sumber-sumber radio frekuensi yang serupa juga dianggap sebagai penyebab kanker, tetapi saat ini sangat sedikit bukti kuat yang mendukung keterkaitan ini.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Feychting M, Ahlbom A, Kheifets L|title=EMF and health|journal=Annual review of public health|volume=26|issue=|pages=165–89|year=2005|pmid=15760285|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144445}}</ref>
 
=== Infeksi ===
Because "cancer" refers to a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single "cure for cancer" any more than there will be a single treatment for all [[infectious disease]]s.
Beberapa kanker bisa disebabkan [[infeksi]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pagano JS, Blaser M, Buendia MA, ''et al.''|title=Infectious agents and cancer: criteria for a causal relation|journal=Semin. Cancer Biol.|volume=14|issue=6|pages=453–71|year=2004|month=December|pmid=15489139|doi=10.1016/j.semcancer.2004.06.009}}</ref> Ini bukan saja berlaku pada binatang-binatang seperti [[burung]], tetapi juga pada [[manusia]]. Virus-virus ini berperan hingga 20% terhadap terjangkitnya kanker pada manusia di seluruh dunia.<ref name=Viral04>{{cite journal|author=Pagano JS, Blaser M, Buendia MA, ''et al.''|title=Infectious agents and cancer: criteria for a causal relation|journal=Semin. Cancer Biol.|volume=14|issue=6|pages=453–71|year=2004|month=December|pmid=15489139|doi=10.1016/j.semcancer.2004.06.009|url=}}</ref> Virus-virus ini termasuk [[papillomavirus]] pada manusia ([[kanker serviks]]), [[poliomavirus]] pada manusia ([[mesothelioma]], tumor otak), [[virus Epstein-Barr]] ([[penyakit limfoproliferatif sel-B]] dan [[kanker nasofaring]]), [[virus herpes penyebab sarcoma Kaposi]] ([[Sarcoma Kaposi]] dan efusi limfoma primer), virus-virus [[hepatitis B]] dan [[hepatitis C]] ([[kanker hati]]), [[virus-1 leukemia sel T]] pada manusis (leukemia sel T), dan [[helicobacter pylori]] ([[kanker lambung]]).<ref name=Viral04/>
 
Data ekperimen dan epidemiologis menyatakan peran kausatif untuk virus dan virus tampaknya menjadi faktor risiko kedua paling penting dalam perkembangan kanker pada manusia, yang hanya dilampaui oleh penggunaan tembakau.<ref name="zur Hausen-viruses">{{cite journal|author = zur Hausen H|title = Viruses in human cancers|journal = Science|volume = 254|issue = 5035|pages = 1167–73|year = 1991|pmid = 1659743|doi = 10.1126/science.1659743}}</ref> Jenis tumor yang ditimbulkan virus dapat dibagi menjadi dua, jenis yang ''bertransformasi secara akut'' dan ''bertransformasi secara perlahan''. Pada virus yang bertransformasi secara akut, virus tersebut membawa onkogen yang terlalu aktif yang disebut onkogen-viral (v-onc), dan virus yang terinfeksi bertransformasi segera setelah v-onc terlihat. Kebalikannya, pada virus yang bertransformasi secara perlahan, genome virus dimasukkan di dekat onkogen-proto di dalam genom induk.
===Surgery===
If the tumor is localized, [[surgery]] is often the preferred treatment. Example procedures include [[mastectomy]] for breast cancer and [[prostatectomy]] for prostate cancer. The goal of the surgery can be either the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ. Since a single cancer cell can grow into a sizable tumor, removing only the tumor leads to a greater chance of recurrence. A margin of healthy tissue is often resected to make sure all cancerous tissue is removed.
 
=== Ketidakseimbangan metabolisme ===
In addition to removal of the primary tumor, surgery is often necessary for staging, e.g. determining the extent of the disease and whether there has been [[metastasis]] to regional [[lymph node]]s. Staging determines the prognosis and the need for adjuvant therapy.
Senyawa [[formaldehid]] yang disintesis di dalam [[tubuh]], sering kali terbentuk dari [[lintasan metabolisme]] senyawa [[xenobiotik]], dapat membentuk [[ikatan kovalen]] dengan [[DNA]], atau mengikat pada [[serum darah|serum]] [[albumin]] dan [[gugus fungsional|gugus]] [[valina]] dari [[hemoglobin]], dan menginduksi lintasan [[karsinogenesis]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20737003
|title = Final Report on Carcinogens Background Document for Formaldehyde
|accessdate = 2010-12-07
|work = National Toxicology Program
}}</ref>
 
=== Ketidakseimbangan hormonal ===
Occasionally, surgery is necessary to control symptoms, such as [[spinal cord compression]] or [[bowel obstruction]]. This is referred to as [[palliative treatment]].
Tingginya rasio plasma [[hormon]] [[hormon TGF|TGF-β]], yang merupakan regulator pada proses penyembuhan luka, akan meningkatkan produksi [[spesi reaktif oksigen|ROS]] pada [[fibroblas]], serta [[diferensiasi]] fibroblas menuju [[fenotipe]] [[miofibroblas]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/ppmc/articles/PMC2660674
|title = Antioxidants as Potential Therapeutics for Lung Fibrosis
|accessdate = 2010-12-07
|work = Division of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Department of Medicine, National Jewish Medical and Research Center; BRIAN J. DAY
}}</ref>
 
=== Disfungsi sistem kekebalan ===
===Chemotherapy===
{{sect-stub}}
[[Chemotherapy]] is the treatment of cancer with [[medication|drugs]] ("anticancer drugs") that can destroy cancer cells. It interferes with cell division in various possible ways, e.g. with the duplication of [[DNA]] or the separation of newly formed [[chromosome]]s. Most forms of chemotherapy target all rapidly dividing cells and are not specific for cancer cells. Hence, chemotherapy has the potential to harm healthy tissue, especially those tissues that have a high replacement rate (e.g. intestinal lining). These cells usually repair themselves after chemotherapy.
=== Keturunan ===
Keturunan (genetik) merupakan salah satu faktor penting dalam pembentukan kanker.
 
Adanya faktor genetik dalam pembentukan kanker ini terjadi karena salah penyebab kanker adalah [[mutasi]] DNA yang memang diturunkan dari orang tua kepada anaknya, akan tetapi tidak semua jenis kanker dapat diturunkan. hal tersebut dipengaruhi oleh letak [[mutasi]] pada DNA yang dialami dan juga [[genotipe]] dari [[mutasi]] yang terjadi.
Because some drugs work better together than alone, two or more drugs are often given at the same time. This is called "combination chemotherapy"; most chemotherapy regimens are given in a combination.
 
==== Letak kerusakan DNA yang dialami ====
A novel technique involves taking samples of the patient's tissue before chemotherapy. These tissues samples are screened to ensure they do not contain cancerous cells. The samples are expanded using [[tissue engineering]] techniques, and are then re-implanted following high dose chemotherapy in order to recolonise the damaged and somewhat destroyed tissue. A variation upon this method uses allogenic samples (samples donated by a different donor) instead of the patient's own tissue{{fn|4}}.
Ada 2 macam letak mutasi yang memicu terbentuknya kanker, yaitu mutasi pada gen-gen [[onkogen]] dan mutasi pada gen-gen pensupresi tumor. mutasi pada gen pensupresi tumor lah yang biasanya memicu penurunan kanker. hal tersebut disebabkan karena zigot yang mengalami mutasi pada gen onkogen biasanya tidak dapat bertahan hidup sehingga tidak dapat diturunkan.
 
===Immunotherapy Penyebab Lain ===
{{sect-stub}}
[[Cancer immunotherapy|Immunotherapy]] is the use of [[immune system|immune]] mechanisms against tumors. These are used in various forms of cancer, such as [[breast cancer]] ([[trastuzumab]]/Herceptin®) but also in [[leukemia]] ([[gemtuzumab ozogamicin]]/Mylotarg®). The agents are [[monoclonal antibody|monoclonal antibodies]] directed against proteins that are characteristic to the cells of the cancer in question, or [[cytokine]]s that modulate the immune system's response.
 
== Diagnosis ==
===Radiation therapy===
<!--
[[Radiation therapy]] (also called radiotherapy, X-ray therapy, or irradiation) is the use of a certain type of energy (called [[ionizing radiation]]) to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation therapy injures or destroys cells in the area being treated (the "target tissue") by damaging their genetic material, making it impossible for these cells to continue to grow and divide. Although radiation damages both cancer cells and normal cells, most normal cells can recover from the effects of radiation and function properly. The goal of radiation therapy is to damage as many cancer cells as possible, while limiting harm to nearby healthy tissue.
===Signs and symptoms===
Roughly, cancer symptoms can be divided into three groups:
* ''Local symptoms'': unusual lumps or swelling (''[[tumor]]''), [[hemorrhage]] (bleeding), [[pain]] and/or [[ulcer]]ation. Compression of surrounding tissues may cause symptoms such as [[jaundice]].
* ''Symptoms of [[metastasis]] (spreading)'': enlarged [[lymph node]]s, [[cough]] and [[hemoptysis]], [[hepatomegaly]] (enlarged [[liver]]), bone pain, [[fracture]] of affected bones and [[neurology|neurological]] symptoms. Although advanced cancer may cause [[pain]], it is usually not the first symptom.
* ''Systemic symptoms'': [
-->
Kebanyakan kanker dikenali karena tanda atau gejala tampak atau melalui ''screening''. Kedua metode ini tidak menuju ke diagnosis yang jelas, yang biasanya membutuhkan sebuah [[biopsi]]. Beberapa kanker ditemukan secara tidak sengaja pada saat evaluasi medis dari masalah yang tak berhubungan.
 
Karena kanker juga dapat disebabkan adanya [[metilasi]] pada promotor [[gen]] tertentu, maka deteksi dini dapat dilakukan dengan menguji gen yang menjadi ''biomarker'' untuk kanker. Beberapa jenis kanker telah diketahui status metilasi ''biomarker''-nya. Misalnya untuk [[kanker payudara]] dapat digunakan biomarker ''BRCA'', sedangkan untuk [[kanker kolorektal]] dapat menggunakan ''biomarker'' ''Sox''17.
Radiation therapy may be used to treat almost every type of solid tumor, including cancers of the brain, breast, cervix, larynx, lung, pancreas, prostate, skin, spine, stomach, uterus, or soft tissue sarcomas. Radiation can also be used to treat leukemia and lymphoma (cancers of the blood-forming cells and lymphatic system, respectively). Radiation dose to each site depends on a number of factors, including the type of cancer and whether there are tissues and organs nearby that may be damaged by radiation.
 
Deteksi dini ini sangat penting. Pada beberapa kanker seperti kanker kolorektal apabila diketahui sejak dini peluang untuk sembuh lebih besar. Selain itu, deteksi dini dapat memudahkan dokter untuk memberikan pengobatan yang sesuai.
===Hormonal suppression===
The growth of nearly all tissues, including cancers, can be accelerated or inhibited by providing or blocking certain hormones. This allows an additional method of treatment for many cancers. Common examples of hormone-sensitive tumors include certain types of breast, prostate, and [[thyroid cancer]]s. Removing or blocking [[estrogen]], [[testosterone]], or [[Thyroid-stimulating hormone|TSH]], respectively, is often an important additional treatment.
 
===Treatment trialsSimtoma klinis ===
Secara umum, gejala klinis kanker bisa dibagi menjadi beberapa kelompok:
[[Clinical trial]]s, also called research studies, test new treatments in people with cancer. The goal of this research is to find better ways to treat cancer and help cancer patients. Clinical trials test many types of treatment such as new drugs, new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy, new combinations of treatments, or new methods such as [[gene therapy]].
* Gejala lokal: pembesaran atau pembengkakan yang tidak biasa [[tumor]], [[pendarahan]] (hemorrhage), [[rasa sakit]] dan/atau [[tukak lambung]]/ulceration. Kompresi jaringan sekitar bisa menyebabkan gejala [[jaundis]] (kulit dan mata yang menguning).
* Gejala pembesaran [[kelenjar getah bening]] (lymph node), [[batuk]], [[hemoptisis]], [[hepatomegali]] (pembesaran hati), rasa sakit pada tulang, [[fraktur]] pada tulang-tulang yang terpengaruh, dan gejala-gejala neurologis. Walaupun pada kanker tahap lanjut menyebabkan rasa sakit, sering kali itu bukan gejala awalnya.
* Gejala sistemik: berat badan turun, nafsu makan berkurang secara signifikan, kelelahan dan [[kakeksia]](kurus kering), keringat berlebihan pada saat tidur/[[keringat malam]], [[anemia]], [[fenomena paraneoplastik]] tertentu yaitu kondisi spesifik yang disebabkan kanker aktif seperti [[trombosis]] dan perubahan hormonal. Setiap gejala dalam daftar di atas bisa disebabkan oleh berbagai kondisi (daftar berbagai kondisi itu disebut dengan [[diagnosis banding]]). Kanker mungkin adalah penyebab utama atau bukan penyebab utama dari setiap gejala.
* Gejala [[angiogenesis]] yang merupakan interaksi antara [[sel tumor]], [[sel stromal]], [[sel endotelial]], [[fibroblas]] dan matriks ekstraseluler.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9887458
|title = Tumoral angiogenesis: physiopathology, prognostic value and therapeutic perspectives
|accessdate = 2010-12-04
|work = Inserm U482, hôpital Saint-Antoine; André T, Chastre E, Kotelevets L, Vaillant JC, Louvet C, Balosso J, Le Gall E, Prévot S, Gespach C.
}}</ref> Pada kanker, terjadi penurunan konsentrasi [[senyawa organik|senyawa]] penghambat pertumbuhan [[pembuluh darah]] baru, seperti [[trombospondin]], [[angiostatin]] dan ''glioma-derived angiogenesis inhibitory factor'', dan ekspresi berlebih faktor proangiogenik, seperti ''vascular endothelial growth factor'',<ref name="PM12516034">{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12516034
|title = Role of angiogenesis in tumor growth and metastasis.
|accessdate = 2010-12-04
|work = Departments of Surgery and Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School; Folkman J.
}}</ref> yang memungkinkan sel kanker melakukan [[metastasis]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7584949
|title = Angiogenesis in cancer, vascular, rheumatoid and other disease.
|accessdate = 2010-12-04
|work = Children's Hospital; Folkman J.
}}</ref> Terapi terhadap tumor pada umumnya selalu melibatkan 2 peran penting, yaitu penggunaan ''anti-vascular endothelial growth factor monoclonal antibodies'' untuk mengimbangi overekspresi faktor proangiogenik, dan pemberian senyawa penghambat angiogenesis, seperti [[endostatin]] dan [[angiostatin]].<ref name="PM12516034" />
* Gejala [[migrasi]] sel tumor, yang ditandai dengan degradasi matriks ekstraseluler (ECM), jaringan ikat yang menyangga struktur sel, oleh [[enzim]] [[metaloprotease#Metaloproteinase matriks|MMP]]. Hingga saat ini telah diketahui 26 berkas [[gen]] MMP yang berperan dalam kanker,<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14685678
|title = [Matrix metalloproteinases and colorectal cancer]
|accessdate = 2010-12-05
|work = Medizinische Klinik III, Universitätsklinikum der RWTH; Roeb E, Matern S.
}}</ref> dengan pengecualian yang terjadi antara lain pada [[kanker hati|''hepatocellular carcinoma'']].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17564313
|title = Expression of matrix metalloproiteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) in hepatocellular carcinoma tissue, compared with the surrounding non-tumor tissue.
|accessdate = 2010-12-05
|work = Second Department of Internal Medicine, Tottori University School of Medicine; Matsunaga Y, Koda M, Murawaki Y.
}}</ref>
 
=== Simtoma paraklinis ===
A clinical trial is one of the final stages of a long and careful cancer research process. The search for new treatments begins in the laboratory, where scientists first develop and test new ideas. If an approach seems promising, the next step may be testing a treatment in animals to see how it affects cancer in a living being and whether it has harmful effects. Of course, treatments that work well in the lab or in animals do not always work well in people. Studies are done with cancer patients to find out whether promising treatments are safe and effective.
Ciri paraklinis umum pada [[sel tumor]] maupun kanker adalah produksi [[asam laktat]] dan [[asam piruvat]] yang tinggi, [[oksidasi]] [[glukosa]] yang rendah, walaupun tidak selalu disertai [[simtoma]] [[hipoksia]], percepatan [[lintasan metabolisme|lintasan]] [[glikolisis]] dan perlambatan laju [[fosforilasi oksidatif]], dan pergeseran lintasan glikolisis dari [[anaerob]]ik menjadi [[aerob]]ik, yang dikenal sebagai [[efek Warburg]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2504897
|title = Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Activity Controls Metabolic and Malignant Phenotype in Cancer Cells
|accessdate = 2010-11-03
|work = Departments of Neurology and Pharmacology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions; Thomas McFate, Ahmed Mohyeldin, Huasheng Lu, Jay Thakar, Jeremy Henriques, Nader D. Halim, Hong Wu, Michael J. Schell, Tsz Mon Tsang, Orla Teahan, Shaoyu Zhou, Joseph A. Califano
}}</ref> Sel kanker memiliki kecenderungan untuk menghasilkan [[adenosina trifosfat|ATP]] sebagai sumber [[energi]] dari lintasan [[glikolisis]] daripada lintasan [[fosforilasi oksidatif]]. [[Faktor transkripsi]] [[Ets-1]] yang ditingkatkan oleh [[sekresi]] [[hidrogen peroksida|H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>]] oleh [[mitokondria]] merupakan salah satu pemegang kendali pergeseran metabolisme pada sel kanker.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2962648
|title = Ets-1 Regulates Energy Metabolism in Cancer Cells
|accessdate = 2010-11-19
|work = Department of Research, Juravinski Cancer Centre, Department of Medical Science, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University; Meghan L. Verschoor, Leigh A. Wilson, Chris P. Verschoor, dan Gurmit Singh
}}</ref> Ciri lain adalah rendahnya kadar [[plasma darah|plasma]] [[vitamin C]] yang ditemukan pada berbagai penderita kanker, baik dari penderita dengan kebiasaan [[merokok]], maupun tidak.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15690864
|title = Vitamin C deficiency in cancer patients.
|accessdate = 2010-12-06
|work = St Gemma's Hospice; Mayland CR, Bennett MI, Allan K.
}}</ref>
 
==== Perubahan morfologi seluler ====
Patients who take part may be helped personally by the treatment(s) they receive. They get up-to-date care from cancer experts, and they receive either a new treatment being tested or the best available standard treatment for their cancer. Of course, there is no guarantee that a new treatment being tested or a standard treatment will produce good results. New treatments also may have unknown risks, but if a new treatment proves effective or more effective than standard treatment, study patients who receive it may be among the first to benefit.
Jaringan kanker memiliki ciri morfologis yang sangat khas saat diamati dengan [[mikroskop]]. Diantaranya berupa banyaknya jumlah sel yang mengalami [[mitosis]], variasi jumlah dan ukuran [[nukleus]], variasi ukuran dan bentuk sel, tidak terdapat fitur seluler yang khas, tidak terjadi koordinasi seluler yang biasa tampak pada jaringan normal dan tidak terdapat batas jaringan yang jelas.
 
''Immunohistochemistry'' dan metode molekular lain digunakan untuk menemukan ciri morfologis khas pada sel kanker/tumor, sebagai Referensi [[diagnosis]] dan [[prognosis]].
===Complementary and alternative medicine===
[[Complementary and alternative medicine]] (CAM) treatments are the diverse group of medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be effective by the standards of conventional medicine. Some non-conventional treatment methods are used to "complement" conventional treatment, to provide comfort or lift the spirits of the patient, while others are offered as alternatives to be used instead of conventional treatments in hope of curing the cancer.
 
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Common ''complementary'' measures include [[prayer]] or psychological approaches such as "imaging." Many people feel these approaches benefit them, but most have not been scientifically proven and therefore face skepticism. Other complementary approaches include traditional medicine like [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]].
Biopsy and microscopical examination can also distinguish between malignancy and [[hyperplasia]], which refers to tissue growth based on an excessive rate of cell division, leading to a larger than usual number of cells but with a normal orderly arrangement of cells within the tissue. This process is considered reversible. Hyperplasia can be a normal tissue response to an irritating stimulus, for example [[callus]].
 
[[Dysplasia]] is an abnormal type of excessive cell proliferation characterized by loss of normal tissue arrangement and cell structure. Often such cells revert back to normal behavior, but occasionally, they gradually become malignant.
A wide range of ''alternative'' treatments have been offered for cancer over the last century. The appeal of alternative cures arises from the daunting risks, costs, or potential side effects of many conventional treatments, or in the limited prospect for cure. Proponents of these therapies are unable or unwilling to demonstrate effectiveness by conventional criteria. Alternative treatments have included special diets or dietary supplements (e.g., the "grape diet" or megavitamin therapy), electrical devices (e.g., "zappers"), specially formulated compounds (e.g., [[laetrile]]), unconventional use of conventional drugs (e.g., insulin), purges or enemas, or physical manipulations of the body. Some of these treatments meet all the criteria for [[fraud]] or [[magic]]. Collectively they are referred to by skeptics as [[cancer quackery]]. An extensive, explanatory catalog of these treatments is available at [[Quackwatch]] [http://www.quackwatch.org/00AboutQuackwatch/altseek.html]. Almost all physicians recommend against using these modalities as sole treatment for potentially fatal conditions such as cancer.
 
The most severe cases of dysplasia are referred to as "[[carcinoma in situ]]." In Latin, the term "in situ" means "in place", so carcinoma in situ refers to an uncontrolled growth of cells that remains in the original location and shows no propensity to invade other tissues. Nevertheless, carcinoma in situ may develop into an invasive malignancy and is usually removed surgically, if possible.
==Epidemiology==
-->
In some Western countries, such as the USA{{fn|1}} and the UK{{fn|2}}, cancer is overtaking [[cardiovascular disease]] as the leading cause of death. In many [[Third World]] countries cancer incidence (insofar as this can be measured) appears much lower, most likely because of the higher death rates due to infectious disease or injury. With the increased control over [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]] in some Third World countries, incidence of cancer is expected to rise; this is termed the [[iceberg phenomenon]] in [[epidemiology|epidemiological]] terminology.
 
[[Hahn]] dan rekan menggunakan ekspresi ektopik dari kombinasi antara [[telomerase]] [[transkriptase balik]] dengan [[onkogen]] h-ras dan [[antigen]] T dari [[virus]] SV40 untuk menginduksi konversi tumorigenik pada sel [[fibroblas]] dan sel epitelial [[manusia]], yang terjadi akibat disrupsi pada lintasan metabolik intraseluler. Ciri [[fenotipe]] dari sel kanker setelah mengalami transformasi dari sel normal, antara lain:<ref>{{cite book
Cancer epidemiology closely mirrors risk factor spread in various countries. [[Hepatocellular carcinoma]] (liver cancer) is rare in the West but is the main cancer in [[China]] and neighboring countries, most likely due to the endemic presence of [[hepatitis B]] and [[aflatoxin]] in that population. Similarly, with [[tobacco smoking]] becoming more common in various Third World countries, lung cancer incidence has increased in a parallel fashion.
|title = Holland-Frei Cancer medicine - Properties of Transformed Malignant Cells Growing in Cell Culture and/or in Vivo
|author = Kufe, Donald W.; Pollock, Raphael E.; Weichselbaum, Ralph R.; Bast, Robert C., Jr.; Gansler, Ted S.; Holland, James F.; Frei III, Emil.
|work = Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School Boston, Department of Surgical Oncology, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago Hospital, Chicago Tumor Institute, University of Chicago Chicago, University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, American Cancer Society, Derald H Ruttenberg Cancer Center, Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York
|isbn = 1-55009-213-8
|edition = 6
|year = 2003
|page =
|publisher = Hamilton on BC Decker Inc.,
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=cmed6&part=A2419&rendertype=table&id=A2421
|accessdate = 2010-07-06
}}</ref>
 
===== Transformasi ''in vitro'' =====
==Prevention==
* Terjadi perubahan sitologi seperti pada sel kanker ''in vivo'' yaitu peningkatan [[basofil]] sitoplasmik, peningkatan jumlah dan ukuran [[nuklei]]
Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease the incidence of cancer. This can be accomplished by avoiding [[carcinogen]]s or altering their [[metabolism]], pursuing a lifestyle or diet that modifies cancer-causing factors and/or medical intervention ([[chemoprevention]], treatment of premalignant lesions).
* Perubahan pada karakteristik perkembangan sel:
:a. sulit mati walaupun telah mengalami diferensiasi berkali-kali
:b. tumbuh berkembang yang tidak terhenti, walaupun telah berdesakan dengan sel di sekitarnya, sehingga jaringan kanker memiliki kepadatan yang tinggi
:c. membutuhkan [[serum darah|serum]] dan [[faktor pertumbuhan]] lebih sedikit
:d. tidak lagi membutuhkan lapisan antarmuka untuk berkembangbiak, dan dapat tumbuh sebagai koloni bebas di dalam [[medium]] semi-padat.
:e. tidak memiliki kendali atas [[siklus sel]]
:f. sulit mengalami apoptosis
* Perubahan pada struktur dan fungsi [[membran sel]], termasuk peningkatan [[aglutinasi|aglutinabilitas]] karena [[lektin]] herbal
* Perubahan pada komposisi [[antarmuka]] sel, [[glikoprotein]], [[proteoglikan]], [[glikolipid]] dan [[musin]], ekspresi [[antigen]] tumorik dan peningkatan penyerapan [[asam amino]], [[heksos]] dan [[nukleosida]].
* Tidak terjadi interaksi matriks sel-sel dan sel-ekstraseluler, sehingga tidak terjadi penurunan laju diferensiasi
* Sel kanker tidak merespon stimulasi [[senyawa organik|zat]] yang menginduksi diferensiasi, karena terjadi perubahan komposisi antarmuka sel, termasuk komposisi [[molekul]] pencerap zat bersangkutan.
* Perubahan dalam mekanisme transduksi sinyal seluler, termasuk pada lintasan yang sangat fundamental, selain lintasan regulasi yang mengendalikan fungsi pencerap faktor pertumbuhan, jenjang [[fosforilasi]] dan [[defosforilasi]].
* Kemampuan untuk menginduksi [[tumor]] pada model. Kemampuan ini yang menjadi ''sine qua non'' yang mendefinisikan kata "ganas" pada transformasi ''in vitro''. Walaupun demikian, sel kanker yang tidak memiliki kemampuan seperti ini, tetap memiliki sifat "tumorigenik" pada model yang lain.
 
===== Transformasi ''in vivo'' =====
Much of the promise for cancer prevention comes from observational epidemiologic studies that show associations between modifiable life style factors or environmental exposures and specific cancers. Evidence is now emerging from randomized controlled trials designed to test whether interventions suggested by the epidemiologic studies, as well as leads based on laboratory research, actually result in reduced cancer incidence and mortality.
Transformasi pada sel [[manusia]] memerlukan akumulasi dari berbagai perubahan genetik yang mengakibatkan ketidak-stabilan [[genom]]ik,<ref name="PM10470089">{{cite web
|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov//pubmed/10470089
|title = An association between viral genes and human oncogenic alterations: the adenovirus E1A induces the Ewing tumor fusion transcript EWS-FLI1
|accessdate = 2010-09-18
|work = Department of Pathology, Clinica Puerta de Hierro; Sanchez-Prieto R, de Alava E, Palomino T, Guinea J, Fernandez V, Cebrian S, LLeonart M, Cabello P, Martin P, San Roman C, Bornstein R, Pardo J, Martinez A, Diaz-Espada F, Barrios Y, Ramon y Cajal S.
}}</ref> seperti:
* Peningkatan ekspresi protein onkogen sebagai akibat dari translokasi, amplifikasi dan mutasi pada [[kromosom]].
* Tidak terdapat ekspresi protein dari gen "penekan tumor".
* Perubahan pada [[metilasi DNA]].
* Terdapat kelainan transkripsi genetik yang menyebabkan kelebihan produksi zat pendukung pertumbuhan, seperti IGF-2, TGF-α, faktor [[angiogenesis]] tumor, PDGF, dan faktor pertumbuhan hematopoietik seperti CSF dan [[interleukin]].
* Tidak terjadi keseimbangan genetis, sehingga [[proliferasi]] menjadi semakin tidak terkendali, peningkatan kemungkinan terjadinya [[metastasis]].
* Perubahan pada pola [[enzim]] dan peningkatan enzim yang berperan dalam [[sintesis]] [[asam nukleat]] dan enzim yang bersifat litik, seperti [[protease]], [[kolagenase]] dan [[glikosidase]].
* Produksi [[antigen]] onkofetal, seperti antigen karsinoembrionik dan [[hormon]] plasentis (contoh: [[gonadotropin]] korionik), atau [[isoenzim]] seperti [[alkalina fosfatase]] plasentis.
* Kemampuan untuk menghindari respon antitumor dari inangnya.
 
Dari berbagai perubahan genetik tersebut, pada tumor pada manusia, sering kali ditemukan translokasi [[kromosom]] yang menghasilkan produk [[kimerisme|kimerik]] dengan kemampuan transformasi menjadi sel tumor/kanker atau mengubah ekspresi [[onkogen]].<ref name="PM10470089" />
Examples of modifiable cancer risk include [[alcohol]] consumption (associated with increased risk of oral, esophageal, breast, and other cancers), physical inactivity (associated with increased risk of colon, breast, and possibly other cancers), and being [[obesity|overweight]] (associated with colon, breast, endometrial, and possibly other cancers). Based on epidemiologic evidence, it is now thought that avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, being physically active, and maintaining recommended body weight may all contribute to reductions in risk of certain cancers; however, compared with tobacco exposure, the magnitude of effect is modest or small and the strength of evidence is often weaker. Other lifestyle and environmental factors known to affect cancer risk (either beneficially or detrimentally) include certain sexual and reproductive practices, the use of exogenous hormones, exposure to ionizing radiation and ultraviolet radiation, certain occupational and chemical exposures, and infectious agents.
 
===Diet andPenanganan cancer===
=== Riset kanker ===
The consensus on diet and cancer is that [[obesity]] increases the risk of developing cancer. Particular dietary practices often explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries (e.g. [[gastric cancer]] is more common in [[Japan]], while [[colon cancer]] is more common in the United States). Studies have shown that immigrants develop the risk of their new country, suggesting a link between diet and cancer rather than a genetic basis.
[[Riset kanker]] merupakan usaha ilmiah yang banyak ditekuni untuk memahami proses penyakit dan menemukan terapi yang memungkinkan. Meskipun pemahaman kanker telah [[pertumbuhan eksponensial|tumbuh secara eksponen]] sejak dekade terakhir dari abad ke-20, terapi baru yang radikal hanya ditemukan dan diperkenalkan secara bertahap.
 
[[Penghambat tirosin kinase]] ([[imatinib]] dan [[gefitinib]]) pada akhir 1990-an dianggap sebuah terobosan utama. [[Antibodi monoklonal]] telah terbukti sebuah langkah besar dalam perawatan kanker.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zahavi|first=David|last2=Weiner|first2=Louis|date=2020-07-20|title=Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer Therapy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7551545/|journal=Antibodies|volume=9|issue=3|pages=34|doi=10.3390/antib9030034|issn=2073-4468|pmc=7551545|pmid=32698317}}</ref> Di Indonesia sendiri yang kaya akan keanekaragaman hayati, riset tanaman yang berpotensi anti kanker, seperti: [[keladi tikus]], temulawak, temu putih, dll sangat menjanjikan.
Despite frequent reports of particular substances (including foods) having a beneficial or detrimental effect on cancer risk, few of these have an established link to cancer. These reports are often based on studies in cultured cell media or animals. Public health recommendations cannot be made on the basis of these studies until they have been validated in an observational (or occasionally a prospective interventional) trial in humans.
 
David Porter, onkolog dari University of Pennsylvania Medical Center di Philadelphia, melaporkan pertama kali setelah upaya 20 tahun terapi sel GM modifikasi gen sel-T berhasil menghancurkan tumor kanker leukemia.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.domainmarket.com/|title=DomainMarket.com, The world's best brand new brands|website=DomainMarket.com, The world's best brand new brands}}</ref>
The case of [[beta-carotene]] provides an example of the necessity of randomized clinical trials. [[Epidemiology|Epidemiologists]] studying both diet and serum levels observed that high levels of [[beta-carotene]], a precursor to [[vitamin A]], were associated with a protective effect, reducing the risk of cancer. This effect was particularly strong in lung cancer. This hypothesis led to a series of large randomized trials conducted in both [[Finland]] and the [[United States]] (CARET study) during the 1980s and 1990s. This study provided about 80,000 smokers or former smokers with daily supplements of beta-carotene or [[placebo]]s. Contrary to expectation, these tests found no benefit of [[beta-carotene]] supplementation in reducing lung cancer incidence and mortality. In fact, the risk of lung cancer was slightly, but significantly, increased in smokers, leading to an early termination of the study{{fn|3}}.
 
Menemukan cara untuk memprediksi tumor yang akan menyebar menjadi salah satu target paling penting dalam penelitian kanker. Sehyo Choe, fisikawan dari University of Heidelberg di Jerman, dan rekannya membangun model matematika bagaimana tumor berkembang.<ref name="auto"/> Markus Gusenbauer di St. Poelten University of Applied Sciences, Austria, dan rekannnya mengembangkan sebuah model bagaimana darah mengalir melalui manik-manik magnetik.<ref name="auto"/>
===Other chemoprevention agents===
Daily use of [[tamoxifen]], a selective [[estrogen receptor]] modulator, for up to 5 years, has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of developing [[breast cancer]] in high-risk women by about 50%. [[Cis-retinoic acid]] also has been shown to reduce risk of second primary tumors among patients with primary [[head and neck cancer]]. [[Finasteride]], a [[5-alpha reductase inhibitor]], has been shown to lower the risk of prostate cancer. Other examples of drugs that show promise for chemoprevention include [[COX-2 selective inhibitor|COX-2 inhibitors]] (which inhibit a [[cyclooxygenase]] enzyme involved in the synthesis of proinflammatory [[prostaglandin]]s).
 
===Cancer vaccines=Pencegahan ==
Pencegahan kanker didefinisikan sebagai usaha aktif untuk mengurangi risiko terjadinya kanker.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cancer-prevention/CA00024 | title=Cancer prevention: 7 steps to reduce your risk | publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]] | date=27 September 2008 | accessdate=30 January 2010}}</ref> Mayoritas dari kasus kanker dikarenakan faktor-faktor risiko lingkungan, dan banyak, tetapi tidak semuanya, faktor-faktor risiko lingkungan tersebut adalah pilihan gaya hidup yang dapat dikendalikan. Jadi, kanker dianggap sebagai penyakit yang dapat dicegah.<ref name=Danaei>{{cite journal | author = Danaei G, Vander Hoorn S, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, Ezzati M | title = Causes of cancer in the world: comparative risk assessment of nine behavioural and environmental risk factors | journal = Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9499 | pages = 1784–93 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16298215 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67725-2 }}</ref> Lebih dari 30% kematian akibat kanker dapat dicegah dengan menghindari: [[merokok]], [[kelebihan berat badan]] / [[kegemukan]], asupan yang kurang, [[aktivitas fisik yang minimal]], [[alkohol]], [[penyakit menular seksual]], dan [[polusi udara]].<ref name="Cancer Cancer">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/ |title=Cancer |work=World Health Organization |accessdate=9 January 2011}}</ref> Tidak semua faktor lingkungan dapat dikendalikan, misalnya [[radiasi]] matahari, dan kasus-kasus kanker karena faktor [[keturunan]], oleh karenanya tidak semua kasus kanker dapat dicegah.
Considerable research effort is now devoted to the development of [[vaccine]]s (to prevent infection by oncogenic infectious agents, as well as to mount an immune response against cancer-specific [[epitope]]s) and to potential venues for [[gene therapy]] for individuals with genetic mutations or polymorphisms that put them at high risk of cancer. No cancer vaccines are presently in use, and most of the research is still in its initial stages.
 
===Genetic testingAsupan ===
Meskipun banyak rekomendasi mengenai diet untuk mengurangi kanker, tetapi bukti-bukti tidak menunjang hal ini secara nyata.<ref name=Kushi2012>{{cite journal |author=Kushi LH, Doyle C, McCullough M, et al. |title=American Cancer Society Guidelines on nutrition and physical activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=30–67 |year=2012 |pmid=22237782 |doi=10.3322/caac.20140 |url=}}</ref><ref name=Diet11>{{cite journal | author = Wicki A, Hagmann, J | title = Diet and cancer | journal = Swiss medical weekly | volume = 141 | issue = | pages = w13250 |date=September 2011 | pmid = 21904992 | doi = 10.4414/smw.2011.13250 }}</ref> Faktor utama asupan yang meningkatkan risiko kanker adalah kegemukan dan konsumsi alkohol; sedangkan asupan rendah buah dan sayur dan makan daging merah yang banyak mungkin berimplikasi, tetapi belum terkonfirmasi.<ref name="pmid22202045">{{cite journal | author = Cappellani A, Di Vita M, Zanghi A, Cavallaro A, Piccolo G, Veroux M, Berretta M, Malaguarnera M, Canzonieri V, Lo Menzo E | title = Diet, obesity and breast cancer: an update | journal = Front Biosci (Schol Ed) | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 90–108 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22202045 | doi = }}</ref><ref name="pmid21119663">{{cite journal | author = Key TJ | title = Fruit and vegetables and cancer risk | journal = Br. J. Cancer | volume = 104 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–11 |date=January 2011 | pmid = 21119663 | pmc = 3039795 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjc.6606032 }}</ref> Penelitian meta-analisis pada tahun 2014 tidak menemukan hubungan antara buah dan sayuran dengan kanker.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=X|last2=Ouyang|first2=Y|last3=Liu|first3=J|last4=Zhu|first4=M|last5=Zhao|first5=G|last6=Bao|first6=W|last7=Hu|first7=FB|title=Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|date=29 July 2014 |volume=349|pages=g4490|pmid=25073782|doi=10.1136/bmj.g4490}}</ref> Konsumsi [[kopi]] berhubungan dengan berkurangnya risiko [[kanker hati]]<ref name="pmid17484871">{{cite journal | author = Larsson SC, Wolk A | title = Coffee consumption and risk of liver cancer: a meta-analysis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_gastroenterology_2007-05_132_5/page/1740 | journal = Gastroenterology | volume = 132 | issue = 5 | pages = 1740–5 |date=May 2007 | pmid = 17484871 | doi = 10.1053/j.gastro.2007.03.044 }}</ref> Penelitian menunjukkan hubungan antara daging merah dan daging olahan dengan peningkatan risiko [[kanker payudara]], [[kanker usus besar]], dan [[kanker pankreas]], sebuah fenomena yang mungkin terjadi karena adanya [[karsinogen]] pada daging yang diproses/dimasak dengan suhu tinggi.<ref name="pmid19838915">{{cite journal | author = Zheng W, Lee SA | title = Well-done meat intake, heterocyclic amine exposure, and cancer risk | journal = Nutr Cancer | volume = 61 | issue = 4 | pages = 437–46 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19838915 | pmc = 2769029 | doi = 10.1080/01635580802710741 }}</ref><ref name="pmid20374790">{{cite journal | author = Ferguson LR | title = Meat and cancer | journal = Meat Sci. | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 308–13 |date=February 2010 | pmid = 20374790 | doi = 10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.06.032 }}</ref> Rekomendasi yang dianjurkan untuk mencegah kanker adalah asupan seimbang dari sayur, buah-buahan, biji-bijian utuh, dan ikan, sedangkan yang harus dihindari adalah daging merah dan daging olahan (sapi, babi, kambing), lewak hewani, dan karbohidrat yang mudah/cepat dicerna.<ref name=Kushi2012/><ref name=Diet11/>
[[Genetic testing]] for high-risk individuals, with enhanced surveillance, chemoprevention, or risk-reducing surgery for those who test positive, is already available for certain cancer-related genetic mutations.
 
==Coping= withObat-obatan cancer===
Konsep penggunaan obat-obatan untuk mencegah kanker itu menarik, dan bukti-bukti menunjangnya dalam berbagai keadaan tertentu.<ref>Holland Chp.33</ref> Pada populasi umum, penggunaan obat anti pembengkakan yang bukan steroid (Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) mengurangi risiko kanker usus, tetapi karena adanya efek samping pada sistem pembuluh darah dan pencernaan, makanya penggunaannya akan berbahya jika digunakan untuk pencegahan kanker.<ref name="pmid17339623">{{cite journal | author = Rostom A, Dubé C, Lewin G, Tsertsvadze A, Barrowman N, Code C, Sampson M, Moher D | title = Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors for primary prevention of colorectal cancer: a systematic review prepared for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 146 | issue = 5 | pages = 376–89 |date=March 2007 | pmid = 17339623 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-146-5-200703060-00010 }}</ref> [[Aspirin]] telah diketahui dapat mengurangi risiko kematian akibat kanker sebesar kurang lebih 7%.<ref name="pmid21144578">{{cite journal | author = Rothwell PM, Fowkes FG, Belch JF, Ogawa H, Warlow CP, Meade TW | title = Effect of daily aspirin on long-term risk of death due to cancer: analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials | journal = Lancet | volume = 377 | issue = 9759 | pages = 31–41 |date=January 2011 | pmid = 21144578 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62110-1 }}</ref> COX-2 inhibitor dapat mengurangi jumlah formasi polip pada penderita [[familial adenomatous polyposis]], bagaimanapun hal ini berhubungan dengan efek samping seperti pada penggunaan obat anti pembengkakan yang bukan steroid.<ref name="pmid20594533">{{cite journal | author = Cooper K, Squires H, Carroll C, Papaioannou D, Booth A, Logan RF, Maguire C, Hind D, Tappenden P | title = Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer: systematic review and economic evaluation | journal = Health Technol Assess | volume = 14 | issue = 32 | pages = 1–206 |date=June 2010 | pmid = 20594533 | doi = 10.3310/hta14320 }}</ref> Penggunaan sehari-hari [[tamoxifen]] atau [[raloxifene]] telah menunjukkan pengurangan risiko terjadinya kanker payudara pada wanita yang berisiko tinggi.<ref name="pmid19020189">{{cite journal | author = Thomsen A, Kolesar JM | title = Chemoprevention of breast cancer | journal = Am J Health Syst Pharm | volume = 65 | issue = 23 | pages = 2221–8 |date=December 2008 | pmid = 19020189 | doi = 10.2146/ajhp070663 }}</ref> Keuntungan dibandingkan kemudaratan penggunnaan [[5-alpha-reductase inhibitor]] seperti [[finasteride]] adalah tidak jelas.<ref name="pmid18425978">{{cite journal | author = Wilt TJ, MacDonald R, Hagerty K, Schellhammer P, Kramer BS | title = Five-alpha-reductase Inhibitors for prostate cancer prevention | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = 2 | pages = CD007091 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18425978 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007091 | editor1-last = Wilt | editor1-first = Timothy J }}</ref>
Many local organizations offer a variety of practical and support services to people with cancer. Support can take the form of [[Cancer support group|support groups]], [[counseling]], advice, financial assistance, transportation to and from treatment, or information about cancer. Neighborhood organizations, local health care providers, or area hospitals are a good place to start looking.
 
[[Vitamin]] telah diketahui tidak berguna untuk mencegah kanker,<ref name="pmid20939459">{{cite journal | author = | title = Vitamins and minerals: not for cancer or cardiovascular prevention | journal = Prescrire Int | volume = 19 | issue = 108 | page = 182 |date=August 2010 | pmid = 20939459 | doi = | url = http://english.prescrire.org/en/81/168/46461/0/2010/ArchiveNewsDetails.aspx?page=2 }}</ref> walaupun tingkat yang rendah dari [[vitamin D]] berhubungan dengan peningkatan risiko kanker.<ref name="pmid16595781">{{cite journal | author = Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Rimm EB, Hollis BW, Fuchs CS, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC | title = Prospective study of predictors of vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality in men | journal = J. Natl. Cancer Inst. | volume = 98 | issue = 7 | pages = 451–9 |date=April 2006 | pmid = 16595781 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/djj101 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Vitamin_D_Has_Role_in_Colon_Cancer_Prevention.asp|title=Vitamin D Has Role in Colon Cancer Prevention|accessdate=27 July 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061204052746/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Vitamin_D_Has_Role_in_Colon_Cancer_Prevention.asp|archivedate=2006-12-04|dead-url=no}}</ref> Apakah ini merupakan sebab akibat dan suplemen vitamin D bersifat melindungi tidak pernah dinyatakan.<ref name="pmid16595770">{{cite journal | author = Schwartz GG, Blot WJ | title = Vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality: something new under the sun | journal = J. Natl. Cancer Inst. | volume = 98 | issue = 7 | pages = 428–30 |date=April 2006 | pmid = 16595770 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/djj127 }}</ref> Suplemen [[Beta-Carotene]] telah diketahui meningkatkan [[kanker paru-paru]] pada mereka yang berisiko tinggi.<ref name="pmid21738614">{{cite journal | author = Fritz H, Kennedy D, Fergusson D, Fernandes R, Doucette S, Cooley K, Seely A, Sagar S, Wong R, Seely D | title = Vitamin A and retinoid derivatives for lung cancer: a systematic review and meta analysis | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | pages = e21107 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21738614 | pmc = 3124481 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0021107 |bibcode = 2011PLoSO...6E1107F | editor1-last = Minna | editor1-first = John D }}</ref> [[Asam folat]] telah diketahui tidak berguna untuk mencegah kanker usus, bahkan justru menuingkatkan terjadinya polip pada usus besar.<ref name="pmid17551129">{{cite journal | author = Cole BF, Baron JA, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Ahnen DJ, Bresalier RS, McKeown-Eyssen G, Summers RW, Rothstein RI, Burke CA, Snover DC, Church TR, Allen JI, Robertson DJ, Beck GJ, Bond JH, Byers T, Mandel JS, Mott LA, Pearson LH, Barry EL, Rees JR, Marcon N, Saibil F, Ueland PM, Greenberg ER | title = Folic acid for the prevention of colorectal adenomas: a randomized clinical trial | journal = JAMA | volume = 297 | issue = 21 | pages = 2351–9 |date=June 2007 | pmid = 17551129 | doi = 10.1001/jama.297.21.2351 }}</ref> Tidak jelas apakah suplemen selenium mempunyai efek pengobatan/pencegahan.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vinceti|first1=M|last2=Dennert|first2=G|last3=Crespi|first3=CM|last4=Zwahlen|first4=M|last5=Brinkman|first5=M
While some people are reluctant to seek counseling, studies show that having someone to talk to reduces stress and helps people both mentally and physically. Counseling can also provide emotional support to cancer patients and help them better understand their illness. Different types of counseling include individual, group, family, self-help (sometimes called peer counseling), bereavement, patient-to-patient, and sexuality.
|last6=Zeegers|first6=MP|last7=Horneber|first7=M|last8=D'Amico|first8=R|last9=Del Giovane|first9=C|title=Selenium for preventing cancer.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=Mar 30, 2014|volume=3|pages=CD005195|pmid=24683040|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005195.pub3}}</ref>
 
=== Vaksinasi ===
Many governmental and charitable organizations have been established to help patients cope with cancer. These organizations often are involved in cancer prevention, cancer treatment, and cancer research. Examples include: [[American Cancer Society]], [[BC Cancer Agency]], [[Macmillan Cancer Relief UK]], [[Cancer Research UK]], [[Canadian Cancer Society]], [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] and the [[National Cancer Institute]] (US).
[[Vaksinasi]] telah dikembangkan untuk mencegah infeksi yang dibabkan oleh virus yang bersifat [[karsinogen]].<ref name=vacc_facts_nci>{{cite web | url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/cancervaccine | title=Cancer Vaccine Fact Sheet | publisher=[[National Cancer Institute|NCI]] | date=8 June 2006 | accessdate=15 November 2008 | archive-date=2008-10-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025003130/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/cancervaccine | dead-url=yes }}</ref> [[HPV vaccine|Human papillomavirus vaccine]] ([[Gardasil]] dan [[Cervarix]]) mengurangi risiko bertumbuhnya [[kanker mulut rahim]].<ref name=vacc_facts_nci/> [[Vaksin hepatitis B]] mencegah infeksi hepatitis B dan tentunya mengurangi risiko terjadinya kanker hati.<ref name=vacc_facts_nci/> Pemberian vaksin human papillomavirus dan hepatitis B direkomendasikan jika dana memungkinkan.<ref name="pmid24176569">{{cite journal| author= Lertkhachonsuk AA, Yip CH, Khuhaprema T, Chen DS, Plummer M, Jee SH, Toi M, Wilailak S| title=Cancer prevention in Asia: resource-stratified guidelines from the Asian Oncology Summit 2013| journal=Lancet Oncology| year=2013 | volume=14 | issue=12| pages=e497-507| pmid=24176569 | doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70350-4}}</ref>
 
==Social impact==
Cancer has a reputation for being a deadly disease. While this certainly applies to certain particular types, this is otherwise a generalization. Some types of cancer have a prognosis that is substantially better than nonmalignant diseases such as [[heart failure]] and [[cerebrovascular accident|stroke]].
 
Progressive and disseminated malignant disease has a substantial impact on a cancer patient's quality of life, and many cancer treatments (such as [[chemotherapy]]) may have severe side-effects. In the advanced stages of cancer, many patients need extensive care, affecting family members and friends. [[Palliative care]] solutions may include permanent or "respite" [[hospice]] nursing.
-->
 
== Riset kanker ==
[[Riset kanker]] merupakan usaha ilmiah yang banyak ditekuni untuk memahami proses penyakit dan menemukan terapi yang memungkinkan. Meskipun pemahaman kanker memiliki [[pertumbuhan eksponensial|tumbuh secara eksponen]] sejak dekade terakhir dari abad ke-20, terapi baru yang radikal hanya ditemukan dan diperkenalkan secara bertahap.
 
Penghambat tyrosine kinases ([[imatinib]] dan [[gefitinib]]) pada akhir 1990-an dianggap sebuah terobosan utama; mereka mengganggu terutama dengan protein tumor-tertentu. [[Antibodi monoclonal]] telah terbukti sebuah langkah besar dalam perawatan oncological.
 
== Lihat pula ==
{{Commons|Cancer (illness)}}
* [[Daftar pasien kankerTumor]]
* [[Onkologi]]
* [[Estrogen]]
* [[Daftar istilah berhubungan dengan onkologi]]
* [[PenyakitAsam terminalaskorbat]]
* [[Yayasan Kanker Indonesia]]
* [[Penyebab & Resiko Terjadinya Kanker]]
 
== Referensi ==
{{reflist|2}}
*{{fnb|1}} Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ. ''Cancer statistics, 2005.'' CA Cancer J Clin 2005;55:10-30. [http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/55/1/10 Fulltext]. PMID 15661684.
*{{fnb|2}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1015657.stm Cancer: Number one killer] (9 November, 2000). ''BBC News online''. Retrieved 2005-01-29.
*{{fnb|3}} [http://cis.nci.nih.gov/fact/4_13.htm Questions and Answers About Beta Carotene Chemoprevention Trials]
*{{fnb|4}} Bilal A, Treating Cancer with Stem Cells, Medical Engineer, [[25 July]] [[2005]] [http://www.medicalengineer.co.uk/Treating+Cancer+with+Stem+Cells.php Fulltext]
 
== Pranala luar ==
* [http://yayasankankerindonesia.org Yayasan Kanker Indonesia - Organisasi yang menangani kanker di [[Indonesia]]]
*[http://www.terapikanker.com/ Pengobatan Kanker] - Informasi Pengobatan dan Perawatan Kanker dengan Tahitian noni Juice
*[http://www.rumahkanker.com/ Rumah Kanker] - Informasi Pengobatan dan Perawatan Kanker
*[http://www.kankerindo.org/ Yayasan Kanker Indonesia]—organisasi nirlaba yang bertujuan mengupayakan penanggulangan kanker di Indonesia.
*[http://kankerparu.org/main] informasi kanker paru di Indonesia
*[http://medicastore.com/index.php?mod=penyakit_search&selSub=0&inpNamaPenyakit=kanker&inpGejala=&go=+go+ Hasil cari kanker di Medicastore.com]
*[http://sehat-enak.blogspot.com/2010/01/kanker.html Informasi Penyakit & Artikel Kesehatan] - Semua artikel tentang Kanker
*[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/STT/content/STT_1x_Cancer_Facts__Figures_2005.asp Cancer Facts & Figures 2005] - 2005 United States Cancer Statistics
*[http://www.americancancersociety.org American Cancer Society] Patient advocate group
*[http://www.acor.org Association of Cancer Online Resources (ACOR)] - provides many e-mail lists for patients diagnosed with various cancers
*[http://www.aicr.org/ American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR)] - purports to be "the [United States'] leading charity in the field of diet, nutrition and cancer", supporting research into dietary methods for the prevention and treatment of cancer in addition to offering educational resources.
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cancer.html Cancer] from [[MedlinePlus]] - provides links to news, general sites, diagnosis, treatment and alternative therapies, clinical trials, research, related issues, organizations, other MedlinePlus [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cancers.html Cancers Topics] and [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cancerlivingwithcancer.html Living with Cancer], and more. Also, links to pre-formulated searches of the [[MEDLINE]]/PubMed database for recent research articles.
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=cmed.TOC&depth=2 Cancer Medicine, 6th Edition] Textbook
*[http://www.ibchelp.org Inflammatory Breast Cancer] - provides information about signs/symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, a forum, e-mail list, dictionary and much more.
*[http://www.nccn.org National Comprehensive Cancer Network] - has free guidelines for professionals and many pages of quality information for patients with all types of cancers
*[http://www.who.int/cancer/en/ The World Health Organisation's cancer site] A review of worldwide strategies for the prevention and treatment of cancer.
*[http://www.cancer.gov US National Cancer Institute] Government organization for research and treatment
*[http://www.commonweal.org/pubs/choices/19.html Traditional Chinese Medicine--A Favored Adjunctive Therapy for American Cancer Patients]
*[http://info.cancerresearchuk.org Cancer Research UK - Information Resource Centre] - in-depth cancer information and resources for general interest, cancer patients and professionals from the leading cancer charity in the UK.
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[[Kategori:Penyakit]]
[[Kategori:Kanker|*]]
 
[[ar:سرطان]]
[[bg:Рак (болест)]]
[[bs:Rak (bolest)]]
[[ca:Càncer]]
[[cs:Rakovina]]
[[cy:Cancr]]
[[da:Kræft]]
[[de:Krebs (Medizin)]]
[[el:Καρκίνος]]
[[en:Cancer]]
[[eo:Kancero (medicino)]]
[[es:Cáncer]]
[[eu:Minbizi]]
[[fa:سرطان]]
[[fi:Syöpä]]
[[fr:Cancer]]
[[gd:Aillse]]
[[gl:Cancro (tumor)]]
[[he:סרטן (מחלה)]]
[[hi:कर्कट रोग]]
[[hr:Rak (bolest)]]
[[hu:Rák (betegség)]]
[[id:Kanker]]
[[is:Krabbamein]]
[[ja:悪性腫瘍]]
[[ko:암]]
[[la:Cancer (morbus)]]
[[lt:Vėžys (liga)]]
[[lv:Vēzis (slimība)]]
[[mk:Рак (болест)]]
[[ml:അര്‍ബുദം]]
[[ms:Penyakit Barah]]
[[nl:Kanker]]
[[nn:Kreft]]
[[no:Kreft]]
[[pl:Nowotwór złośliwy]]
[[pt:Cancro (tumor)]]
[[qu:Apanqara unquy]]
[[ro:Cancer]]
[[ru:Карцинома]]
[[se:Boras]]
[[sh:Rak (bolest)]]
[[simple:Cancer]]
[[sl:Rak (bolezen)]]
[[sq:Kanceri]]
[[sr:Рак (болест)]]
[[su:Kangker]]
[[sv:Cancer]]
[[ta:புற்றுநோய்]]
[[te:కాన్సర్]]
[[th:มะเร็ง]]
[[tr:Kanser]]
[[uk:Рак (хвороба)]]
[[ur:سرطان (عارضہ)]]
[[vi:Ung thư]]
[[wa:Magnant må]]
[[yi:קענסער]]
[[zh:癌症]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gâm]]
[[zh-yue:癌]]